COURSE TITLE: Computer Networks

Course Code: CNW 112

Date: Tuesday (2-5pm)

OBJECTIVE:
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• define and classify network
• distinguish between different types of networks
• understand what OSI model is, and TCP reference model and functions of each
layer.
OUTLINE:
I. Introduction
• Definition and Importance of Computer Networks
• Historical Background
II. Network Components
• Nodes
• Links
• Switches and Routers
• Transmission Media
• Network Interface Cards (NICs)
• Network Topologies
III. Network Protocols
• TCP/IP Protocol Suite
o IP (Internet Protocol)
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
o UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• Ethernet
• Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)
IV. Network Layers
A. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model
i. Physical Layer
ii. Data Link Layer
 iii. Network Layer
iv. Transport Layer
v. Session Layer
vi. Presentation Layer
vii. Application Layer
B. TCP/IP Protocol Stack
V. Network Addressing
• IPv4 Addressing
• IPv6 Addressing
• Domain Name System (DNS)
VI. Network Security
• Threats and Vulnerabilities
• Firewall and Intrusion Detection Systems
• Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
• Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS)
VII. Network Services
• Email and Web Services
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
• Domain Name System (DNS)
• World Wide Web (WWW) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
VIII. Network Management
• Network Monitoring and Troubleshooting
• Bandwidth Management
• Network Performance Optimization
IX. Emerging Network Technologies
• Cloud Computing
• Internet of Things (IoT)
• Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
• 5G and Beyond
X. Conclusion and Recap
XI. References:
1.1 WHAT IS A NETWORK?
A network refers to two or more connected computers that can share resources such as
data, a printer, an Internet connection, applications, or a combination of these resources.
In the simplest form, data transfer can take place between two devices which are directly
connected by some form of communication medium. But it is not practical for two devices
to be directly Point–to–Point connected. This is due to the following reasons:
(i) The devices are very far apart.
(ii) There is a set of devices, each of which may require to connect to others at
various times.
Solution to this problem is to connect each device to a communication network. Computer
network means interconnected set of autonomous systems that permit distributed
processing of information.
Networks can be classified on the basis of geographical coverage.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
Local Area Network (LAN): A local area network is a relatively smaller and privately owned
network with maximum span of 10km to provide local connectivity within a building or
small geographical area. The LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics:
(i) Size
(ii) Transmission technology, and
(iii) Topology
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Metropolitan Area Network is defined as less than
50km and provides regional connectivity typically within a campus or small geographical
area. It is designed to extend over an entire city. It may be a single network, such as cable
television network, or it may be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a large
network, so that resources may be shared LAN–to–LAN as well as device to device. For
example, a company can use a MAN to connect to the LANs in all of its offices throughout a
city.
Wide Area Network (WAN): Wide Area Network provides no limit of distance. In most
WAN, the subnet consists of two distinct components. Transmission lines, also called
circuits or channels, and routers. Transmission lines are used for moving bits between
machines, whereas routers are used to connect two or more transmission lines.
A WAN provides long distance transmission of data, voice, image and video information
over large geographical areas that may comprise a country, a continent or even the whole
world.
In contrast to LANs (which depend on their own hardware for transmission), WANs may
utilise public, leased or private communication devices usually in combination, and span
own unlimited number of miles.
1.3 WIRELESS NETWORKS:
Over the past five years, the world has become increasingly mobile. As a result, traditional
ways of networking the world have proven inadequate to meet the challenges posed by
our new collective lifestyle. If users must be connected to a network by physical cables,
their movement is dramatically reduced. Wireless connectivity, however, poses no such
restriction and allows a great deal more free movement on the part of the network user. As
a result, wireless technologies are encroaching on the traditional realm of "fixed" or
"wired" networks. This change is obvious to anybody who drives on a regular basis. One of
the "life and death" challenges to those of us who drive on a regular basis is the daily
gauntlet of erratically driven cars containing mobile phone users in the driver's seat.
Wireless connectivity for voice telephony has created a whole new industry. Adding mobile
connectivity into the mix for telephony has had profound influences on the business of
delivering voice calls because callers could be connected to people, not devices. We are on
the cusp of an equally profound change in computer networking. Wireless telephony has
been successful because it enables people to connect with each other regardless of
location. New technologies targeted at computer networks promise to do the same for
Internet connectivity. The most successful wireless data networking technology this far has
been 802.11.
Why Wireless?
The most obvious advantage of wireless networking is mobility. Wireless network users can
connect to existing networks and are then allowed to roam freely. A mobile telephone user
can drive miles in the course of a single conversation because the phone connects the user
through cell towers. Initially, mobile telephony was expensive. Costs restricted its use to
highly mobile professionals such as sales managers and important executive decision
makers who might need to be reached at a moment's notice regardless of their location.
Mobile telephony has proven to be a useful service, however, and now it is relatively
common in the United States and extremely common among Europeans
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER NETWORK:
The goals of a computer network can vary depending on the specific needs and
requirements of the organization or individuals involved. However, some common goals of
computer networks include:
Communication and Connectivity:
▪ The fundamental goal of a computer network is to enable communication and
connectivity between devices, systems, and users.
▪ Networks allow for the exchange of information, data, and resources, facilitating
collaboration and efficient workflow.
Resource Sharing:
▪ Networks enable the sharing of resources such as files, printers, storage devices,
and applications among multiple users and devices.
▪ This allows for better utilization of resources and cost savings, as individual devices
can access shared resources instead of duplicating them.
Data Transfer and Transmission:
▪ Computer networks facilitate the efficient transfer and transmission of data
between devices and systems.
▪ Networks provide the infrastructure and protocols necessary for reliable and timely
data delivery, whether it's sending emails, transferring files, or streaming media.
Centralized Management and Control:
▪ Networks allow for centralized management and control of resources, security
policies, and user access.
▪ Administrators can monitor and manage network devices, configure settings,
enforce security measures, and ensure the overall health and performance of the
network.
Scalability and Flexibility:
 ▪ Networks should be designed to scale and accommodate growth in terms of the
number of devices, users, and data traffic.
▪ They should provide flexibility to adapt to changing business needs, such as adding
or removing devices, expanding network coverage, or accommodating new
technologies.
Reliability and Availability:
▪ Computer networks aim to provide reliable and continuous access to resources and
services.
▪ Redundancy measures, fault tolerance, backup systems, and disaster recovery plans
are implemented to ensure network availability and minimize downtime.
Security and Privacy:
▪ Networks must prioritize security to protect data, systems, and users from
unauthorized access, data breaches, and other threats.
▪ Security measures such as firewalls, encryption, access controls, and authentication
mechanisms help safeguard network resources and maintain privacy.
Performance Optimization:
▪ Networks strive to optimize performance by minimizing latency, maximizing
throughput, and ensuring efficient data transmission.
▪ Techniques like quality of service (QoS), traffic prioritization, and bandwidth
management help prioritize critical traffic and optimize network performance.
Cost Efficiency:
▪ Networks aim to provide cost-effective solutions by maximizing resource utilization,
reducing infrastructure requirements, and streamlining operations.
▪ By sharing resources and leveraging economies of scale, networks help reduce costs
associated with hardware, software, maintenance, and support.
1.5 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK:
There are basically two types of computer network, based on whether the network
contains switching elements or not. These are Point–to–Point network and Broadcast
network.
Point–to–Point Network or Switch Network
Point–to–Point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs of
machines. To go from the to the source destination, a packet on this type of network may
have to first visit one or more intermediate machine routers. When a packet is sent from
one router to another intermediate router, the entire packet is stored at each intermediate
router, till the output line is free and then forwarded. A subnet using this principle is called
Point–to–Point or Packet switched network.
Some possible topologies for a Point–to–Point subnet are:
Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated Point–
to–Point link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub. These devices are not linked to each
other. If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends to the hub which then relays the data to the
other connected devices. In a star, each device needs
only one link and one I/O Port to connect it to any
number of other devices. This factor makes it easy to install and configure. Far less cabling
need to be housed and additions, moves and deletions involve only one connection
between that device and the hub.
Tree Topology
A tree topology is a variation of a star. As in a star
modes in a tree are linked to a central hub that
controls the traffic to the network. However, not every
device plugs directly into the central hub. The majority
of devices connect to a secondary hub that in turn is
connected to the central hub.
The advantages and disadvantages of a tree topology
are generally the same as those of stars. The addition of secondary hubs, however, brings
two further advantages. First, it allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub
and can, therefore, increase the distance a signal can travel between devices. Second, it
isolates the network and prioritizes communication from different computers.
Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated Point–to–

Point line configuration only, with the two devices on
either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction from device to device, until it reaches its
destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a
repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and
passes them along. A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked
to its immediate neighbours. However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a
simple ring, a break in ring can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by
using a dual ring or switch capable of closing off the break.
Bus Topology
Bus, unlike other topologies, is a multi–point
configuration. One long cable acts as a
backbone to link all the devices in the network.
Advantages of a bus topology include use of
installation. A disadvantage includes difficult
reconfiguration and fault isolation.
1.6 BROADCAST NETWORKS
Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the
machines on the network. Short messages, called packets, sent by any machine are
received by all the others. An address field within the packet specifies for when it is
intended. Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is
intended for itself, it processes the packet; if the packet is intended for some other
machine, it is just ignored.
Broadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all
destinations by using a special code in the address field. When a packet with this code is
transmitted, it is received and processed by very machine on the network, and this mode
of operation is called broadcasting. Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a
subset of the machines, something known as multicasting. One possible scheme is to
reserve one bit multicasting. The remaining (n–1) address bits can hold a group number.
Each machine can “subscribe” to any or all of the groups. When a packet is sent to a certain
group, it is delivered to all machines subscribing to that group.
1.7 REFERENCE MODEL
i. OSI (Open System Interconnection) Reference Model
The OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards
Organisation as a first step towards international standardization of the protocols used in
the various layers. The model is called the ISO – OSI (International Standard Organisation–
Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open
systems – that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems.
Its main objectives were to:
(i) Allow the manufacture of different systems to interconnect equipment through
standard interfaces.
(ii) Allow software and hardware to integrate well and be portable on different
systems.
The OSI model has seven layers shown in figure 5. The principles that were applied to
arrive at the seven layers are as follows:
1. Each layer should perform a well–defined function.
2. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
3. The layer boundaries should be chosen minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
The seven layers of ISO OSI Reference Model are:
a. Physical Layer
b. Data Link Layer
c. Network Layer
d. Transport Layer
e. Session Layer
f. Presentation Layer
g. Application Layer
 Figure 5 - The OSI Model

1. The Physical Layer

The physical layer is the first layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model
and is responsible for the physical transmission of data over a computer network. It
deals with the actual physical components and signalling mechanisms required to
transmit bits of data between devices. Here are the key aspects of the physical
layer.
Transmission Media:
• The physical layer defines the types of transmission media used to carry data
signals, including copper wires, fiber-optic cables, and wireless communication
channels.
• Copper wires, such as twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables, are commonly
used for Ethernet connections.
• Fiber-optic cables use light signals to transmit data and offer higher bandwidth
and longer transmission distances.
• Wireless communication channels utilize electromagnetic waves, such as radio
frequencies or microwaves, for data transmission.
Signalling:
• The physical layer defines the electrical, optical, or wireless signalling
techniques used to represent binary data as electrical or light pulses.
• Common signalling methods include amplitude modulation, frequency
modulation, phase modulation, and variations thereof.
• Signalling techniques ensure that data can be transmitted reliably over the
chosen transmission medium.
Data Encoding:
• Data encoding schemes convert binary data into a specific format suitable for
transmission.
• Examples of encoding schemes include Manchester encoding, Differential
Manchester encoding, Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) encoding, and 8B/10B
encoding.
• Encoding helps to synchronize data transmission, prevent data corruption, and
improve error detection.
Bit Synchronization:
• Bit synchronization ensures that the receiver correctly interprets the individual
bits in the transmitted data stream.
• Clock signals or synchronization patterns embedded in the data stream help
receivers align themselves with the incoming data bits.
Physical Connectors and Interfaces:
• The physical layer defines the physical connectors, pinouts, and interfaces used
to physically connect devices together.
• Examples include Ethernet ports (RJ-45), USB connectors, serial ports, and
fiber-optic connectors (such as LC, SC, or ST connectors).
Transmission Modes:
• The physical layer supports different transmission modes, including simplex,
half-duplex, and full-duplex.
• Simplex mode allows data to be transmitted in only one direction.
 • Half-duplex mode allows data to be transmitted in both directions but not
simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode enables simultaneous bidirectional communication.
Physical Topologies:
• The physical layer is also concerned with the physical arrangement or topology
of network devices and how they are connected.
• Common physical topologies include bus, star, ring, and mesh topologies, which
determine the layout and structure of the network.
The physical layer's primary goal is to transmit raw data reliably across the network
infrastructure. It handles the electrical, optical, or wireless characteristics of the
transmission medium, ensuring that data signals are accurately transmitted and
received between network devices.
2. The Data Link Layer
The main task of the Data Link Layer is to provide error free transmission. It
accomplishes this task by having the sender break the input data up into data
frames, transmit the frames sequentially, and process the acknowledgement frames
sent back to the receiver.
The Data Link Layer creates and recognises frame boundaries. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame. If these bit patterns can accidentally occur in the data, special care must be
taken to make sure these patterns are not incorrectly interpreted as frame
delimiters.
3. The Network Layer
Whereas the Data Link Layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery, the network
layer ensures that each packet travels from its source to destination successfully
and efficiently. A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from
source to destination. Routes can be based on static tables that are “wired into” the
network and rarely changed.
They can also be determined at the start of each conversation, for example, a
terminal session. Finally, they can be highly dynamic, being determined anew for
each packet, to reflect the current network load.
 When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination,
many problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be
different from the first one. The second one may not accept the packet at all
because it is too large. The protocols may differ, and so on. It is up to the network
layer to overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be
interconnected.
4. The Transport Layer
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the session layer,
split it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the Network Layer, and ensure
the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done
efficiently, and in a way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in
the hardware technology.
The transport layer provides location and media independent data transfer service
to session and upper layers.
5. The Session Layer
The main tasks of the session layer are to provide:
• Session establishment
• Session Release– Orderly or Abort
• Data Exchange
• Expedited Data Exchange.
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between
them. A session allows ordinary data transport, as does the transport layer, but it
also provides enhanced services useful in some applications. A session might be
used to allow a user to log into a remote time-sharing system or to transfer a file
between two machines.
One of the services of the session layer is to manage dialogue control. Sessions can
allow traffic to go in both directions at the same time, or in only one direction at a
time. If traffic can only go one way at a time (analogous to a single railroad track),
the session layer can help keep track of whose turn it is
A related session service is token management. For some protocols, it is essential
that both sides do not attempt the same operation at the same time. To manage
 these activities, the session layer provides tokens that can be exchanged. Only the
side holding the token may perform the critical operation.
Another session service is synchronization. Consider the problem that might occur
when trying to do a two–hour file transfer between two machines with a one hour
mean time between crashes. After each transfer is aborted, the whole transfer
would have to start over again and would probably fail again the next time as well.
To eliminate this problem, the session layer provides a way to insert after the last
checkpoint has to be repeated.
6. The Presentation Layer
Unlike all the lower layers which are just interested in moving bits reliably from
here to there, the presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the information transmitted.
A typical example of a presentation service is encoding data in a standard agreed
upon way. Most user programs do not exchange random binary bit strings, they
exchange things such as people’s names, dates, amounts of money and invoices.
These items are represented as character strings, integers, floating–point number,
and data structures composed of several simpler items. Different computers have
different codes for representing character strings, (e.g., ASCII and Unicode),
integers (e.g., one’s complement and two’s complement), and so on. In order to
make it possible for computers with different representations to communicate, the
data structure to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a
standard encoding to be used “on the wire”. The presentation layer manages these
abstract data structure and converts from the representation used inside the
computer to the network standard representation and back.
7. The Application Layer
Application layer supports functions that control and supervise OSI application
processes such as start/maintain/stop application, allocate/de–allocate OSI
resources, accounting, check point and recovering. It also supports remote job
execution, file transfer protocol, message transfer and virtual terminal.
1.8 TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL
The TCP/IP network architecture is a set of protocols that allow communication across
multiple device networks. The architecture evolved out of research that had the original
objective of transferring packets across three different packet networks: the ARPANET
packet– switching networks, a packet radio network, and a packet satellite network. The
military orientation of the research placed a premium on robustness with regards to
failures in the network and on flexibility in operating over diverse networks. The
environment led to a set of protocols that are highly effective in enabling communication
among the many different types of computer systems and networks. Today, the internet
has become the primary fabric for interconnecting the world’s computers. In this section,
we introduce the TCP/IP network architecture and TCP/IP is the main protocol for carrying
information.
Figure 6 shows the TCP/IP network architecture, which consists of four layers. The
Application Layer provides services that can be used by other applications. For example,
protocols have been developed for remote login, for e–mail, for file transfer, and for
network management.
The Application Layer programs are intended to run directly over the transport layer. Two
basic types of services are offered in the transport layer. The first service consists of
reliable connection–oriented transfer of a byte stream, which is provided by the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The second service consists of best–effort
connectionless transfer of individual messages, which is provided by the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP). This service provides no mechanisms for error recovery or flow control.
UDP is used for applications that require quick but necessary or flow control. UDP is used
for application that require but necessarily reliable delivery layer.

Figure 6 - TCP/IP Network Architecture

The TCP/IP model does not require strict layering. In other words, the application layer has
the option or bypassing intermediate layers. For example, an application layer may run
directly over the internet.
The Internet Layer handles the transfer of information across multiple networks through
the use of gateways of routers, as shown in figure 7. The Internet Layer corresponds to the
part of the OSI network layer that is concerned with the transfer of packets between
machines that are connected to different networks. It must, therefore, deal with the
routing of packets across these networks as well as with the control of congestion. A key
aspect of the internet layer is the definition of globally unique addresses for machines that
are attached to the Internet. The internet layer provides a single service, namely: best–
effort connectionless packet transfer. IP packets are exchanged between routers without a
connection set up; the packets are routed independently, and so they may traverse
different paths. For this reason, IP packets also called datagrams. The connectionless
approach makes the system robust; that is, if failures occur in the network, the packets are
routed around the points of failure; there is no need to set up the connections. The
gateways that interconnect the intermediate networks may discard packets when
congestion occurs. The responsibility for recovery from these losses is passed on to the
transport layer.
Finally, the Network Interface layer is concerned with the network– specific aspects of the
transfer of packets. As such, it must deal with the part of the OSI network layer and data
link layer. Various interfaces are available for connecting end computer systems to specific
networks such as X.25, ATM, frame relay, Ethernet, and token ring.

Figure 7 - The Internet Layer and Network Interface Layers

The network interface layer is particularly concerned with the protocols that access the
intermediate networks. At each gateway, the network access protocol encapsulates the IP
packet into a packet or frame of the underlying network or link. The IP packet is recovered
at the exit gateway of the given network. This gateway must then encapsulate the IP
packet into a packet or frame of the type of the next network or link.
This approach provides a clear separation of the internet layer from the technology
dependent network interface layer. This approach also allows the internet layer to provide
a data transfer service that is transparent sense of not depending on the details of the
underlying networks. The next section provides a detailed example of how IP operates over
the underlying networks.
1.8 NETWORK ADDRESSING
Network addressing is a fundamental concept in computer networks that involves assigning
unique identifiers to devices and networks for the purpose of communication. It allows
data packets to be routed accurately from the source to the destination across the network
infrastructure. There are two commonly used network addressing schemes: IPv4 and IPv6.
1. IPv4 Addressing:
• IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) is the most widely used addressing scheme in
computer networks.
• It consists of a 32-bit address, usually represented as four sets of decimal
numbers separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
• The address is divided into two parts: the network portion and the host portion.
• Subnetting allows further division of the network portion into subnetworks,
enabling efficient allocation of IP addresses.
• IPv4 addresses have limitations due to the limited address space, which has led
to the adoption of IPv6.
Network Portion:
• The network portion identifies the network to which a device belongs.
• It is determined by the subnet mask, which specifies the number of bits
reserved for the network portion.
• Network addresses with all bits set to 0 or all bits set to 1 are reserved for
special purposes (e.g., network address 0.0.0.0 and broadcast address
255.255.255.255).
 • Classful addressing was an early approach to address allocation that divided
IP addresses into different classes (A, B, C, D, and E) based on the range of
network addresses.
Host Portion:
• The host portion represents individual devices or hosts within a network.
• It is determined by the remaining bits after the network portion.
• The host portion allows for unique identification of devices within a
network.
Subnetting:
• Subnetting allows the division of a network into smaller subnetworks for
efficient address allocation.
• It involves borrowing bits from the host portion to create additional network
addresses.
• The subnet mask determines the number of bits allocated for the network
portion and the remaining bits for the host portion.
• Subnetting enables organizations to optimize the use of IP addresses by
allocating them based on network requirements.
Private IP Addresses:
Private IP addresses are used for internal addressing within a private network,
such as a local area network (LAN), and are not routable on the public internet.
They allow devices within the network to communicate with each other without
requiring unique public IP addresses. Private IP addresses are defined in the
following ranges:
• The most commonly used private IP address ranges are:
➢ Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
➢ Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
➢ Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
• IPv6 Unique Local Addresses (ULA):
➢ Unique Local Addresses (ULAs) are used in IPv6 for private addressing
within an organization or site.
➢ They are similar to private IPv4 addresses and are not routable on the
public internet.
 ➢ ULA addresses have the prefix fc00::/7 and are typically generated using a
randomly assigned global ID.
Here are some key points about private IP addresses:
Network Address Translation (NAT):
➢ Private IP addresses are often used in conjunction with Network
Address Translation (NAT) techniques to allow devices with private IP
addresses to access the internet.
➢ NAT translates private IP addresses to a public IP address when
communicating with external networks and vice versa.
Internal Network Communication:
➢ Private IP addresses are used for communication within a private
network or LAN.
➢ Devices within the same network can communicate with each other
using their private IP addresses without going through the internet.
Address Reuse:
➢ Private IP addresses can be reused within different private networks
since they are not globally unique.
➢ This allows for efficient allocation of addresses within private networks
without the need for obtaining public IP addresses for each device.
Security and Privacy:
➢ The use of private IP addresses adds an extra layer of security and
privacy since internal devices are not directly accessible from the public
internet.
➢ It helps in preventing unauthorized access and provides a level of
isolation between the internal network and external networks.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):
➢ DHCP servers are often used to dynamically assign private IP addresses
to devices within a private network.
➢ DHCP simplifies the IP address management process by automatically
assigning IP addresses, subnet masks, and other network configuration
parameters to devices.
 Private IP addresses are crucial for setting up and managing private
networks, such as home networks or corporate intranets. They enable
efficient internal communication and help protect internal devices from
direct exposure to the public internet.
Public IP Addresses:
Public IP addresses are unique addresses assigned to devices connected to a
public network, such as the internet. They are globally routable, meaning they
can be accessed and reached from any other device connected to the internet.
Public IP addresses are assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) or regional
internet registries.
Here are some key points about public IP addresses:
• Unique Identification: Public IP addresses serve as unique identifiers for
devices on the internet. They allow devices to send and receive data packets
across the network and enable communication with other devices, servers,
or services worldwide.
• Internet Accessibility: Public IP addresses are necessary for devices or
services that need to be directly accessible from the internet. Examples
include web servers, email servers, online gaming servers, and video
streaming services.
• IPv4 and IPv6: Public IP addresses can be either IPv4 or IPv6. IPv4 addresses
consist of 32 bits and are represented in decimal format (e.g., 203.0.113.42).
IPv6 addresses, on the other hand, are 128 bits and are represented in
hexadecimal format (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
• Allocation and Management: Public IP addresses are allocated and managed
by various entities, including ISPs, regional internet registries (such as ARIN,
RIPE NCC, APNIC, etc.), and national internet registries. These organizations
ensure the fair and efficient distribution of public IP addresses.
• Static and Dynamic IP Addresses: Public IP addresses can be assigned
statically or dynamically. Static IP addresses remain the same over an
extended period and are often used for devices or services that require
constant accessibility. Dynamic IP addresses, on the other hand, are assigned
 dynamically by ISPs and can change over time as devices reconnect to the
network.
• Network Address Translation (NAT): To conserve public IP addresses,
Network Address Translation (NAT) is commonly used. NAT allows multiple
devices within a private network to share a single public IP address. It
translates private IP addresses to the public IP address when communicating
with external networks and vice versa.
• Public IP Address Assignment Methods: Public IP addresses can be assigned
using various methods, including manual configuration by network
administrators, DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) servers
provided by ISPs, or automatic assignment through protocols like IPv6
Stateless Address Autoconfiguration (SLAAC).
Public IP addresses play a crucial role in facilitating communication and
connectivity across the internet. They are vital for accessing online services,
hosting servers, establishing remote connections, and enabling seamless
communication between devices on a global scale.
Network Address Translation (NAT):
• NAT is a technique used to overcome the limited availability of public IP
addresses by allowing multiple devices within a private network to share a
single public IP address.
• It translates private IP addresses to a public IP address when communicating
with external networks and vice versa.
• NAT plays a crucial role in conserving IPv4 address space and enabling
connectivity for devices in private networks.
IPv4 addressing has limitations due to the limited address space of 32 bits,
which has led to the adoption of IPv6 addressing, designed to provide a larger
address space and meet the growing demands of modern networks.
2. IPv6 Addressing:
IPv6 addressing is the next generation of IP addressing designed to overcome the
limitations of IPv4 and provide a significantly larger address space. IPv6 uses a 128-bit
address format, represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by colons
(e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). Here are the key features of IPv6
addressing:
Larger Address Space:
• IPv6 provides a substantially larger address space compared to IPv4.
• With 128 bits, IPv6 supports approximately 3.4×10^38 unique IP addresses.
• The expanded address space allows for the allocation of addresses to a vast number
of devices, including those in the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem.
Simplified Addressing and Representation:
• IPv6 addresses use hexadecimal notation, allowing for more compact and efficient
representation.
• Leading zeros within each group can be omitted, and consecutive groups of zeros
can be replaced with a double colon (::).
• For example, the address 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:1428:57ab can be
simplified as 2001:db8::1428:57ab.
Types of IPv6 Addresses:
• Unicast Addresses: Used for one-to-one communication between a source and a
destination. Examples include global unicast addresses, link-local addresses, and
unique local addresses.
• Multicast Addresses: Used for one-to-many communication, allowing data to be
sent to multiple devices simultaneously. Multicast addresses begin with the prefix
ff00::/8.
• Anycast Addresses: Used for one-to-nearest communication, where data is sent to
the nearest device among a group of devices with the same anycast address.
Global Unicast Addresses:
• Global unicast addresses in IPv6 are equivalent to public IPv4 addresses in IPv4
addressing.
• They are globally unique and routable on the internet.
• Global unicast addresses are typically assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
or regional internet registries.
Link-Local Addresses:
• Link-local addresses are used for communication within a single network segment
or link.
 • They are automatically generated by devices and do not require manual
configuration.
• Link-local addresses have the prefix fe80::/10 and are unique within the local link.
Unique Local Addresses (ULA):
• Unique local addresses are used for private addressing within an organization or
site.
• They are not globally routable on the internet.
• Unique local addresses have the prefix fc00::/7 and are comparable to private IPv4
addresses.
IPv6 Address Autoconfiguration:
• IPv6 incorporates built-in address autoconfiguration known as Stateless Address
Autoconfiguration (SLAAC).
• Devices can generate their own IPv6 addresses using a combination of the network
prefix received from a router and their interface identifier (usually based on the
MAC address).
Transition Mechanisms:
• Various transition mechanisms exist to facilitate the coexistence of IPv4 and IPv6
networks during the transition period.
• These mechanisms include dual-stack, tunnelling (such as IPv6 over IPv4), and
translation techniques (such as Network Address Translation-Protocol Translation
(NAT-PT)).
IPv6 addressing provides a vast address space to accommodate the growing number of
devices and services connected to networks. Its adoption is crucial for the future of the
internet and enables the seamless connectivity of devices in an increasingly interconnected
world.
3. Domain Name System:
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a decentralized hierarchical naming system used
to translate human-readable domain names into IP addresses and vice versa. It
serves as a critical infrastructure in computer networks and the internet, enabling
users to access resources using easy-to-remember domain names instead of
numeric IP addresses.
Key components and functions of the Domain Name System:
DNS Hierarchy:
• The DNS is organized in a hierarchical structure, with multiple levels known
as domains.
• At the top of the hierarchy is the root domain, represented by a dot (.),
which is the starting point for all DNS resolutions.
• Domains are then divided into subdomains, forming a tree-like structure. For
example, "example.com" is a subdomain of the top-level domain "com."
Domain Names:
• Domain names are human-readable names used to identify resources on the
internet, such as websites, email servers, or other network services.
• They consist of multiple labels separated by dots, such as
"www.example.com."
• Domain names can have different top-level domains (TLDs), such as ".com,"
".org," ".net," or country-specific TLDs like ".ng" or ".uk."
DNS Servers:
• DNS servers are the infrastructure that stores and provides DNS information.
• DNS servers are categorized into different types:
o Root Servers: These are the highest level of DNS servers that provide
information about the root domain and direct queries to the
appropriate top-level domain servers.
o Top-Level Domain (TLD) Servers: These servers manage the specific
top-level domains, such as ".com," ".org," or country-specific TLDs.
o Authoritative Servers: These servers hold the actual DNS records for
specific domains. They provide answers to queries for those
domains.
o Recursive Resolvers: These are the DNS servers used by client devices
or ISPs. They handle DNS queries on behalf of clients by recursively
resolving the DNS hierarchy until the final IP address is obtained.
DNS Resolution Process:
• When a user enters a domain name in a web browser or other application,
the DNS resolution process begins to translate the domain name into an IP
address.
 • The client device or DNS resolver sends a DNS query to the recursive
resolver.
• The recursive resolver starts querying DNS servers, starting from the root
servers and moving down the DNS hierarchy.
• The authoritative DNS servers for the requested domain provide the IP
address or other associated DNS records to the recursive resolver.
• Finally, the recursive resolver returns the resolved IP address to the client
device, allowing it to establish a connection with the desired resource.
Caching
• DNS caching is used to improve DNS resolution efficiency and reduce the
load on DNS servers.
• DNS resolvers and clients store recently resolved DNS records in their caches
for a specified time (known as Time to Live or TTL).
• Cached records are used to respond to subsequent DNS queries without the
need to query authoritative DNS servers again.
The DNS plays a vital role in the functioning of the internet by providing a convenient
and scalable method for translating domain names into IP addresses. It enables users to
access websites, send emails, and access various network services using easy-to-
remember domain names, making the internet more user-friendly and accessible.
4. Address Classes and Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR):
• IPv4 addresses were originally divided into classes (A, B, C, D, and E) based
on the number of network and host bits.
• Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) was introduced to provide more
flexibility in assigning IP addresses.
• CIDR allows for the allocation of variable-sized address blocks by specifying
the number of significant bits in the network portion.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method used to allocate and manage IP
addresses more efficiently in Internet Protocol (IP) networks. It was introduced to
overcome the limitations of the original IP addressing scheme, which used classful
addressing.
In classful addressing, IP addresses were divided into three classes: Class A, Class B,
and Class C. Each class had a fixed network portion and host portion, which limited the
flexibility in allocating IP addresses. This led to inefficient utilization of IP address
space.
CIDR introduced the concept of variable-length subnet masks (VLSM), allowing for
more flexible allocation of IP addresses. Instead of being bound to fixed network
classes, CIDR allows the allocation of IP addresses in any block size, regardless of the
original class boundaries.
Key Concepts of CIDR:
IP Address Format:
▪ CIDR notation combines the IP address and the prefix length (subnet mask) to
represent the network.
▪ The CIDR notation follows the format: <IP address>/<prefix length>. For
example, 192.168.0.0/24.
Subnetting:
▪ CIDR allows network administrators to subnet IP address blocks into smaller
subnets.
▪ Subnetting enables efficient utilization of IP addresses by assigning smaller
address blocks to networks as needed.
Routing:
▪ CIDR enables hierarchical routing, where network addresses can be aggregated
to simplify routing tables.
▪ With CIDR, multiple smaller IP address blocks can be aggregated into a single
larger block, reducing the size of routing tables and improving routing
efficiency.
Classless Routing:
▪ CIDR eliminates the strict classification of IP addresses into fixed classes.
▪ It allows the allocation of IP addresses based on the actual needs of the
network, without being constrained by class boundaries.
Address Space Conservation:
▪ CIDR reduces IP address wastage by allowing more precise allocation of address
blocks.
 ▪ It helps delay the exhaustion of available IP address space by optimizing
address utilization.
CIDR has played a crucial role in the growth and scalability of the Internet. It allows
network administrators to allocate IP addresses more efficiently and enables more
flexible routing. By adopting CIDR, organizations can better manage their IP address
resources and ensure efficient utilization within their networks.
Network addressing is essential for routing and delivering data packets accurately across
networks. It enables communication between devices, facilitates the functioning of
services such as DNS, and plays a crucial role in the overall operation of computer
networks.