HOW DOES MY SIGNAL GET FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER ?

Nirmala Kamble
Chapter 4 14 mks
 4.1 Concept of Propagation of Radio waves.
 4.2 Ground Wave Propagation
 4.3 Sky wave: Ionosphere layers, concept of actual
height and virtual height. Critical frequency, skip
distance ,skip zone , concept of fading,maximum
usable frequency, multiple hop sky wave
propagation .
 4.4 Space wave propagation: Line of sight(LOS)
multiple space wave propagation, optical and
radio horizon, shadow zones.
 4.5 Duct propagation(microwave space wave propag.)
 4.6 Troposphere scatter propagation
4.1 Concept of Propagation of Radio waves.
4.1 Concept of Propagation of Radio waves.

Wave propagation is any of the ways in which waves travel. With respect to the direction
of the oscillation relative to the propagation direction. It can be distinguished as
longitudinal wave and transverse waves.
For electromagnetic waves, propagation may occur in a vacuum as well as in a material
medium.
Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves as they travel, or are propagated, from
one point to another, or into various parts of the atmosphere.

The concept of propagation refers to the various ways by which an electromagnetic

(EM) wave travels from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. Propagation of
EM wave may also be regarded as a means of transferring energy or information from one
point (a transmitter) to another (a receiver).

The manner in which radio signals travel from a transmitting antenna to a receiving
antenna, such as ground wave, sky wave, direct wave, ground reflection, or scatter.
In theory, an EM wave can travel forever. Because they do not need a medium, EM waves
can pass through outer space, which is a near vacuum. Also, because they do not give up
energy in traveling, EM waves can cross the great distances that separate stars and
galaxies.
 Electro-magnetic waves and its components.
As shown the electric and magnetic field together is called electromagnetic
field/ wave. They are always perpendicular to each other as well as to the
direction of propagation of the waves.
They travel with the speed of light and reach the receiving antenna.
 Polarization- the orientation of EMW electrical component with respect to
earths surface.
Types of polarization

Vertical polarization- In this, the wave has its electric lines of force
perpendicular to the earths surface while its magnetic field is parallel to the
earths surface/GROUND. It is radiated by the antennas which are vertically
positioned/ polarized.
Ground wave, sky wave and space wave
 4.2 Ground Wave Propagation
 Ground Wave propagation is a method of radio wave propagation ,that uses the area
between the surface of the earth and the ionosphere for transmission. The ground
wave can propagate a considerable distance over the earth's surface particularly in the
low frequency and medium frequency portion of the radio spectrum. Ground wave
radio signal propagation is ideal for relatively short distance propagation on these
frequencies during the daytime. Sky-wave ionospheric propagation is not possible
during the day because of the attenuation of the signals on these frequencies caused
by the D region in the ionosphere. In view of this, lower frequency radio
communications stations need to rely on the ground-wave propagation to achieve
their coverage.
Advantages of Ground Wave Propagation
• 1. Atmospheric conditions do not effect the ground wave propagation.
• 2. If the transmitted power is large enough, then ground wave propagation has application in
communication.
• 3. These waves have the tendency to bend around the corners or obstructions during
propagation which makes them more efficient and also these are not affected by the change in
atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation
• 1. High-frequency waves cannot be transmitted as the energy losses are more because of the
absorption of energy in the earth’s atmosphere.
• 2. These are used to cover short ranges and also involves attenuation of waves as they interact
with the eddy currents produced by the surface of the earth. Thus limited range of frequency.
• 3. The antenna should be very tall at low operating frequencies.

Applications Ground Wave Propagation

• 1. These can be used for one-way communication from the military to submerged submarines
as they penetrate to a significant depth into seawater, navigation, maritime , cellular
communication.
• 2. AM (MW) , FM and television broadcasting can be done with the help of ground waves.
Angle of tilt
Angle of tilt
Sky wave propagation-Far above the earth, a part of our atmosphere , there are electrified layers
of gaseous particles which reflects radio waves back to the earth. There are several layers called
ionosphere subdivided as D, E , F1 and F2.The ionization of the upper parts of earths
atmosphere plays an important role in the propagation of radio waves specially at higher
frequencies. The atmosphere receives sufficient energy from sun , molecules are split into +ve
and –ve ions, which remains ionized .These layers are at different height and they reflect the
waves for communication.
In the sky wave propagation, the transmitted signal travels into the upper atmosphere where it
is bent, reflected back to the earth. This bending /reflection of the signal takes place due to the
presence of a layer called ionosphere in the upper atmosphere. The HF wave ( 3 Mhz to 30
Mhz) exhibits the effect more.
The angle of incidence at the ionosphere also decides whether the refraction will take place or
not.
Adv- 1. As it utilizes reflective property of ionosphere available above earth at higher
frequencies, it is most simple mode of propagation .
2. Provides continuous support in communications.
Disadv
1. Ionoshere presence varies during night time and day time respectively. Due to this, Sky
waves can travel longer or smaller distances, respectively there exist variation in signal
transmission in day and night.
2. Transmitter signal travels multiple hops before reaching the receiver. This reduces signal
strength considerably if distances are larger between transmitter and receiver antennas.
3. Long-distance propagation requires large sized antennas.

Applictions
1.TV transmission.
2.FM
Adv-
1. As it utilizes reflective property of ionosphere available above earth at higher
frequencies, it is most simple mode of propagation .
2. Provides continuous support in communications.
Disadv
1. Ionoshere is present near or far during night time and day time respectively.
Due to this, Sky waves can travel longer or smaller distances.
2. Transmitter signal travels multiple hops before reaching the receiver. This
reduces signal strength considerably if distances are larger between transmitter
and receiver antennas.
3. Long-distance propagation requires large sized antennas.
4. Due to the presence of the ionosphere near and far during night and day
respectively there exist variation in signal transmission in day and night.
Applictions
1. TV transmission
 Ionosphere and its effects

This is the upper portion of atmosphere which gets heated and ionized as it takes
large radiant energy from the sun.
The different layers varies in proportion such as temperature , density and
composition.
The ultraviolet ,α, β and ȣ radiation and also cosmic rays and meteors are the
ionizing agents for the ionosphere.
The D layer is the lowest existing at around 70 Km height, its ionization
depends on the altitude of the sun above the horizon , so it
disappears at night . It reflects VLF and LF waves and absorbs MF and
HF waves to some extend.

The E layer is at about 100 Km height , it also disappears at night.

Called as sporadic layer used for long distance communication.

The F1 layer exists at 180 Km height at day time and combines with F2
layer at night . It absorbs HF waves.

The F2 layer is most important reflecting medium for high frequency

radio waves , exists at 250 to 400 Km in day time. At night it falls to
height of 300Km , combining with F1 layer.
Definitions-
1. Virtual and actual path and height. As the wave is refracted, it bends down
gradually rather than sharply which gives the concept of virtual and actual height
as well as path.
2. Critical frequency and MUF
Critical frequency (Fc)- Of a layer is defined as the maximum frequency that
is returned back to the earth by that layer, when the wave is incident at an
angle 90°(normal ) to it.
Example the critical frequency for F2 layer is between 5 to 12 Mhz.

MUF- The maximum usable frequency is the highest frequency that can be
refracted by a given ionospheric layer and given distance . Frequencies
higher than the MUF will penetrate the Ionosphere and will escape into
space. It is best to choose a frequency just below the MUF .
MUF=critical frequency (Fc)/ cosѲ
= Fc * Sec Ѳ
Where ‘Ѳ’ is the critical angle.
 The MUF is the highest frequency which can
be used for sky wave propagation.
 Normal values of MUF varies from
8 Mhz to 35 Mhz.
3. Skip distance, skip zone/dead zone-The shortest distance from a transmitter ,
measured along the surface of the earth at which a sky wave of fixed frequency
returns back to the earth.
The Frequency should be greater than critical frequency Fc.
The skip distance can be kept constant by adjusting the angle of incidence Ѳ in
such a way that the wave should return back to the earth.It also decides the MUF.
4. Fading- Means fluctuations in the signal strength at a receiver.
The result of multiple path propagation can be the reduction of the EM
field intensity (using signal strength meter ) or its complete
disappearance. This phenomenon is called fading. Fading is caused by
short-term weakening of electromagnetic waves at the reception. As the
wave travels by different paths and reach the receiving antenna, they
may undergo subtraction of waves in fading.
Due to fading ,the signal strength at the receiver decreases thus affecting
the quality of reception.

Fading can be slow or rapid, it can be general or frequency selective. It is

high at higher frequencies.
One way to overcome fading is the use o AGC.
 5. Multiple hop propagation –Using single hop, max range of sky wave
propagation is restricted to 400 Km due to skip distance and curvature of the Earth.
So using multiple hop, the range of communication is increased by Repeaters-
amplify and increase the SNR(signal to noise ratio).
4.4 Space wave propagation :Line of sight ,multi-path space wave
propagation, optical and radio horizon, shadow zones.

The LOS /space wave/ direct wave is useful at higher frequencies above 30
Mhz because the sky wave and ground wave fail to transmit these frequencies.
Space wave is practically limited due to line of sight and also due to curvature
of the earth. So they travel in straight line and frequencies above 30 Mhz.
Due to straight line nature, these wave may get blocked due to curvature of
earth, so the antennas must be tall enough.
Applications-TV broadcasting, FM radio broadcasting, Microwave links.
 Advantages-
 These waves are capable for travelling from earth surface to the troposphere surface of earth
after reflecting from earth.

Disadv./ Limitations
• These waves are affected by the curvature of the earth.
• The propagation of these waves happens along the line of sight distance which is defined as the
distance between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna which is also known as
the range of communication.
Compare
Multiple path propagation-Practically to increase the range of
communication the signal received at the receiving antenna is not
due to direct ray but due to ground reflected ray . Such type of
reception is used in TV signal reception, the resultant signal
strength at the receiving antenna is the vector sum of direct and
reflected ray strengths at the receiver.
 4.5 Duct propagation (microwave space wave propag.)
In this region of troposphere, the higher frequencies or microwave
frequencies tend to refract back into the Earth's atmosphere, instead of
shooting into ionosphere, to reflect. These waves propagate around the
curvature of the earth even up to a distance of 1000km.
As the height above the earth increases( the air density decreases and
refractive index increases), a layer of warm air may be trapped above
cooler air, often over the surface of water.
The duct propagation is used for very high frequency in Ghz range.
4.6 Troposphere scatter propagation
This method of propagation uses the tropospheric
scatter phenomenon, where radio waves at UHF and SHF frequencies
are randomly scattered as they pass through the upper layers of
the troposphere. Radio signals are transmitted in a narrow beam aimed
just above the horizon in the direction of the receiver station.
 This method of propagation uses the tropospheric scatter phenomenon,
where radio waves at UHF and SHF frequencies are randomly scattered as
they pass through the upper layers of the troposphere. Radio signals are
transmitted in a narrow beam aimed just above the horizon in the direction of
the receiver station.
 One useful form of radio communications technology for applications where
path lengths of around 800 km are needed is known as tropospheric scatter
or troposcatter. It is a reliable form of radio communications link that can be
used regardless of the prevailing tropospheric conditions. Although reliable,
when using troposcatter, the signal strengths are normally very low.
Accordingly troposcatter radio communications links require high powers,
high antenna gains and sensitive receivers.
 Applications-
1. often used for commercial radio communications applications, normally on
frequencies above 500 MHz for over the horizon links.
2. It is ideal for remote telemetry, or other links where low to medium rate data
needs to be carried.( means of communication that is much cheaper than
using satellites.)
IONOSPHERE
 Question Bank
 CHAPTER 4
 1) Explain the properties of the D, E, F, F1 layer of ionosphere. List any
 4 characteristics of ground wave propagation
 2) Explain tropospheric scatter propagation with sketch.
 3) Define fading with respect to wave propagation.
 4) Compare sky wave and space wave propagation with respect to the
 following points - a) Frequency range b) effect of fading
 c) polarization d) application
 5) What is transverse electromagnetic wave and electromagnetic
 polarization? Explain types of polarization.
 6) Explain the following terms:
 a. Ground wave and sky wave propagation
 b. Skip zone and skip distance
 c. Actual height and virtual height
 d. Critical frequency and maximum usable frequency
 e. Fading, causes of fading
 f. Multipath propagation
 g. troposphere scatter propagation
 h. line of sight propagation
 7. Describe ionosphere on basis of following points:
 1. Layers with sketch 2.Layers with declaration.
 8. Describe skip distance? How the skip distance can be kept
 constant.
 9. Explain duct propagation and sky wave propagation with sketch
 and give its application.
 10. Compare ground wave, sky wave, and space wave ++propagation.
 11. Describe troposphere scatter propagation along with sketch in
 term of definition, advantages and application.