BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT 2024-25

TOPIC-

AIDS [AQUIRED IMMUNO DEFICIENCY

SYNDROME]
 CERTIFICATE

This is to clarify that P. YUKTHI,

ROLL.NO. OF CLASS XII OF
PM SHRI KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA AVNL,
EDDUMAILARAM, TELANGANA Has
successfully completed her project report
in biology on the topic “AIDS: AQUIRED
IMMUNO DEFICENCY SYNDROME” For the
partial fulfilment of AISSCE As prescribed
by the CBSE in the year 2024-2025.

H.T.NO:

Signature of the guide

[MRS.BHARATI]

Signature of the Signature of the

internal examiner external examiner
 Acknowledgement

I’m very grateful to my guardian Mrs

Bharathi for her involvement in this
project by providing useful inputs
and timely suggestions .my parents
also played a key role in shaping up
this project nicely and I convey my
special thanks to them.
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION TO AIDS
2. THE CAUSATIVE AGENT [ HIV ]
3. MODES OF TRANSMISSION OF HIV
4. INFECTION PROCESS OF HIV
5. PROGRESSION OF AIDS
6. DIAGNOSIS OF HIV
7. TREATMENT OPTIONS FOR HIV/AIDS
8. PREVENTION OF HIV/AIDS
9. SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES
SURROUNDING HIV/AIDS
10.GLOBAL STATASTICS AND FUTURE
GOALS
11.BIBLIOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION TO AIDS
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a life-threatening
condition caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). HIV attacks
the immune system, weakening its ability to fight infections. Over time,
the virus destroys CD4 cells, leaving the body vulnerable to
opportunistic infections and certain cancers. AIDS is the final stage of
HIV infection, where the immune system is severely compromised.
Although there is no cure, antiretroviral therapy (ART) can manage the
infection and prevent progression to AIDS. Early diagnosis, prevention,
and safe practices are crucial in controlling the spread of HIV and
improving the lives of those affected.

HISTORY OF AIDS
Discovery of AIDS (1981)
↓
Reports of rare infections and cancers in young men by CDC in
the U.S.
↓
Cause Unknown (Early 1980s)
↓
HIV Identified as Cause of AIDS (1983)
↓
Global Spread of the Epidemic (1980s - 1990s)
↓
Stigma, Fear, and Discrimination
↓
Development of First Antiretroviral Drug (AZT - 1987)
↓
Advancement in HIV Treatments (1990s - 2000s)
↓
Improved Life Expectancy with ART (Antiretroviral Therapy)
↓
Ongoing Global Efforts: Prevention, Education, and Treatment
(Present)
↓
Hope for a Cure and Vaccine in the Future

The Causative Agent

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the retrovirus responsible

for causing AIDS. It specifically targets and weakens the immune
system by infecting vital cells like CD4 T-cells, which play a key role
in defending the body against infections.

Structure of HIV:
HIV is an enveloped virus,
meaning it has a lipid
membrane that surrounds its
core. This envelope contains
glycoproteins (such as gp120)
that help the virus attach to
and enter host cells. Inside the
envelope is the viral core,
which contains:

 Two strands of RNA

as its genetic material
 Enzymes critical for its
replication, including
reverse transcriptase,
integrase, and protease.

Belonging to the Family of Retroviruses:

HIV is part of the retrovirus family, which is unique because these

viruses use reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that converts their
RNA into DNA after entering a host cell. This is the reverse of the
usual flow of genetic information (DNA to RNA), making
retroviruses distinct. Once HIV’s RNA is converted into DNA, it
integrates into the host's genome, allowing it to replicate within the
host cell.
This ability to insert its genetic material into the host’s DNA is what
makes HIV difficult to cure, as the virus can remain dormant in cells
and reactivate later.

Modes of Transmission of
HIV
HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, can be transmitted through specific bodily fluids. Here are the primary
modes of transmission:

1. Sexual Transmission:
o Unprotected Sex: Engaging in
unprotected sexual intercourse, whether
vaginal, anal, or oral, with a person
infected with HIV increases the risk of
transmission.
o Body Fluids: HIV can be transmitted
through the exchange of bodily fluids
during sexual activity, such as semen,
vaginal secretions, and pre-ejaculate.

2. Blood-to-Blood Transmission:
o Sharing Needles: Sharing needles or
syringes contaminated with HIV-infected
blood is a primary mode of transmission
among people who inject drugs.
o Medical Procedures: In rare cases,
HIV can be transmitted through
contaminated medical equipment if
proper sterilization procedures are not
followed.
o Transfusions: Blood transfusions from
an infected donor can transmit HIV, but this risk is extremely
low in most developed countries due to rigorous screening
procedures.

3. Mother-to-Child Transmission (MTCT):

o During Pregnancy: HIV can be
transmitted from an infected mother to
her child during pregnancy.
o During Birth: The virus can also be
transmitted during childbirth.
 o Breastfeeding: HIV can be transmitted through breast milk.

Important Note: HIV cannot be transmitted through casual contact, such as hugging,
kissing, sharing food or utensils, or swimming in the same pool as an infected person.

Infection Process of HIV

1. Entry into the Body: HIV typically enters the body through exposure to
infected bodily fluids, most commonly during unprotected sexual contact,
sharing of contaminated needles, or from mother to child during
childbirth or breastfeeding.

2. Targeting Immune Cells: Once inside the body, HIV specifically targets
the immune system, particularly helper T-lymphocytes (TH cells),
which are crucial for the immune response. The virus attaches to these
cells using its glycoprotein (gp120) and gains entry. Macrophages,
which play a role in the immune defence, can also be infected.

3. Role of Reverse Transcriptase: After entering the host cell, HIV

releases its RNA genome along with the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
This enzyme converts the viral RNA into DNA through a process called
reverse transcription. The newly formed viral DNA is then integrated into
the host cell's genome by the enzyme integrase.

4. Replication of the Virus: The integrated viral DNA can either remain
dormant or lead to the production of new viral particles. When the host
cell is activated, it replicates the viral DNA along with its own, resulting
in the synthesis of viral proteins and RNA. These components assemble
to form new virions, which bud off from the host cell.

5. Destruction of Immune Cells: As HIV replicates, it progressively

destroys CD4 T-lymphocytes. This depletion of helper T-cells weakens
the immune system, making the body increasingly vulnerable to
 opportunistic infections and diseases, leading to the development of
AIDS.

This process highlights the mechanisms through which HIV compromises the
immune system, emphasizing the importance of prevention, early diagnosis, and
effective treatment to manage HIV infection.
Progression of AIDS
Initial Symptoms:

In the early stages of HIV infection, individuals may experience a range of common
symptoms, including:

 Fever: Often one of the first signs, resembling flu-like symptoms.

 Diarrhoea: Frequent loose stools can occur as the immune system
begins to weaken.
 Weight Loss: Unexplained weight loss is common due to the
body's struggle to maintain health.

Later Stages:

As the infection progresses, the following changes occur:

 Decline of Helper T-Lymphocytes: There is a gradual reduction

in CD4 T-lymphocytes, which play a crucial role in the immune
system. A significant drop in these cells severely weakens the
body's defences.
 Vulnerability to Opportunistic Infections: With a compromised
immune system, patients become susceptible to various
opportunistic infections, such as:
o Mycobacterium: This includes infections like tuberculosis
(TB), which can be life-threatening.
o Viruses: Individuals may contract viruses such as
cytomegalovirus (CMV) and herpes simplex.
o Fungi: Infections like candidiasis (thrush) and cryptococcosis
can occur.
o Parasites: Diseases caused by parasites, such as
toxoplasmosis, are also more likely.

Summary

The progression from initial symptoms to advanced stages of AIDS highlights the critical
impact of HIV on the immune system and the heightened risk of opportunistic infections that
can arise as the condition worsens. Timely diagnosis and treatment are essential for managing
the disease and maintaining health.
Diagnosis of HIV

ELISA Test:

 The Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a widely used screening test

 Process:
o A blood sample is
collected from the patient.
o The sample is exposed to
HIV antigens coated on a
plate.
o If HIV antibodies are
present, they will bind to
the antigens.
o An enzyme-linked
secondary antibody is added, which attaches to the bound
antibodies.
o A substrate is then introduced, leading to a colour change if the
enzyme is present, indicating a positive result.
 Significance: ELISA is sensitive and specific, making it a reliable first-
line test for HIV screening.

Other Diagnostic Tools:

1. Western Blotting:
o This test is used to confirm the presence
of HIV antibodies following a positive
ELISA result.
o It separates proteins from the HIV virus
and identifies specific antibodies in the
blood.
o A positive result indicates the presence of
HIV antibodies, confirming infection.

2. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR):

o PCR detects the actual viral RNA in the
blood, rather than antibodies.
o This method is particularly useful for
diagnosing HIV in infants and early stages
of infection when antibodies may not yet
be detectable.
 o PCR is highly sensitive and allows for the quantification of the viral load,
helping to monitor disease progression and treatment effectiveness.

Treatment Options for

HIV/AIDS
Antiretroviral Therapy (ART):

 How ART Works:

o Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) is the main treatment for HIV. It
involves taking a combination of medications that work to
suppress the replication of HIV in the body.
o ART targets various stages of the HIV lifecycle, preventing the
virus from multiplying and reducing the viral load in the blood
to undetectable levels.
o By lowering the amount of virus, ART helps to protect the
immune system, allowing patients to live longer, healthier
lives.
 Prolonging Life and Reducing Symptoms:
o Although ART does not cure HIV, it greatly improves the
quality of life by reducing symptoms and preventing the
progression to AIDS.
o ART also helps reduce the risk of transmission of the virus to
others.

Limitations of Treatment:

 No Cure for AIDS:

o Despite advancements in treatment, there is currently no cure
for AIDS. The virus remains in the body even during
treatment.
 Treatment Focus:
o The goal of ART is to manage the disease and prolong life, not
to eliminate HIV entirely.
o Lifelong adherence to medication is required, and regular
monitoring of viral loads is necessary to ensure the
effectiveness of treatment.

ART has transformed HIV from a fatal disease to a manageable

chronic condition, but research is ongoing to find a permanent
cure.
Prevention of HIV/AIDS
Safe Practices:

 Safe Sexual Practices: Using condoms during sexual intercourse is one of the most
effective ways to prevent HIV transmission. Limiting the number of sexual partners
and ensuring partners are tested for HIV also reduces risk.

Safe Blood Transfusions:

 Screening Blood Products: In most developed and many developing countries, strict
screening protocols for blood donations have significantly reduced the transmission of
HIV through transfusions. Blood products are rigorously tested for HIV and other
infections before use.

Use of Disposable Needles:

 Sterile Medical Practices: Using disposable syringes and needles in medical settings
prevents the risk of HIV transmission through contaminated equipment. This is
especially crucial for intravenous drug users and healthcare providers.

Mother-to-Child Transmission Prevention:

 Antiretroviral Treatment for Pregnant Women: HIV-positive mothers can

significantly reduce the risk of transmitting the virus to their babies during pregnancy,
childbirth, or breastfeeding by undergoing antiretroviral therapy (ART). In many
cases, this reduces the transmission rate to below 1%.

Public Awareness Campaigns:

 Global Education Efforts: Organizations like the National AIDS Control

Organisation (NACO) in India and the World Health Organization (WHO) run
public awareness campaigns to educate people about HIV prevention. These
campaigns promote safe practices, encourage testing, and reduce stigma around the
disease.
Social and Ethical Issues
Surrounding HIV/AIDS
Stigma and Discrimination:

 Social Stigma: HIV/AIDS is often associated with significant social

stigma, leading to discrimination against those infected. People living
with HIV may face isolation, rejection, or mistreatment in their
communities, workplaces, and even healthcare settings.
 Compassion and Understanding: It is crucial to foster compassion and
understanding towards HIV-positive individuals. Stigmatizing behaviour
only worsens their quality of life and deters others from getting tested or
seeking treatment. Education about how HIV is transmitted and the
realities of living with the disease can help reduce stigma.

Legal and Ethical Considerations:

 Protecting Rights and Privacy: HIV-positive individuals have a right to

privacy, especially concerning their health status. It is ethically essential
to protect their confidentiality, particularly in medical and workplace
settings.
 Non-Discrimination Laws: Many countries have enacted laws to protect
HIV-positive individuals from discrimination in employment, housing,
and access to healthcare. Ensuring these rights are upheld is crucial for
creating an inclusive society.

Conclusion

 The fight against HIV/AIDS remains one of the most critical global health challenges.
Continued research is essential for advancing treatments, potentially discovering a
cure, and improving the quality of life for those living with HIV. Prevention through
education, safe practices, and widespread awareness campaigns is vital to reducing
transmission rates. It is a collective responsibility for society, healthcare systems, and
governments to work together in managing and preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS.
 By reducing stigma, ensuring equal access to treatment, and providing public
education, we can build a more compassionate and informed world, ultimately
controlling the epidemic's impact.
GLOBAL HIV/AIDS STATISTICS
AND
FUTURE GOALS

From 2000 to 2023, global HIV data shows progress: people living with HIV rose to 39.9
million, while new infections dropped from 2.8 to 1.3 million. AIDS-related deaths fell
significantly, and antiretroviral therapy access expanded to 30.7 million. Funding
fluctuated, reaching $19.8 billion in 2023, supporting these advancements.
This chart shows the global trend of AIDS-related deaths from 1990 to 2023, with a peak
around 2004–2005, followed by a steady decline due to improved treatments. The 2025
target aims to reduce deaths further. Progress reflects increased antiretroviral therapy
and effective healthcare interventions, though challenges remain to reach the goal.

This chart shows the global trend of new HIV infections from 1990 to 2023, with a target
for 2025. New infections peaked in the mid-1990s, followed by a steady decline. The 2025
target aims to further reduce new infections, aligning with global prevention goals.
This chart displays the estimated annual number of children acquiring HIV by region from
2010 to 2023. Eastern and Southern Africa show the highest infection rates, followed by
Western and Central Africa. Overall, a gradual decline in new infections among children is
observed globally across all regions.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
NCERT BIOLOGY CLASS 12

WIKIPEDIA

WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION

https://www.who.int/teams/global-hiv-hepatitis-and-stis-
programmes/hiv/strategic-information/hiv-data-and-
statistics

UNAIDS ORGANISATION
https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet

KFF ORGANISATION
https://www.kff.org/global-health-policy/fact-sheet/the-
global-hiv-aids-epidemic/

AMFAR ORGANISATION
https://www.amfar.org/about-hiv-aids/statistics-
worldwide/

BOOK –
The Urgency of Now: AIDS at a Crossroads