M3.

HYPOTHESIS AND
ANALYSIS

- KHAN SHAFIQUA
3.1.1 WHAT IS HYPOTHESIS?

Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of proposition

set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified
group of phenomena.

For example, consider statements like the following ones:

“Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in
creativity than students not receiving counselling”
to better understand hypothesis
Simply put, a hypothesis is an idea that can be tested based on the evidence available. A concept or
statement must be tested to be proven credible.

Parts of a Hypothesis: Independent and Dependent Variables

● an independent variable stands on its own and is not changed by other variables
● the dependent variable depends on other factors

How does the amount of makeup one applies affect how clear their skin is?

Here, the independent variable is the makeup, and the dependent variable is the skin. The variables
are important because they help determine the cause and effect. In this example, the hypothesis
could be:

The amount of makeup one wears correlates to how clear their skin is.

Therefore, this hypothesis must be tested before it can be proven correct.

Null Hypothesis
H0, proposes that two factors or groups are unrelated and that there is no difference between
certain characteristics of a population or process.

● There is no significant change in a person’s health during the times when they drink green
tea only or root beer only.
● There is no significant change in an individual’s work habits whether they get eight hours
or nine hours of sleep.
● There is no significant change in the growth of a plant if one uses distilled water only or
vitamin-rich water only to water it.

EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
 Alternative Hypothesis Examples
An alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1 or HA , is a claim that is contradictory to the null hypothesis.
Researchers will pair the alternative hypothesis with the null hypothesis in order to prove that there is no
relation. If the null hypothesis is disproven, then the alternative hypothesis will be accepted. If the null
hypothesis is not rejected, then the alternative hypothesis will not be accepted.

● A person’s health improves during the times when they drink green tea only, as opposed to root beer
only.
● Work habits improve during the times when one gets 8 hours of sleep only, as opposed to 9 hours of
sleep only.
● The growth of the plant improved during the times when it received vitamin-rich water only, as
opposed to distilled water only.

EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
3.2.2 BASIC CONCEPTS CONCERNING TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

(a)The null and alternative hypotheses are two competing claims that researchers weigh
evidence for and against using a statistical test:

● Null hypothesis (H0): There’s no effect in the population.

● Alternative hypothesis (Ha or H1): There’s an effect in the population.

(b) The level of significance: This is a very important concept in the context of
hypothesis testing. It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen
with great care, thought and reason.
(e) Two-tailed and One-tailed tests:

A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly
higher or lower than the hypothesised value of the mean of the population.
3.3.3 PROCEDURE FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING

(i) Making a formal statement: The step consists in making a formal statement of the
null hypothesis (H0 ) and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha ).

For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing capacity
of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypotheses as
under:
(ii) Selecting a significance level: The hypotheses are tested on a
pre-determined level of significance . Generally, in practice, either 5% level or
1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of
significance are:
(a) the magnitude of the difference between sample means;
(b) the size of the samples;
(c) the variability of measurements within samples; and
(d) whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional (A directional
hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say,
means).

(iii) Deciding the distribution to use: After deciding the level of significance,
the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling
distribution. The choice generally remains between normal distribution and the
t-distribution.
(iv) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value:
Another step is to select a random sample(s) and compute an appropriate value
from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant
distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.

(v) Calculation of the probability: One has then to calculate the

probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from
expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.
3.2.1 TESTS OF HYPOTHESES: Parametric and Non
parametric

The important parametric tests

are:
(1) z-test;
(2) t-test;
( 3) χ2 -test,
(4) F-test.
(1) z-test

A z-test is a statistical test to determine whether two

population means are different when the variances are
known and the sample size is large.

(2) t-test;
A t-test is an inferential statistic used to
determine if there is a statistically significant
difference between the means of two variables.
(3) χ 2 -test
A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a measure
of the difference between the observed
and expected frequencies of the
outcomes of a set of events or variables.

(4) F- test

F-test is based on F-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the

two-independent samples. This test is also used in the context of analysis
of variance (ANOVA) for judging the significance of more than two
sample means at one and the same time
3.2.2 HYPOTHESIS TESTING OF MEANS
3.2.3 HYPOTHESIS TESTING OF PROPORTION
3.2.4 HYPOTHESIS TESTING FOR COMPARING A VARIANCE TO
SOME HYPOTHESISED POPULATION VARIANCE

3.2.5 HYPOTHESIS TESTING OF CORRELATION

COEFFICIENTS

REFER NOTES OR E BOOK (ALL FORMULA BASED)

3.2.2 HYPOTHESIS TESTING OF MEANS
3.2.3 HYPOTHESIS TESTING OF PROPORTION
In case of qualitative phenomena, we have data on the basis of presence
or absence of an attribute(s).
With such data the sampling distribution may take the form of binomial
probability distribution
3.2.5 HYPOTHESES TESTING OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS
3.2.4 HYPOTHESIS TESTING FOR COMPARING A VARIANCE TO
SOME HYPOTHESISED POPULATION VARIANCE/ 3.3.2
CHI-SQUARE AS A TEST FOR COMPARING VARIANCE
CHI-SQUARE TEST
The chi-square test is an important test amongst the several
tests of significance developed by statisticians. Chi-square,
symbolically written as χ2 (Pronounced as Ki-square), is a
statistical measure used in the context of sampling analysis
for comparing a variance to a theoretical variance.
3.3.3 CHI-SQUARE AS A NON-PARAMETRIC TEST

As a test of goodness of fit– how well does assumed theoretical

distribution fit observed data
Basically how well sample can explain of population

<table value = considered as good fit and vice a versa

As a test of independence-
For eg we may want to know whether new medicine is effective
in controlling fever -> both attributes fever and medicine are
independent or not associated
< table value- Ho -> two variables are independent
3.3.4 CONDITIONS FOR THE APPLICATION OF χ2 TEST
3.3.5 STEPS INVOLVED IN APPLYING CHI-SQUARE TEST
3.4.1 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) WHAT IS ANOVA

This technique is used when multiple sample cases are

involved. As stated earlier, the significance of the difference
between the means of two samples can be judged through either
z-test or the t-test, but the difficulty arises when we happen to
examine the significance of the difference amongst more than
two sample means at the same time. The ANOVA technique
enables us to perform this simultaneous test and as such is
considered to be an important tool of analysis in the hands of a
researcher.
Examples of when you might want to test
different groups:

● A group of psychiatric patients are trying three

different therapies: counselling, medication and
biofeedback. You want to see if one therapy is
better than the others.
● A manufacturer has two different processes to
make light bulbs. They want to know if one
process is better than the other.
 Professor R.A. Fisher was the first man to use the term
‘Variance’ and, in fact, it was he who developed a very
elaborate theory concerning ANOVA

● Variance is a measurement of the spread between

numbers in a data set.
In particular, it measures the degree of dispersion of
data around the sample's mean
3.4.2 THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ANOVA

● ANOVA is to test for differences among the means

of the populations
● by examining the amount of variation within each of
these samples, relative to the amount of variation
between the samples.
 F is to be compared to the F-limit
F value we work out is equal or exceeds the F-limit value

● significant differences between the sample means.

 3.4.3 ANOVA TECHNIQUE
One-way (or single factor) ANOVA:

● to compare from one factor (unrelated) groups using the

F-distribution

F-ratio may be
worked out as under:
 SS=Sum of squares between

SS= Sum of squares within

Examples of when to use a one way ANOVA (extra information example)

Situation 1: You have a group of individuals randomly split into smaller

groups and completing different tasks. For example, you might be studying
the effects of tea on weight loss and form three groups: green tea, black tea,
and no tea.

Situation 2: Similar to situation 1, but in this case the individuals are split
into groups based on an attribute they possess. For example, you might be
studying leg strength of people according to weight. You could split
participants into weight categories (obese, overweight and normal) and
measure their leg strength on a weight machine.
3.4.4 UNDERSTANDING ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE
3.4.5 SHORT-CUT METHOD FOR ONE-WAY ANOVA
 3.4.6 TWO-WAY ANOVA

Two Way ANOVA, there are two

independent variables.

EXAMPLES
The agricultural output may be classified on the basis of
different varieties of seeds and also on the basis of different
varieties of fertilizers used.
For example, you might want to find out if there is an interaction between
income and gender for anxiety level at job interviews

Gender
Income factors/ categorical variables/ independent variables
Income level could be split into three levels: low, middle and high
income.

Gender could be split into three levels: male, female, and transgender.

The results from a Two Way ANOVA will calculate a main effect and an
interaction effect.

main effect- factor’s effect is considered separately

interaction effect, all factors are considered at the same time.

 For this example, those hypotheses would be:

H01: All the income groups have equal mean stress.

H02: All the gender groups have equal mean stress.

For multiple observations in cells, you would also be testing a third hypothesis:

H03: The factors are independent or the interaction effect does not exist.

An F-statistic is computed for each hypothesis you are testing.