AC Fundamentals

Ganesh N. Jadhav
Department of Electrical Engineering
K.K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nashik,
Maharashtra, India 422003

February 22, 2018

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1 Learning Outcomes

2 DC and AC

3 Generation of AC

4 Important Terms Related to AC

5 Equations of an Alternating Quantity

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Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, learners are able to

1 Differentiate between DC and AC quantities.
2 Describe generation of alternating emf and current.
3 Write equations for alternating emf and current.

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Difference in DC and AC I

Direct Current (DC):The direct current is that current which

flows in one direction only and generally has constant magnitude
Alternating Current (AC):The alternating current is that
current which periodically passes through a definite cycle of
changes in respect of magnitude as well as direction.

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Difference in DC and AC II

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Advantages of AC

Can generate high voltage with less construction and operating

per kW cost.
Can raise or lower voltage using static device known as
transformer.
High voltage and extra high voltage transmission lines are most
economical to transfer the bulk power from plant to consumer
Construction, maintenance and losses are low in AC machines
hence high efficiency.
AC can be converted to DC at consumer end using power
electronic converter or rectifier

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Generation of AC I
Construction:
It consists of a single turn rectangular coil
made up of some conducting material
called as armature
The coil is so placed that it can rotated
about its own axis a a constant speed in a
uniform magnetic field.
The ends of armature coils are connected
to slip rings which rotates with armature.
Two carbon brushes are placed on this slip
rings to collect the current.

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Generation of AC II
According to dynamically induced emf, whenever a rotating
conductor with length l(m) moving with velocity v(m/s) placed
in magnetic field of of density B(W b/m2 ), emf is induced in it.
The magnitude of emf is given by e = Blvsinθ volts.
Where θ is angle between magnetic field and conductor. If
conductor is rotating at the speed of ω rad/sec, then θ = ωt.
The emf induced in the conductor is maximum, when θ = 900 .
It is emax = Blv.
Let us calculate emf at all position.

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Generation of AC III

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Generation of AC IV

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Important Terms Related to AC I
Instantaneous Values
It is the value of an alternating quantity at a particular instant of time.
In above diagram, i1 , i2 , i3 , i4 are the instantaneous values at the time
instant t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 respectively.
Instantaneous quantities are denoted by small letters.

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Important Terms Related to AC II
Waveform
It the graph obtained by plotting instantaneous quantity with respect to
time. It is also defined as graphical representation of alternating quantity.

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Important Terms Related to AC III
Cycle
Each repetition of a complete set of changes undergo by alternating
quantity is called cycle. These repetitions recur at equal interval.

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Important Terms Related to AC IV
Time Period(T )
It is the time required by an alternating quantity to complete its one cycle.
It measures in sec.

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Important Terms Related to AC V
Frequency(f )
The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity in 1 sec is
known as frequency. It is measured in Hz.
1
f=
T

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Important Terms Related to AC VI
Angular Frequency (rad/sec)
It is the frequency expressed in electrical radians per second. One cycle of
an alternating quantity span 2π electrical radians, the angular frequency is
given by ω = 2πf rad/sec

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Important Terms Related to AC VII
Amplitude / Peak Value
The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during its positive
or negative half cycle is called its amplitude or peak value.
1
f=
T

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Equations of an Alternating Quantity
According to dynamically induced emf, whenever a rotating
conductor with length l(m) moving with velocity v(m/s) placed
in magnetic field of of density B(W b/m2 ), emf is induced in it.
The magnitude of emf is given by e = Blvsinθ volts.
Where θ is angle between magnetic field and conductor. If
conductor is rotating at the speed of ω rad/sec, then θ = ωt.
The emf induced in the conductor is maximum, when θ = 900 .
It is Emax = Blv.
The emf induced in the coil is given by
e(t) = Blvsinθ = Blvsin(ωt) = Blvsin(2πf t) = Blvsin 2πt T
As Emax = Blv, e(t) = Emax sinθ = Emax sin(ωt) =
Emax sin(2πf t) = Emax sin 2πtT
Similarly currents can be expressed as
i(t) = Imax sinθ = Imax sin(ωt) = Imax sin(2πf t) = Imax sin 2πt
T
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THANK YOU........

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 Important Terms of AC
Fundamentals
Ganesh N. Jadhav
Department of Electrical Engineering
K.K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nashik,
Maharashtra, India 422003

February 27, 2018

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1 Learning Outcomes

2 Average value
Average value: Graphical Method
Average value: Analytical Method

3 RMS Value
RMS Value:Graphical Method
RMS Value:Analytical Method

4 Peak Factor

5 Form Factor

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Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, learners are able to

1 Define average value, rms value, peak factor and form
factor.
2 Derive average value and rms value of an alternating
quantity.

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Average value I

In an alternating quantity, the positive and negative half cycle is

exactly same with opposite magnitude.
Hence, average value over a full cycle is zero.
To calculate average value of an alternating quantity, half cycle
is considered.
There are two methods to find the average value (i) Graphical
method (ii) Analytical method

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Average value: Graphical Method

Let samples of AC waveform is taken

at regular interval in a half cycle.
It gives the values i1 , i2 , · · · , in
corresponding to time t1 , t2 , · · · , tn
respectively as shown in Fig.
The average value of current is
i1 + i2 + i3 + · · · + in
Iavg =
n
Similarly average value of voltage is
v1 + v2 + v3 + · · · + vn
Vavg =
n

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Average value: Analytical Method I

Average value of current over a half cycle is given by

AreaU nderT heCurveOverHalf Cycle

Iavg =
Lengthof BaseOverHalf Cycle
Rπ
i.dωt
0
Iavg =
π
Zπ
1
Iavg = i.dωt
π
0

A sinusoidal current equation is given by

i = Im sin (ωt)

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Average value: Analytical Method II

Hence
Zπ
1
Iavg = Im sin (ωt) .dωt
π
0

Im π Im
Iavg = (− cos (ωt))|0 = (− cos (π) − (− cos (0)))
π π
2Im
Iavg = = 0.637Im
π

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RMS Value

The magnitude of an alternating current varies from instant to

instant, whereas the magnitude of direct current remains
constant with respect to time.
It is necessary to have a common measurement process for both
AC and DC.
Such measurement is only possible by considering the effect of
both quantities in given time.
One such effect is heating in resistance.

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RMS Value

The effective of rms value of an alternating current is defined as

Effective or rms value of current
Ii is given by the direct current which when flowing through a given
circuit for a given time, produces the same amount of heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same
circuit for the same time.
There are two methods to calculate rms value (i) Graphical
method, (ii) Analytical method

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RMS Value:Graphical Method I

Let the current waveform is as given in fig.

In AC both cycles are exactly similar, hence for calculation of

rms value half cycle is also sufficient.
Let samples of AC waveform is taken at regular interval in a half
cycle.

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RMS Value:Graphical Method II
It gives the values i1 , i2 , · · · , in corresponding to time t1 , t2 ,
· · · , tn respectively as shown in Fig.
Let this current is passing through a resistance of R(Ω) for a
time duration of t(sec)
Heat produced in 1st interval is H1 = i21 R nt J
Heat produced in 2nd interval is H2 = i22 R nt J
Similarly Heat produced in nth interval is Hn = i2n R nt J
Total heat produced is
t t t t
H = i21 R + i22 R + i23 R + · · · + i2n R
n n n n
Joules !
i2 + i22 + i23 + · · · + i2n
H = Rt 1 Joules
n
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RMS Value:Graphical Method III
Let the effective value of this current be I amperes. The heat
developed by a current of I amperes when flowing through
resistance R in time period t(sec) is

H = I 2 Rt

The amount of heat given by two expression should be equal

!
i2 + i22 + i23 + · · · + i2n
I 2 Rt = Rt 1
n
!
2 i21 + i22 + i23 + · · · + i2n
I =
n
v !
i21 + i22 + i23 + · · · + i2n
u
u
I= t
n
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RMS Value:Graphical Method IV

Similarly rms value of voltage

v !
v12 + v22 + v32 + · · · + vn2
u
u
V = t
n

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RMS Value:Analytical Method I
Let the instantaneous alternating current is expressed by
i = Im sin (ωt)
Taking square i2 = Im
2
sin2 (ωt)
The waveform for both function is given below

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RMS Value:Analytical Method II
The rms value is given by
s
Areaof SquaredCurveOverHalf Cycle
I=
Lengthof BaseOverHalf Cycle
v
u Rπ
u Im
u 2 sin2 (ωt) dωt
t0
I=
π
v v
uZπ uZπ !
Im u Im u 1 − cos (2ωt)
I= √ ut sin2 (ωt) dωt = √ ut dωt
π π 2
0 0
v !π
I u sin (2ωt) Im √
u
I= √m t ωt − =√ π
2π 2 0 2π
Im
I = √ = 0.707Im
2
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RMS Value:Analytical Method III

Similarly rms value of voltage is

Vm
V = √ = 0.707Vm
2

RMS value is always indicated by capital letters.

RMS value is 0.707 times of maximum value.
Most of the measuring instruments indicate rms values.

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Peak Factor

Peak Factor/ Crest Factor / Amplitude Factor

It is defined as the ratio of maximum value of an alternating quantity
to rms value of that alternating quantity.

For sinusoidal quantity Peak Factor

Im Im √
KP = = Im = 2 = 1.414
I √
2

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Form Factor

Form Factor
It is defined as the ratio of rms value of an alternating quantity to
average value of that alternating quantity.

For sinusoidal quantity Peak Factor

I 0.707Im
FF = = = 1.11
Iavg 0.637Im

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THANK YOU........

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 Phasor Representation and
Arithmetic
Ganesh N. Jadhav
Department of Electrical Engineering
K.K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nashik,
Maharashtra, India 422003

February 23, 2018

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1 Learning Outcomes

2 Phasor
Phasor Representation

3 Phasor Arithmetic
Phasor Addition
Phasor Subtraction
Phasor Multiplication
Phasor Division

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Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, learners are able to

1 Represent an alternating quantity in terms of phasor.
2 Represent two or many quantity in terms of phasor
difference.
3 Perform phasor arithmetic.

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Phasor I
Phasor
A vector that represents a sinusoidally varying quantity, as a current
or voltage, by means of a line rotating about a point in a plane, the
magnitude of the quantity being proportional to the length of the line
and the phase of the quantity being equal to the angle between the
line and a reference line.

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Phasor II

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Phasor Representation

e1 = Em1 sin (ωt ± φ1 ) = Em1 sin (ωt + 0) ⇒⇒ Ē1 = |E1 | ∠00 = |E1 | ej0
e2 = Em2 sin (ωt ± φ2 ) = Em2 sin (ωt + 0) ⇒⇒ Ē2 = |E2 | ∠00 = |E2 | ej0

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Phasor Representation

e1 = Em1 sin (ωt ± φ1 ) = Em1 sin (ωt + 0) ⇒⇒

Ē1 = |E1 | ∠00 = |E1 | ej0 ⇒ |E1 | (cos 0 + j sin 0)
e2 = Em2 sin (ωt ± φ2 ) = Em2 sin (ωt − φ) ⇒⇒
Ē2 = |E2 | ∠ − φ0 = |E2 | e−jφ ⇒ |E2 | (cos φ − j sin φ)

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Phasor Representation

e1 = Em1 sin (ωt ± φ1 ) = Em1 sin (ωt + φ1 ) ⇒⇒

Ē1 = |E1 | ∠φ1 0 = |E1 | ejφ1 ⇒ |E1 | (cos φ1 + j sin φ1 )
e2 = Em2 sin (ωt ± φ2 ) = Em2 sin (ωt − φ2 ) ⇒⇒
Ē2 = |E2 | ∠ − φ2 0 = |E2 | e−jφ2 ⇒ |E2 | (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )

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Phasor Addition

I¯1 = |I1 | ∠φ1 = |I1 | (cos φ1 + j sin φ1 )

I¯2 = |I2 | ∠ − φ2 = |I2 | (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )
I¯ = I¯1 + I¯2 = |I1 | ∠φ1 + |I2 | ∠ − φ2
I¯ = I¯1 + I¯2 = |I1 | (cos φ1 + j sin φ1 ) + |I2 | (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )
I¯ = I¯1 + I¯2 = (|I1 | cos φ1 + |I2 | cos φ2 ) + j (|I1 | sin φ1 − |I2 | sin φ2 )

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Phasor Subtraction

I¯1 = |I1 | ∠φ1 = |I1 | (cos φ1 + j sin φ1 )

I¯2 = |I2 | ∠ − φ2 = |I2 | (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )
I¯ = I¯1 − I¯2 = |I1 | ∠φ1 − |I2 | ∠ − φ2
I¯ = I¯1 − I¯2 = |I1 | (cos φ1 + j sin φ1 ) − |I2 | (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )
I¯ = I¯1 − I¯2 = (|I1 | cos φ1 − |I2 | cos φ2 ) + j (|I1 | sin φ1 + |I2 | sin φ2 )
I¯1 − I¯2 6= I¯2 − I¯1

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Phasor Multiplication

I¯1 = |I1 | ∠φ1 = |I1 | (cos φ1 + j sin φ1 )

I¯2 = |I2 | ∠ − φ2 = |I2 | (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )
I¯ = I¯1 × I¯2 = |I1 | ∠φ1 × |I2 | ∠ − φ2
I¯ = I¯1 × I¯2 = |I1 | |I2 | ∠ (φ1 + (−φ2 ))

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Phasor Division

I¯1 = |I1 | ∠φ1 = |I1 | (cos φ1 + j sin φ1 )

I¯2 = |I2 | ∠ − φ2 = |I2 | (cos φ2 − j sin φ2 )
I¯1 |I1 |∠φ1
I¯ = I¯2
= |I2 |∠−φ2
I¯1 |I1 |
I¯ = I¯2
= |I2 |
∠ (φ1 − (−φ2 ))

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THANK YOU........

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 Response of Pure R, L and C
with AC
Ganesh N. Jadhav
Department of Electrical Engineering
K.K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nashik,
Maharashtra, India 422003

February 25, 2018

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1 Learning Outcomes

2 AC through Pure R

3 AC through Pure L

4 AC through Pure C

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Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, learners are able to

1 Elaborate the response of pure R, L and C with AC.
2 Draw waveform and phasor diagram of instantaneous
voltage, current and power.
3 Derive relationship between voltage, current and
power in all cases.

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AC through Pure R I

Let pure resistance of RΩ is connected across a AC supply which is

represented by v = Vm sin (ωt).

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AC through Pure R II
The instantaneous current carried by the resistance is given by
v
i=
R
Vm sin (ωt) Vm
i= = sin (ωt) = Im sin (ωt)
R R
Vm
where Im = R
It is clear from above equation that voltage across resistance is in
phase with current through it.
V
Similarly I = R.

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AC through Pure R III
Instantaneous power is given by

p=v×i

p = Vm sin (ωt) × Im sin (ωt)

Vm Im Vm Im
−
p= cos (2ωt)
2 2
Average of power is taken over a full cycle.
Vm Im Vm Im
P = AverageOf − AverageOf cos (2ωt)
2 2
V m Im Vm Im V2
P = = √ √ = V I = I 2R =
2 2 2 R
Average power over a full cycle in pure R circuit is multiplication of
rms voltage and rms current.

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AC through Pure L I

Let pure inductance of L(Henry) is connected across a AC supply

which is represented by v = Vm sin (ωt).

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AC through Pure L II
The instantaneous emf induced in inductor is given by
di
e = −L
dt
The applied voltage is equal and opposite to the induced emf
di
v = −e = L
dt
1
di = vdt
L
1
Z
i= vdt
L
1
Z
i= Vm sin (ωt) dt
L
Vm
i= (− cos (ωt))
ωL
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AC through Pure L III
Vm π
 
i= sin ωt −
ωL 2
Vm π π
   
i= sin ωt − = Im sin ωt −
XL 2 2
where inductive reactance XL = ωL = 2πf · · · (Ω)
Inductive reactance is defined as opposite offered by the inductance
of a circuit to the flow of alternating current.
In case of pure inductor, current though it is lagging to applied
voltage by π2 = 900 .i.e. applied voltage is lead to current through it
by π2 = 900 .

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AC through Pure L IV
Instantaneous power is given by
π
 
p = v × i = Vm sin (ωt) Im sin ωt −
2

p = −Vm Im sin (ωt) cos (ωt)

Vm Im
p=−
sin (2ωt)
2
The average power is given by

Vm Im
 
P = AverageOf − sin (2ωt)
2
P =0
The average power consumption by a pure inductor is given by zero.

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AC through Pure C I

Let pure capacitance of C(F arad) is connected across a AC

supply which is represented by v = Vm sin (ωt).

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AC through Pure C II
The current flowing through inductor is given by
dv
i=C
dt
d
i=C [Vm sin (ωt)]
dt
i = ωCVm cos (ωt)
Vm Vm π
 
i= 1 cos (ωt) = sin ωt +
ωC
XC 2
1
where Capacitive Reactance XC = ωC = 2πf1 C
Capacitive reactance is defined as opposite offered by the
capacitance of a circuit to the flow of alternating current.
Vm π π
   
i= sin ωt + = Im sin ωt +
XC 2 2
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AC through Pure C III
In case of pure capacitor, current though it is leading to applied
voltage by π2 = 900 .i.e. applied voltage is lagging to current
through it by π2 = 900 .

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AC through Pure C IV
The instantaneous power is given by
π
 
p = v × i = Vm sin (ωt) Im sin ωt +
2
p = Vm Im sin (ωt) cos (ωt)
Vm Im
p=
sin (2ωt)
2
The average power is given by
Vm Im
 
P = AverageOf sin (2ωt)
2
P =0
The average power consumption by a pure capacitor is given by
zero.
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THANK YOU........

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 RLC series and Parallel Circuits
Ganesh N. Jadhav
Department of Electrical Engineering
K.K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nashik,
Maharashtra, India 422003

April 14, 2018

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1 Learning Outcomes

2 Single phase RL circuit

3 Single phase RC circuit

4 Single phase RLC circuit

5 Resonance in RLC series circuit

6 Admittance

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Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, learners are able to

1 Derive relation between voltage, current and power in
series and parallel RLC circuit.
2 Solve numerical based on series and parallel RLC
circuit.

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Single phase RL circuit I
Let a single phase AC supply v = Vm sin (ωt) is applied across a
series circuit of resistance R(Ω) and inductance L(H) as shown in
following figure.

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Single phase RL circuit II
If the frequency is f (Hz),inductive reactance is given by

XL = 2πf L

If current flowing through series circuit is R(Ω, voltage across

resistance is given by
VR = IR
voltage across inductance is given by

VL = jIXL

Appling KVl, total applied voltage is given by

V̄ = V̄R + V̄L

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Single phase RL circuit III
From above equations
¯ + j IX
V = IR ¯ L = I¯ (R + jXL ) = IZ
¯

where Z = R + jXL is known as impedance i.e. opposition offered

to ac current.
XL
q  
Z = |Z| ∠φ = R2 + XL2 ∠tan−1
R

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Single phase RL circuit IV
RL Series Circuit and Phasor

It indicates in RL series circuit that current lags to voltage by φ i.e.

voltage leads to current by φ
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Single phase RL circuit V
Instantaneous voltage and current is given by
v(t) = Vm sin (ωt)
i(t) = Im sin (ωt − φ)
Instantaneous active power is given by
p=v×i
p = Vm sin (ωt) × Im sin (ωt − φ)
p = Vm2Im (cos φ − cos (2ωt − φ))

Here Vm2Im cos (2ωt − φ) is fluctuating power whose average is

zero over a full cycle. Similarly Vm2Im cos φ is constant power whose
average is non-zero over a full cycle.
Hence average active power over a full cycle is given by
Vm Im Vm Im
P = cos φ = √ √ cos φ = V I cos φ(W att)
2 2 2
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Single phase RL circuit VI
Waveform

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Single phase RL circuit VII
Active/real Power (P) [Watt]: It is the power consumed by the
circuit. It is the multiplication of rms values of voltage, current and
power factor.
P = V I cos φ(W att)
Reactive/imaginary Power (Q) [VAr]: It is the multiplication of
rms values of voltage, current and sine of angle of between voltage
and current.
Q = V I sin φ(V Ar)
Apparent Power (S) [VA]: It is the multiplication of rms values of
voltage, current.
S = V I(V A)
S = P + jQ = V I cos φ + jV I sin φ = V I (cos φ + sin φ) = V I(V A)

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Single phase RL circuit VIII

Useful triangles

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THANK YOU........

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Single phase RC circuit I
Let a single phase AC supply v = Vm sin (ωt) is applied across a
series circuit of resistance R(Ω) and capacitance C(F ) as shown in
following figure.

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Single phase RC circuit II
If the frequency is f (Hz),capacitive reactance is given by
1
XC =
2πf C

If current flowing through series circuit is R(Ω, voltage across

resistance is given by
VR = IR
voltage across capacitance is given by

VC = −jIXC

Appling KVL, total applied voltage is given by

V̄ = V̄R + V̄C

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Single phase RC circuit III
From above equations
¯ − j IX
V = IR ¯ C = I¯ (R − jXC ) = IZ
¯

where Z = R − jXC is known as impedance i.e. opposition offered

to ac current.
XC
q  
Z = |Z| ∠φ = R2 + XC2 ∠− tan−1
R

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Single phase RC circuit IV
RC Series Circuit and Phasor

It indicates in RC series circuit that current leads to voltage by φ i.e.

voltage lags to current by φ
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Single phase RC circuit V
Instantaneous voltage and current is given by
v(t) = Vm sin (ωt)
i(t) = Im sin (ωt + φ)
Instantaneous active power is given by
p=v×i
p = Vm sin (ωt) × Im sin (ωt + φ)
p = Vm2Im (cos φ − cos (2ωt + φ))

Here Vm2Im cos (2ωt + φ) is fluctuating power whose average is

zero over a full cycle. Similarly Vm2Im cos φ is constant power whose
average is non-zero over a full cycle.
Hence average active power over a full cycle is given by
Vm Im Vm Im
P = cos φ = √ √ cos φ = V I cos φ(W att)
2 2 2
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Single phase RC circuit VI
Waveform

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Single phase RC circuit VII
Active/real Power (P) [Watt]: It is the power consumed by the
circuit. It is the multiplication of rms values of voltage, current and
power factor.
P = V I cos φ(W att)
Reactive/imaginary Power (Q) [VAr]: It is the multiplication of
rms values of voltage, current and sine of angle of between voltage
and current.
Q = V I sin φ(V Ar)
Apparent Power (S) [VA]: It is the multiplication of rms values of
voltage, current.
S = V I(V A)
S = P + jQ = V I cos φ + jV I sin φ = V I (cos φ + sin φ) = V I(V A)

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Single phase RC circuit VIII

Useful triangles

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THANK YOU........

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Single phase RLC circuit I
Let a single phase AC supply v = Vm sin (ωt) is applied across a
series circuit of resistance R(Ω), inductance L(H)and capacitance
C(F ) as shown in following figure.

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Single phase RLC circuit II
If the frequency is f (Hz),inductive and capacitive reactance is given
by
XL = 2πf L
1
XC =
2πf C
If current flowing through series circuit is R(Ω, voltage across
resistance is given by
VR = IR
voltage across inductance is given by

VL = jIXL

voltage across capacitance is given by

VC = −jIXC
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Single phase RLC circuit III
Appling KVL, total applied voltage is given by

V̄ = V̄R + V̄L + V̄C

From above equations

¯ + j IX
V = IR ¯ L − j IX
¯ C = I¯ (R + jXL − jXC ) = IZ
¯

where Z = R + jXL − jXC is known as impedance i.e. opposition

offered to ac current.
XC − XL
q  
2 −1
Z = |Z| ∠φ = R2 + (XL − XC ) ∠− tan
R

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Single phase RLC circuit IV
RLC Phasor and Waveform when XL > XC

It indicates in RLC series circuit that current lags to voltage by φ i.e.

voltage leads to current by φ

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Single phase RLC circuit V
Instantaneous voltage and current is given by
v(t) = Vm sin (ωt)
i(t) = Im sin (ωt − φ)
Instantaneous active power is given by
p=v×i
p = Vm sin (ωt) × Im sin (ωt − φ)
p = Vm2Im (cos φ − cos (2ωt − φ))

Here Vm2Im cos (2ωt − φ) is fluctuating power whose average is

zero over a full cycle. Similarly Vm2Im cos φ is constant power whose
average is non-zero over a full cycle.
Hence average active power over a full cycle is given by
Vm Im Vm Im
P = cos φ = √ √ cos φ = V I cos φ(W att)
2 2 2
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Single phase RLC circuit VI
Useful triangles

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Single phase RLC circuit VII
RLC Phasor and Waveform when XL < XC

It indicates in RLC series circuit that current leads to voltage by φ

i.e. voltage lags to current by φ
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Single phase RLC circuit VIII
Instantaneous voltage and current is given by
v(t) = Vm sin (ωt)
i(t) = Im sin (ωt + φ)
Instantaneous active power is given by
p=v×i
p = Vm sin (ωt) × Im sin (ωt + φ)
p = Vm2Im (cos φ − cos (2ωt + φ))

Here Vm2Im cos (2ωt + φ) is fluctuating power whose average is

zero over a full cycle. Similarly Vm2Im cos φ is constant power whose
average is non-zero over a full cycle.
Hence average active power over a full cycle is given by
Vm Im Vm Im
P = cos φ = √ √ cos φ = V I cos φ(W att)
2 2 2
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Single phase RLC circuit IX
Useful triangles

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Single phase RLC circuit X
RLC Phasor and Waveform when XL = XC

It indicates in RLC series circuit that current is in phase with voltage

i.e. angle between voltage and current by 00

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Single phase RLC circuit XI
Instantaneous voltage and current is given by
v(t) = Vm sin (ωt)
i(t) = Im sin (ωt)
Instantaneous active power is given by
p=v×i
p = Vm sin (ωt) × Im sin (ωt)
p = Vm2Im (cos 0 − cos (2ωt))
Here Vm2Im cos (2ωt) is fluctuating power whose average is zero
over a full cycle. Similarly Vm2Im is constant power whose average is
non-zero over a full cycle.
Hence average active power over a full cycle is given by
Vm Im Vm Im
P = = √ √ = V I(W att)
2 2 2
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THANK YOU........

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Resonance in RLC series circuit I
Let a single phase AC supply v = Vm sin (ωt) with constant Vm and
variable frequency f (Hz) is applied across a series circuit of
resistance R(Ω), inductance L(H)and capacitance C(F ) as shown in
following figure.

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Resonance in RLC series circuit II
Resistance is independent from frequency
Inductive reactance is given by XL = 2πf L Ω i.e.XL αf
Capacitive reactance is given by XC = 2πf1 C Ω i.e. XC α f1
q
Impedance Z = R2 + (XL − XC )2 i.e. Z varies from RC to R
to RL with frequency  
Power factor angle φ = tan−1 XL −XR
C
i.e. φ varies from +900
to 0 to −90 with frequency
Hence Power factor cos φ varies from leading to unity to lagging

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Resonance in RLC series circuit III

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Resonance in RLC series circuit IV

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Resonance in RLC series circuit V
Resonance frequency
At resonance frequency f = f0 Hence

XL = 2πf0 L

and
1
XC =
2πf0 C
At resonance XL = XC
1
2πf0 L =
2πf0 C
1
f02 =
2πLC

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Resonance in RLC series circuit VI

Resonance frequency is

1
f0 = √
2π LC
or
1
ω0 = √
LC

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Admittance
Admittance: Admittance is given by reciprocal of impedance.
1 1 R ∓ jX R ∓ jX R ∓ jX
Y = = × = 2 =
Z R ± jX R ∓ jX R +X 2 Z2
R jX
2
∓ 2 = (G ∓ jB) Ω−1
Y =
Z Z
−1
Conductance:(Ω ) It is the ratio of resistance to square of
impedance.
R
G= 2
Z
Conductance:(Simens) It is the ratio of reactance to square of
impedance.
X
B= 2
Z

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THANK YOU........

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