Plasma Physics

Julio A. Merchand Medina

July 30, 2024

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 1 / 49

Electromagnetism

Part I

Introduction

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Gauss’s Law for Electricity

ρ
∇·E= (1)
ε0
∇ · D = ρfree (2)

E: Electric field
D: Electric displacement field
ρ: Charge density
ρfree : Free charge density
ε0 : Permittivity of free space

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Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

∇·B=0 (3)

B: Magnetic field
Indicates no magnetic monopoles exist.
Magnetic field lines are continuous loops.

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 4 / 49

Relationships between Fields

In uniform and isotropic media:

D = εE (4)
B = µH (5)

ε: Permittivity of the material (ε = ε0 εr )

µ: Permeability of the material (µ = µ0 µr )
εr : Relative permittivity
µr : Relative permeability

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Faraday’s Law of Induction

∂B
∇×E=− (6)
∂t

E: Electric field
B: Magnetic field
Changing magnetic fields induce electric fields.
Basis for electromagnetic induction (e.g., transformers, inductors).

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 6 / 49

Ampère’s Law with Maxwell’s Addition

∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0 ε0 (7)
∂t
∂D
∇ × H = Jfree + (8)
∂t

B: Magnetic field
H: Magnetic field intensity
J: Current density
Jfree : Free current density
µ0 : Permeability of free space

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 7 / 49

Continuity Equation

The continuity equation relates charge density ρ and current density J:

∂ρ
∇·J+ =0 (9)
∂t

This equation ensures the conservation of electric charge.

Any change in charge density over time must be accounted for by a
corresponding current flow.

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 8 / 49

Fluid Equations

Part II

Fluid Descrption of Plasma

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Phase Space and Distribution Function

A thermal system can be described by a distribution function

f (r, v, t).
The function f represents the number density of particles in phase
space.
r: Position vector
v: Velocity vector
t: Time
The phase space is a 6-dimensional space defined by coordinates and
velocities.

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 10 / 49

Boltzmann Equation: No Collision Term

The evolution of f without collisions is described by the Boltzmann

equation:
∂f
+ v · ∇ r f + F · ∇v f = 0 (10)
∂t

F: External force acting on the particles

The equation represents the conservation of particles along their
trajectories.

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Boltzmann Equation: With Collision Term

Including the collision term, the Boltzmann equation becomes:

 
∂f ∂f
+ v · ∇r f + F · ∇ v f = (11)
∂t ∂t coll

∂f


∂t coll : Collision term
Accounts for changes in f due to particle collisions.

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Plasma Description

Plasmas can be described as two fluids [3]:

Ions
Electrons
Each fluid is characterized by:
Mass densities ρm,i , ρm,e
Charge density ρ
Current density j
Flow velocities Vi , Ve
Pressures pi , pe
Physical quantities are expressed using velocity space distribution
functions:
fi (r, v, t) for ions
fe (r, v, t) for electrons
The distribution functions provide averages in velocity space.

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Ion and Electron Fluid Quantities

Number Density:
Z Z
ni (r, t) = fi (r, v, t) d 3 v , ne (r, t) = fe (r, v, t) d 3 v (12)

Mass Density:
ρm,i (r, t) = mi ni (r, t), ρm,e (r, t) = me ne (r, t) (13)

Flow Velocity:
Z
1
Vi,e (r, t) = vfi,e (r, v, t) d 3 vd 3 v (14)
ni,e (r, t)

Pressure: Z
pi,e( r, t) = mi,e (v − Vi,e )2 fi,e r, v, t) d 3 v (15)

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Continuity Equation: Part 1

Integrate Boltzmann equation over velocity space:

Z Z Z Z  
∂f 3 3 q 3 ∂f
d v + v · ∇r f d v + (E + v × B) · ∇v f d v = d 3v
∂t m ∂t coll
(16)

First term: Z
∂f 3 ∂n
d v= (17)
∂t ∂t

Second term: Z 
3
∇· vf d v = ∇ · (nu) (18)

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Continuity Equation: Part 2

Electric field term: Z

∂f 3
E· d v =0 (19)
∂v

Magnetic field term:

Z
∂f 3
(v × B) · d v =0 (20)
∂v

Collision term: Z  
∂f
d 3v = 0 (21)
∂t coll

Resulting continuity equation:

∂n
+ ∇ · (nu) = 0 (22)
∂t
Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 16 / 49
Momentum Equation: Part 1

Start from the first velocity moment of the Boltzmann equation:

Z Z Z Z  
∂f 3 3 q 3 ∂f
v d v + v(v·∇r f ) d v + v(E+v×B)·∇v f d v = v d3
∂t m ∂t coll
(23)

First term: Z Z
∂f 3 ∂ ∂
v d v= vf d 3 v = (nu) (24)
∂t ∂t ∂t

SecondZterm: Z
v(v · ∇r f ) d v = ∇ · vvf d 3 v = ∇ · (nuu + P)
3
(25)

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Momentum Equation: Part 2

Electric field term: Z

q q
v(E · ∇v f ) d 3 v = nE (26)
m m

Magnetic field term:

Z
q q
v(v × B) · ∇v f d 3 v = n(u × B) (27)
m m

Collision term: Z  
∂f
v d 3v = R (28)
∂t coll

Resulting momentum equation:

∂ q q
(nu) + ∇ · (nuu + P) = nE + n(u × B) + R (29)
∂t m m
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Physics of Fluid Equations

Part III

MHD Model

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Two-Fluid Equations

Continuity Equation for Species j:

∂nj
+ ∇ · (nj vj ) = 0 (30)
∂t

Momentum Equation for Species j:

 
∂vj
mj nj + vj · ∇vj = nj qj (E + vj × B) − ∇pj + Fjk (31)
∂t

Force between Species j and k:

Fjk = νjk nj mj (vj − vk ) (32)

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Single-Fluid Equations: Definitions
Mass Density:
ρm = ne me + ni mi (33)

Center of Mass Velocity:

ne me ve + ni mi vi
V= (34)
ρm

Charge Density:
ρq = qe ne + qi ni (35)

Electric Current Density:

j = qe ne ve + qi ni vi = qe ne (ve − vi ) (by quasi-neutrality) (36)

Total Pressure:
p = pe + pi (37)
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Single Fluid Equations: MHD

Mass Conservation:
∂ρm
+ ∇ · (ρm V) = 0 (38)
∂t

Charge Conservation:
∂ρq
+∇·j=0 (39)
∂t

Momentum Equation [2]:

 
∂V
ρm + V · ∇V = ρq E + j × B − ∇p (40)
∂t

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 22 / 49

Adiabatic Condition and Expansion

Adiabatic Process:
d −γ
(ρ p) = 0
dt
Expansion:
∂(ρ−γ p)
+ ∇ · (Vρ−γ p) = 0
∂t
Time Derivative:
∂(ρ−γ p) ∂p ∂ρ
= ρ−γ − γpρ−γ−1
∂t ∂t ∂t
Divergence Term:

∇ · (Vρ−γ p) = ∇ · (V)ρ−γ p + V · −γρ−γ−1 ∇ρ · p + ρ−γ ∇p

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 23 / 49

Final Expression

Simplification with Mass Conservation:

∂ρ
= −ρ∇ · V − V · ∇ρ
∂t
Final Expression for Pressure Gradient Force:
∂p
= −V · ∇p − p∇ · V
∂t

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 24 / 49

Physics of Plasma Fluid

The behaviour of plasma in experiments is complicate, and influenced

by particular circumstances.
The fluid equation arise some other questions about plasma
properties.
To study these, we use a MHD approach.
There are two cases:
1 Ideal Case
2 Resistive Plasma

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Ideal MHD Equations

The ideal MHD equations are obtained by setting resistivity to zero:

E+u×B=0 (41)

∂u
ρ = j × B − ∇p (42)
∂t
In equilibrium, the time derivative is ignored and the force balance equation

j × B = ∇p (43)

describes the balance between plasma pressure force and Lorentz forces.
This balance is shown schematically in Fig. 6.1.

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 26 / 49

Consequences of the Force Balance

The current required to balance the plasma pressure is found by taking the
cross product with B:

B × ∇p (kB Te + kB Ti )B × ∇n
j⊥ = 2
= (44)
B B2
This is simply the diamagnetic current! The force balance indicates that j
and B are perpendicular to ∇p. In other words, j and B must lie on
surfaces of constant pressure. Equation (56) can also be resolved in the
direction parallel to B to yield:
∂p
=0 (45)
∂z

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Visual Aids

Figure: Current density and magnetic lines of force in a tokamak [1].

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Magnetic Pressure

Consider the force balance equation:

1
∇p = (∇ × B) × B (46)
µ0
Using Maxwell’s equation ∇ × B = µ0 j, this becomes:
1 1
∇p = [(B · ∇)B − ∇B 2 ] (47)
µ0 2

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 29 / 49

Rearranging the Pressure Gradient

Rearranging the terms gives:

B2
 
1
∇ p+ = (B · ∇)B (48)
2µ0 µ0

In many cases, B does not vary along B (e.g., in an axially magnetized

cylinder), so the right side vanishes:

B2
p+ = constant (49)
2µ0

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 30 / 49

Magnetic Pressure

B2
The term 2µ0 represents the magnetic pressure. Thus:

B2
p+ = constant (50)
2µ0
If there is a pressure gradient in the plasma, there is a corresponding
gradient in the magnetic pressure to ensure the total pressure is constant
throughout the plasma fluid.

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 31 / 49

Magnetic Tension

Magnetic tension is described by the term:

(B · ∇)B (51)

In Cartesian coordinates, this is:

∂
(B · ∇)B = Bx (Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂) (52)
∂x

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Directional Derivative of B̂

The directional derivative of B̂ along the field line is:

∂ B̂
B̂ · ∇B̂ = (53)
∂ℓ
For curved field lines:

∆B̂ B̂(ℓ + ∆ℓ) − B̂(ℓ)

= (54)
∆ℓ ∆ℓ

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Illustration of Magnetic Tension

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Curvature and Magnetic Tension

Using geometric construction:

B̂(ℓ + ∆ℓ) − B̂(ℓ) = −n̂ dθ (55)

∆ℓ = Rdθ (56)
Substituting into the derivative:
n̂
B̂ · ∇B̂ = − (57)
R

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Magnetic Tension Summary

Magnetic tension is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature R:

n̂
B̂ · ∇B̂ = − (58)
R
The magnetic tension force acts perpendicular to B and is proportional to
B2
µ0 per unit area.
B2
Magnetic field lines behave like elastic cords under tension µ0 .
The force is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature.

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 36 / 49

Frozen-in Magnetic Fields

We examine the behavior of plasma when the magnetic field changes over
time. Faraday’s law states:
∂B
∇×E=− (59)
∂t
Taking the curl of the infinite conductivity Ohm’s law E + u × B = 0:
∂B
= ∇ × (u × B) (60)
∂t
This allows us to study the behavior of magnetic flux through a surface
moving with the plasma.

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Magnetic Flux through a Moving Surface

The magnetic flux through the surface S is:

Z
ϕS = B · ds (61)
S

This flux changes due to:

Time variations in B
The surface moving with the plasma fluid (convective term)
The time rate of change of flux:
Z
∂ϕS ∂B
= · ds (62)
∂t S ∂t

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Convective Component of Magnetic Flux Change

Consider a unit vector dl on the circumference of S. The plasma fluid

element sweeps out an area dA = udt × dl in time dt:

dϕ = B · dA (63)

The total rate of change of flux is:

I I Z
dϕ
= B · (u × dl) = (B × u) · dl = ∇ × (B × u) · ds (64)
dt S

Here, Stokes’ theorem is applied in the final step.

Julio A. Merchand Medina Plasma Physics July 30, 2024 39 / 49

Illustration of Magnetic Flux Change

Magnetic flux through a surface S

moving with the plasma, showing changes due to both the time variation
of B and the convective motion of the surface.

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Resulting Flux Conservation

Adding the contributions from time variation and convection:

Z  
DϕS ∂B
= − ∇ × (u × B) · ds = 0 (65)
Dt S ∂t

This implies the magnetic flux through S is constant:

The magnetic field lines are “frozen” into the plasma and move with
it.
If the plasma expands, the field strength decreases (similar to
magnetic moment conservation).
If the flux changes, an induced emf (Lenz’s law) will oppose the
change.

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Polarization
Fluid Velocity and Current

Displacement Field (D):

D = ϵ0 E + P (66)

Polarization Current (jp ):

∂P
jp = (67)
∂t

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Conducting Fluid and Dielectric Constant
Velocity and Current Density:
E
v= (68)
B
ρ dE
j= (69)
B2 dt
Polarization Relationship:
ρ
P= E (70)
B2
P = ϵ0 (κ − 1)E (71)
Dielectric Constant:
ρ
κ=1+ (72)
ϵ0 B2
c2
K =1+ (73)
B2 /µ0 ρ
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Resistive Diffusion: Overview

Ohm’s Law with Finite Resistivity:

E + u × B = ηj (74)

Faraday’s Law:
∂B
= −∇ × (ηj − u × B) (75)
∂t
Simplified Form:
∂B 1
= η ∇2 B + ∇ × (u × B) (76)
∂t µ0

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Order of Magnitude Comparisons

Diffusive Term Estimate:

η 2 η B
∇ B∼ (77)
µ0 µ0 L2
Convective Term Estimate:
uB
∇ × (u × B) ∼ (78)
L
Magnetic Reynolds Number RM :
uBL
RM = (79)
µ0 η

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Behavior Based on RM

Low Resistivity (RM ≫ 1):

∂B
= Frozen-in Flow (80)
∂t
High Resistivity (RM ≪ 1):

∂B 1
= η ∇2 B (81)
∂t µ0

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Characteristic Time for Magnetic Penetration

Characteristic Time:
µ0 L2
τR = (82)
η
Magnetic Field Decay:
 
t
B = B0 exp − (83)
τR

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What is next?

The second part ot the lecture presentation consist on the next items
Plasma Waves
General Treatment of Linear Waves in Anisotropic Medium
Waves
1 Phase Velocity
2 Group Velocity
3 Plasma Oscillations
Overview of Plasma Ion Waves
1 Sound Waves in Air
2 Afven Waves
3 Ion Acoustic and Magneto Acoustic Waves
Mathematical Treatment of MHD Waves
1 Propagation perpendicular to B0
2 Propagation parallel to B0
3 Propagation at an arbitrary angle to B0
Waves in Isotropic Plasma

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Bibliography

[1] John Howard. Introduction to Plasma Physics: C17 Lecture Notes.

https:
//people.physics.anu.edu.au/~jnh112/AIIM/c17/chap06.pdf.
Plasma Research Laboratory, Research School of Physical Sciences
and Engineering, Australian National University, April 15, 2002. 2002.
[2] Ian Hutchinson and Jeffrey Freidberg. MIT 22.611 Introduction to
Plasma Physics.
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/22-611j-introduction-to-
plasma-physics-i-fall-2003/pages/lecture-notes/. Fall
2003, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2003.
[3] J. Wesson and D.J. Campbell. Tokamaks. International Series of
Monographs on Physics. OUP Oxford, 2011. isbn: 9780199592234.
url: https://books.google.com.mx/books?id=XJssMXjHUr0C.

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