coro Sd eno Hema i Ce rer ey eiore eee ong ee al ta ror ee oc ee ec rect ety Soe ea ey Pasesiiny eee ene ap Benen Onan ameketd Gk Aai ere ee Ciapmtataics re cca! eres Creo reer uw ana — far cepa vowmsres OD Caealneer dere | | | HMA MRR | Ske Ske 7 3 een etree Tecan | | tl See oul See ee a ane econySp, S. PUROS He THAM An Ay |EE ~ ELECTRICAL MACHINES - I “1As per Anna University Sjllabus from 2011-2012) R. SELVARASU Assistant Professor Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering ‘Arunai Engineering College Thiruvannamalai Sri Krishna itech Publishit Pvt. Ltd. ublishing Company —|@ All rights reserved by the publiser. First Edition: December 2008 Second Edition: December 2011, “Thal beck: or pat ito albu lnok Ue HPgoded lf lay Yost einen panulsioe fe ut, : € 250/- ISBN: 978-93-80659-70-4 For copies please contact: Sri Krishna { blishing Company Pvt. Ltd 401763, Elangovan Salai Mogappair East, Chennai - 600 037. Phone: ‘Off; 044.2656 7161, 2656 4400 Call: 9444542032, Fax: +91-044-2656 7161 Email: skp_enggi999@ yahoo.com wow srikrishnapublications.com Typesetting at: Aksharaa Muthra Aalayam, Chennai 18, Ph: 2436-4303, ‘The authors take great pleasure in introducing the text book ‘Hlectrical Machines - 1." The book has been prepared with the intention to help the IV-Semester BEE students of Anna University and t enable them to understand the fundamental concepts of Magnetic Circuits, Transformers, ‘Blectromechanical Energy conversion. Basic concepts in Rotating Machines and DC Machines. ‘The book has been presented in a simple style to enable them to Grasp the subject. This book (S student-riendly, At the end of each untt, numerous selued problems, PartB questions land Part-A questions along with the answers (extracted from various university. question papers) have been supplemented. The authors invite constructive erticism aid fiulful suggestions from Faculty as well as Student community for the future betterment of the text book: The authors would lke to record thelr tnmense gratitude to the Management, Principal and HOD-SEE of Arunai Engineering College, Thiruvannamalat ‘The authors also express their heartfelt thanks to their department colleagues for thelr timely help cnd kind. co-operation. The authors extend thelr cordial gratefulness to their family members Jor thetr whole hearted encouragement. Last, but not least, the authors shower their special thanks to the publishers “Sri Krishna Hitech Publishing Company Pot. Ltd." and thetr team members for their efforts to bring out this book ‘Successfilly at the right time Jor the beneft of the students AUTHOR GiANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI - 600 025 SYLLABUS. Electrical machine types - Magnetic circuits Inductance - Statcally ‘and Dynamically induced EMF - Torque - Hysteresis, Core losses = AC operation of magnetic ctreuts. Construction - principle of operation ~ equivalent circuit - losses - testing - efficiency and voltage regulation - auto transformer - three hase connections - parallel operation of transformers - tap changing ‘Energy tn magnetic systems - fleld energy, coenergy and mechanical force ~ singly and multiply excited systems, Generated voltages in ac and de machines mmf of distributed windings ~ magnetic field's i rotating machines = rotating mmf waves - torque tn ae and de machines, Construction - EMF arel torque - etreuit modet-armature reaction commutation - methods of excitation - characteristics of generators characteristics of motors - starting and speed controb-testing and ‘efficiency ~ parallet operation. os Electrical Machines: Types | 1.2.) Magnetic Cire 12 13, Blectromagnetic Induction . gy hie 14, Nature of Induced EMF. 7 wd 1.5, Selflnductance 116 16. Mutual Inductance 1s. 17. Coefficient of Coupling, (K). 119 18. Bifecive Inductance of Series Connection 120 1.9, Magnetisation Characteristics (0) Hysteresis Loop 122. 110 Core Lostes 5. ..s.seeeeee 12a LAL AC Operation of Magnetic Circuits 126 ‘Worked Examples. 7 iri by University ParA Questions and Answers ..<. : 1a University Part-B Questions ae r 147 2.1. Introduction . i 24 22, Working Principle of a Transformer. 24 23, Clasification of Transformer... 22 24, Transformer Construction 7 2a 25° Transformers Based on Cooling «- 2s 26. eal ‘Transformer 20 2.7. EMF Equation of a Transformer. 28 2.8. Voltage Transformation Ratio 2.10 ”29. Transformer on No-Load 240 Transformer on Load 211 Equivalent Resistance and Reactance 2.2 Equivalent Circuit. tee 213 Voltage Regulation 2.14 Losses in a Transformer. 215. fcieney of a Transformer. 2.16 Transformer Tests 217 Auto Transformer 218. Invoduction - Three Phase Transformer. 2.19 Parallel Operations of Transformer. 2.20 Tap Changing Worked Examples University Por-A Questions and Answers University Par-B Questions .. 3.1. Principles of Eletromechanical Energy Conversion 32. Energy in Magnetic Systems 33. CoBnery 34. Fleld Energy and Mechanical Force 35. Singly Excited System Seas 36, Multiply - Excited Magnetic Feld Systems Worked Examples University Par-A Questions and Answers University Par-B Questions . 42. Space Wave of a Single Coil 43. MMF Space Wave of-one Phate of Distributed Winding 44, Rotating Magnetic Field 43. Torque in Round Rotor Machine Worked Examples University Par-A Questions and Answers. 5.1. Introduetion. 6...» 52. Generator Principle . 53. Construction of DC Generator. 54, Types of Armature Winding 5.5. EMF Equation of a DC Generator : 5.6. Types of DC Generators (Methods of Excitation) 517. Separately Excited Generators... 58. Self Excited Generator 59. Characteristics of DC Generstors te 5.10 Characteristics of Sepaately-excted Generator. 5:11 Characteristics of DC Shunt Generaoy 5.12 Characteristics of DC Series Generator 5.13. Characteristics of DC Compound Generator S.ld Armature Reaction 5.15 Commutation in D.C. Machines sar 32 513 ss 5:16 317 sat 52 24 5.25 5325.16 Losses in a DC Machine. Condition for Maximum Eficiency Applications of DC Generators 5.19 DC Motors 543 320 3.45 521 522 523 Back EMF ‘Types of DC Motors ‘Torque and Speed Equations De Motor Characteristics $55 5.24 Applications of DC Motors .. 525 $26 327 Starting of DC Motors (Necessity of a Starter) Types of DC Motor Starters Testing of DC Machines 5.28 329 Speed Control of DC Motors Parallel Operation of DC Generators Worked Examples 578 University PartA Questions and Answers . University Part-B Questions @ ELECTRICAL MACHINES TYPES {An electrical machine converts energy fom one form to other. If it converts mechanical energy into electzical energy it is called « generator. On the other hand, if it converts electrical energy in to mechanical energy, itis called a motor. Since there are 1wo types of converters D.C and A.C. the machines are also of two types namely AC & DC machines ‘The broad classification of electrical machines ean be made. as given below. ig Hestticl Machines SS AC. Machines DC. Machines = | 5 Tresfomer AC Gsnetor (Go Alera esol on Construction Bunedon L.Coweype woking onion 2Sbel ype Slate pe, 2. Thre ps, Saiarpole SmoothElectical Machines - | 2 terion Meche «1 Dc. MACHINES ‘A magnetic circuit provides path for magnetic ux, jst as an electrical circuit provides 2 path for the low of curt 1.2.1 Basic Definition of Magnetje Circut Magnet ‘A substance that attracts the iron pieces and pieces of some other metals is called ‘magnet. A magnet can‘be classified into permanent and temporary magnet. Gi) Permanent Magnet ‘This is made up of cobalt, steel or tungsten steel. It is used in moving coil instruments, ‘nergy meters (as a brake magnet), loud speakers, microphones ete. (i) Temporary Magnet It is also called an electromagnet. The material used here is soft iron of silicon steel A soft iron piece with a coil acts as-a magnet as long as current flows through the coil. Tt is used in electrical machines such as motor and generator. nrocuoion 13 (iv) Magnetic Lines of Force ‘The imaginary magnetic lines which travel from north pole to south pole outside the magnet, and south pole to north pole, inside the magnet are called magnetic lines of force. SS a= a Fg tt (0) Magnetic Field ‘The region around which the magnetic lines of force acts is called magnetic fick. (vi), Magnetic Flux (#) ‘The total number of lines of force in the magnetic field is called magnetic flux. It is denoted by 9", and its unit is weber Magnetic Flux Density (2) ‘The magnetic flux passing through unit cross section is called lux density. It is denoted by “2 I 6 is magnetic fox in webers B is fax density in Whim? then $ wom? (vill) Magneto-Motive Foree (MIME) is the driving force required to drive the magnetic flux through @ magnetic circuit. ‘The product Nis called magneto-motive fore. lis unit is Ampere tums, MMF =N7(A7) (ix), Reluctance (5) It is the property of magnetic mateial by which it opposes the establishment of magnetic flux. It is defined as the ratio of magneto-inotive force to the flux. It is denoted by $ and its unit is ampere turns/Wb, unt rrp ~ flux 9 ——~ Reluctance,14 Elecral Machines -| (9) Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance and is a measure of the case with which flux can rats through the material, Its unit is WHAT. at Pecmeance = (WH/AT) (xi) Magnetic Field Strength (£1) It is given by the force experienced by unit north pole placed at that point. It is denoted by “H. If °9 is the fux in webers “Fis the force in Newton (Nw) His the field strength in Nw/Wb. 8 His also given by H=—2_ NwiWo Bathe (id) Permeability ‘The magnetic conductivity of iron as compared o that of air is called permeability. “The absoluie pormesbility "x" of a medium is given by where B- flux density in Wo/m? H1= magnetic field srength in Nw/Wb Wt is also given by the equation B= Hay where y= 4n x10" 7 HIM and p= Relative permeability ‘The relative permeability u, of a medium is, given by a2 a ‘where * ‘ux ‘density ini the mediuim under consideration in Wb/m? Bo= flux density in vacuum, ‘The value of u,=1 for sir, free space or vacuum, 1.2.2 Analysis of Magnetic Circuit ‘A magnetic circuit is defined as, the closed path taced by the magnetic tines of force ‘The magnetic cireut can be sub divided into ©. Simple magnetic circuit i) Composite: magnetic circuit (il) Parallel magnetic circuit Simple Magnetie Circuit 1 consists of a closed iron ring wound with » magnetising coil as shown in fig 1.2 ‘The magnetic flux is produced by the coil. Thus the coil acts as x source of mmf and the reluctance for the establishment of magnetic flux is offered by'the iron ring, ‘The toroidal ring with a coil of “N° tums Let current through the coil ‘ux in the iron sing (Wb) ‘Area of eross section of the ring (ni), length of the magnetic peth in. metres B= ax 10-7 HIM ,= Relative permeability of the ring Fig, 12 Simple Magno Creut ‘The magnetic lox density weit $n also. B= Hoi A Whi? magnetic field strength in Am,(rrocuction 1 7 ected Macias ston Les su a atin N= Number of tus inthe ci ben, M 2 B= ait Total ant = 7 (AT) Sou y Mt . Sangyll Total reluctance = $ nine Total reuctano, $= 54 #55485 a_i Total mmf_ af ‘Foal Mex @= Teal reluctance ‘Total mmf = Toial flux (6) x Total reluctance (5) dats wa The denominator ——-=§ where * tA (ii) Composite Magnetic Cireuit (a) Series Magnetic Cireuit Practically the magnetic cieuits are formed by more than one material, with different permeability. Such materials ean have various Jength and cross sectional ares. This circuit is calfed as composite cireuit. When those materials are connected one after the other to form 2 magnetic circuit is callod to be series magnetic circu is called the reluctance of the cireuit, ‘We know that, reluctance, =9(S, +5245) gh A 4 b ts Hoa Ai” Habla Aa ” Hola As } $5 ra mana Total mont = Hy, + Hal + Hy From this derivation, for a sevies circuit, (The magnetic flux through all muterals is same. (Gi) The equivalent reluctance (S) is the sum of individual material reluctance (say, SieS2-0) Fig. 1.8 Series Magneto Croult (ii) The total mmf required is sum of the mmf"s of individual material, iL1 Etec! Machines = (ii) Series Circuit with air Gap Fig. 14 Series Magnatic Circuit with Ar Gap ‘Total reluctance, $= 5) +5;+53 +5, But, for air = 15 cr a abn AL" Hatha Aa ” Hotis s Ho Ap ‘Total mt 2 a ( / ) ht e{ et of San |of Bey] | Hote (Yolie watts (Ho) ‘Total snmf = Hylh + Hal + Hyly+ He We know that, Flux density, B (iil) Paralte! Magnetic Circuits |A magnetic cireut is said 10 be parallel connected if ic has more than one closed path for ux, ‘At point B, flux have two paths flux ¢ passes through the path BE (ii) flux @3 passed through the path BCFE. L__ Irmoovetion 19 a Lj Fig. 15 Paralel Magnetic Celt So, 61 = O25 Let S, = Reluctance of path ABED Sq = Reluctance of path BE 55 = Reluctance of BCFE (us (at) ‘aml mmf for path BCFE 1=018) +0252 on NL = 51 +0353, where Hodis As 1.2.3 Magnetic Leakage ‘The flux that follows an undesired path is called the leakage flux. To utilize the magnetic fax established by the magnetic material, we provide an air gap. The flux in the air gap is called useful flux The flux which does not pass through the air gap, cannot be utilized and hence it is considered as leakage flux which can be determined by a compass. Though, this leakage flux does not affect the efficiency of the clectrcal machine directly, it does increase the weightTT” 10 tocical Machines = | and cost and hence it is undesirable. It cannot be totally avoided but can be minimised by winding the exciting coils of closely as possible to the air gap. Fg. 1.6 Magnotic Leakage “Hf @,= Total flux established in the iron path 9) leakage fun 94.= wseful (air gap) fox. The rtio ® is cated coeticiet of magnetic leakage 2 value varies from 1.15 t0 1.25, The spreading of magnetic fox in the air gap is called fringing 1.2.4 Fringing Effect At an airgap in & magnetic core, the flux fringes out into neighbouring air path as shown in Fig. 1.6). These being of reluctance comparable to that of the gap. The result is non uniform flux density, inthe airgap, enlargement of the effecive ai-eap area and a decrease in the average gap flux density. The fringing effect also disturbs the core flux patterns tw some depth near the gap. The effect of fringing increases with the air-gup length. E-ee™ ES) om Ea = Fig, 16 (a) Fux Fringing at Al-gap inrosuoton 1st 125 Stacking Factor Magnetic cores are male up of thin, lightly insulated laminations to reduce power loss dive teddy current phenomenon Net rot setiona area ofthe Smoking fac, = S22 02nd bythe mages ater stacking factor should be between 05~ 095 1.26 Kirchoff's Laws for Magnetic Circuit © Kirchoffs flux Law ‘The total magnetic flux arriving at any junetion in a magnetic total magnetic lux leaving that junction circuit is equal tthe toy At a junction, 3=0. At junction 8, 0, = Fa. 17 (i) Kirchott's MMF Law ‘The resultant mmf around @ closed magnetic citeuit is equal to the algebrie sum of the product of the flux and the reluctance of eich path of the closed circuit i, for 2 closed reuit. (Refer above Fig. 1.7) Zmmf=29s 12.7 Comparison of Electric and Magnetic Circuit () Sienitarties ie eee re (cleo defined as magnetic circuit electric circuit 2. MMP is he criving force inthe magnetic Emf isthe driving force in an clic iru (Uni is Ampere turns) |eicuit (Unit is voles)T_ [The magncie Wines will decide the Tc |The clecrons Wi deide he caren 5. [Opposing force for flux is reluctanes. ‘Opposing force for current is resistance] $= Unc is ATW 2 Us i tim (a ais 6. iat Fos = Fuctanes 7. [Reciprocal of reluctance is permeance ()Disiuitariies [The flux will be just established in the circuit, because of magnetomotiveforee.| whole magnetic circuit But it will not actually flow in the! magnetic circuit _ >, | Enesey is required to create the flux and Eneray 1s required to ereate and) maintain ot {© maintain it the current Magnetic lines of lux are closed. They [Electric lines of flux is not closed. They] 3. |fMow from W¥ pole to S pote externally and|start from positive charge and end on ___|5 pole 10. pole internally. negative charge. _| 14, | There Is no continuous consumption of] There is continuous consumption | magnetic energy. lectical energy. e ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION ‘We have seen the magnetic effects of an electric current. Then it was Michael Faraday who made attempis, to got emf from magnetic flux. This is called 0 be electromagnetic induction 1.3.1. Law of Electromagnetic Induction @ Faraday’s law Whenever the magnetic flux linking « conduetor changes, an emf is always induced in it The magnitude of induced emf is proportional to the-rate of change of flux linkages induced emf in V. N= Number of turns AO. sate of change of flux (i) Lenz's law ‘This law states that any induced emf ill circulate a current in such a direction so as te oppose the cause producing it Experiment Fig 18 ‘Now, consider a coil of “N” number of tums and a permanent magnet near by it Let the terminals of the coil is connected to a Galvanometer, (G). ‘When the coil is stationary and the permanent magnet is moved closer to the coil the flox linking the coil will vary. Hence an emf will be induced and there will be a deflection in the Galvanometer, On the other hand, whea the magnet is moved away from the coil, the falvanometer will give deflection in the opposite direction, Quicker the movernent of the magnet, greater will be the induced emf and deflection will be greater. ‘The same effect can be observed when we move the coil, with a stationary magnet. rom the above discussion we can say that, for getting an induced emf, we must have @ A coit (A magnetic field i) Relative motion between coil and magnetic flux, Note: There will be induced emf, when the flux linking the coil changes continuously If the flux tinkage is constant, the induced emf will be zero, Galvanometer il not give deflection.)loots! Machines @® NATURE OF INDUCED EMF We can get induced emf from a conductcr, whenever there is change in flux, with that conductor. ‘We can obiain this from two methods. So, te emf is classified as, @ Dynamically induced emf and a, ically induced emf, 1.4.1 Dynamically Induced emf When the induced emf is from the mechanical movement of coil with respect t0 flux, (or) movement of magnet with respect to stationary col, hen itis called Dynamically induced emf, Lig: DC generator, AC generator. The induced emf will be given by, Blvsin (V), Direction of dynamically induced emf is found by Hleming’s Right Hand Rule. Fleming's Right Hand Rule Statement ‘Sotch the fore finger, middle finger and thumb of right hand mutually perpendicular to cach other, If fore finger represents the direction of magnetic field, thumb represents the direction of mation of conductor then the middle Finger will represent the dirvetion of induced cet. trodion 115 1.42 Statically Induced EMF The induced EMI in a coil without any mechanical movement of coil (or) magnet is called stationary induced emf (or) statically induced emf. ‘This is achieved by changing the flux associated with @ coil, by increasing (or) deeasing the current through it rapidly. ‘Statically induced emf is further classified (@)_ Self induced emf (©) Mutually induced emt (a) Self Induced Emme In the set up shown in Fig. (1.10), the coil is earring @ curent of 1, amps. Due to this curomt, ux will be established. Fig. 110 When this current is varied by varying the value of resistance, the Mux linking the coil also changes. So, an emf will be induced. This is called self-induced emf. Simply, the emf induced in coil due to the change of its own Mux linked with itis called self induced emf, ‘The self induced emf will be induced sll the current in the coil is changing and also is diction ean be obtained from Lenz's law: (6) Mutually induced emt Consider 2 coils (Say Aandi) which are’ kept near by. ‘The change in flux in coil A will change the flux linking with coil B. Due to this an fmf will be induced in coil B. This induced emf is called as mutually induced emf. Simply, the emf induced in a circuit due to the change in the near by circuit is called + mutually induced emt.116 Fg it LL, the Gx in coil Ais linking the coil 2. So, when the curent flowing trough coil A (hy) ie varied, then 4 willbe vated, which intr changes yz, the fox linking coil A and coil #8. Due to this variation i the fx linkage, emf willbe induced in coil 8 and the galvanometer pointer wil defect in one direction. The cuent 1; is varied by varying the resince R, inthe coil Acie The property of a coil which opposes any change in the current passing through itis called self inductance, It depends on (Shape and amber of turns. Gi) Relative permeabilityoF the ‘The speed with which the magnetic field changes Let N= Number of turns in the coil 1 = Curront through the col serial Induced emf, a =H) Since flux depends upon the coil current and the number of tures in the coil a a a a where, L Selfinductance of the coil tocical Mace Introduction ww Expression of L (@ Method 1 If the flux linkage of the coil and curent are known, then se an hme (ii) Method 2 Ines of ya aan, ca be veda lows Mien Fe, =o Mt sags os esi B= vot) ant Magnex. $= BA mt (Soa Joe lu linkage of the circuit = Np Self-induetance, Otwervatlon Selfsinductance, Lis diretly proportional to the square of number of turns and inversely proportional to the reluctance of magnetic pathletra ! —_— @ COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING, (#) Mutually induced emf rte Wg Sa i cnt te cguill fax penucl bythe caren nora coll at links the ther col 7 titi sci we tno ta hn f= ia ie iis Expression for M_ hy © Method 1 So, Mh = Nore No M i ® Gi) Method 11 1m terms of physical parameters MNEjKy Wily = K Ni Mab where, K=ViK Ka isthe Co-ffcient of eoupling when al the fox produced in coil, inks the eo 2 then, K=Kj=Kq-=1 and maxim muta inductance exis inthe coil which is given by M=K NE where, xa M— Mutual inductance K Wout Cocfficient of coupling ‘Solfinduetance of coil 1 Selfinductance of coil 2 from the above equatien, we can say that mutual inductance is inversely proportional to the rohuctance of the magnetic circuituo ectial Matines = & EFFECTIVE INDUCTANCE OF SERIES. CONNECTION When two resistance are connected in series, then the effective resistance can be sald as the sum of the two resistance values, Similarly, when two coils are connected in series its equivalent value is depending on the direction of connection. If they are connected in series in the same direction (sories aiding, mode) then itis called cumulatively coupled connection. When they are connected in opposite direction (series opposition mode) then it is called differentially coupled connection, 1.8.1. Equivalent inductance of Cumulatively Coupled Coils ‘As shown in the Fig. 1.12 if two coils are connected in series, the current directions are same, also flux and emf are in the same direction Pig. 1.12 Both the coils will have its own self inductance (Ly and L,) and a mutual inductance, M. If the rte of change of current flowing through it is “, then the various induced emf's se gn by emf in al 1 dit ov ati at need ent emf in coil 2, due to the flux in coil 1 is, cns=-0 ty ed end ent cl 1 of eo 2 ‘i e127— MG (Mutually induced emf) ‘emf in coil 2, due to ts own flux aa ty ct naan oh 121 Cyt has where yg effective inductance lyg= Ly tly 42M 1.82 Equivalont Inductance of Differentially Coupled Colls ‘As shown in the Fig. 1.13 if two coils are connected in series in oppos flux and emf are in the opposite direction. direction, Both the coils will have its own self inductance (Ly and Zq) and a mutual inductance, tem of cage of amet Rowing. ag en he varus ined e's a sven by, emf in coil 1, due to its own flux, a & (ot induced em) ‘emf in col 2, due to the flux in coil 1. a f= + ME (Mutually induced em emf in coil 1, due to the flux in. coil 2. c= +A (Mutually induced emt) asoe Etecrica! Machines | 129 smvoowoion tg Procedure for Hysteresis Loop (@) Ac the beginning, let the resistance. R is kept maximum so current through the emf in coil 2, due to its own flux Ly 4 elf induced emt) circuit is low. Now, the magnetic field intensity, H1="\! wit also be low. ‘Total induced emf, 7 enetentente (®) When the resistance is decreased to increase the current, then flux density will li, yd increase slowly upto knee point. di, di ly afte ee a (©) After knee point, this increase in flux density for increase in current will be rapid, =-tytz-ain op ton pt i (© ter ron ser nae ncn wl wt net x de a ‘se acral wil be ote (©) This curve is called magnetisation curve (B-H curve). (®) Now the current will be decreased to zero, But it is observed that flux density do not trace the same curve of magnetisation, But this demagnetsation curve will fall, bback as compared to previous magnetsation curve. This phenomenon is called as hysteresis where, Leg Ly+1—2M oquivalent inductance. (@ Die to this when tie cae is exact’ Strand to ser sone mgm dil te assciaed th the col and hance te fx donity wil ot be wor Tis x density i called as residual Mux density (ot) remnant Mux density. This is also called a residual magnets (h) ‘The property by which @ material hold back some minimum amount of magnetism Within it, in the absence of current i, retentivity. (@ I it is necessary to remove the residual magnetism from the material, then the ccurent should be decreased. Thi is made possible with the help of reversible switch @ The magnetic fied intensit magnetism is called co-rsi requited to remove the residual flux density (or) residual force. afr Poron 1 Forward ition Ponon 2 Reverand deton Fig, 144 & MAGHETISATION CHARACTERISTICS (OR) HYSTERESIS LOOP (&) If tho currents increased further in the reverse direction, the material will be saturated in the opposite direction (Mier this when th curea seduced, dv to hystetsi, i wll ot be deiagetied fully. Now the residual magactism willbe In negative drt, (in) When the current is increased upts zero, then the residual magnetism in the negative mn we plot the variation in the magnetic parameters withthe change in current, then arate ee _ direction will be removed from the material the result in curve oF loop is called as hysteresis curve or hysteresis loop. (n) If the current is increased further, then the material will be saturated, achieving we Know that sllemting voages increases and_docresies with respect t time n - 7 sre Ce enc ee ‘one complete cycle of magnetisation and demagnetisation. periodically. In the positive half cyele it magnetses the magnetic circuit and in the negative half cycle it demapnetises. tis also called as AC operation of magnetic circuits.124 Electrical Machines The closed loop AUCDEFA is called Hysteresis loop. 1.10.1 Hysteresis Loss When # magnetic material is subjected to a eycle of magnetisation and demagnetsation, some of the energy loss will occur due 10 molecular fiction, Energy is thus expanded in the material in over coming this opposition. This loss is inthe form of heat and is called hyteresis, loss. Ie is so called because it results die w the hysieesis effect In @ magnetic material. This effect results in the rise of temperature of the machine. Tiysteresis loss =n (Binad)"® fv (IS) or Watts where, n= Steinmentz hysteresis ¢6-eficient frequency of reversal of magnetisation y= Yolume of magnetic material 1.10.2 Eddy Current Loss When a magnetic material is subjected to a changing magnetic ficld, in addition to the hnysteresis loss, another loss that occurs in the material is the eddy current loss. ‘The changing flux induces emf in the material. Due to this emf, the curtent will low which does not do useful work. It is known as eddy currents. This loss also results in rise in the temperature of the material iddy,current loss depends on the various factors which are, Nature of material Gi) Maximum (lux density. 125 esate Gi) Frequency (i) Thickness of laminations used to construct the core (0) Volume of magnetic materia dy cument 1088 =K, Bp)? PF » (Watts) Jiddy cument loss can be minimised by laminating the coe 110.3 Practical Uses of Hysteresis Loop Jn machinery where the frequency of the magnetisation and demagpetisation cy rove, such hysteresis loss is bound 0 be move Le 3) — 3 lL © o s % ] rg : ra © ® pase ‘The shepe of hysteresis loop depends on the nature of magnetic material The Fig. 1.16 a shows loop of hard steel ig, 1.16 b shows loop of hi Fig. 1.16 d shows loop of non-magnetic materi ig. 116 € shows loop of ferromagnetic materials, hysteresis loss is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. |Ga) Ac oveearon oF mxonene anes The magnetic circuits of transformers, ac machines and several other electromag devices are excited from ac sources rather than de sources. Often the flux is determined by ‘the improved voltage and frequency and the magnetization current has to adjust itself gy accordance with the flux so that the BH relationship is satisfied Core meat eng) Fag 1.17 (Consider the fig 1.17 shown with an iron core coil of 1 turns. Assume dat this cireudy is possessing complete magnetic linearity. (ie. B cH). Magnetic flux @ is produced by exciting current i. Let the current and so the flux van) sinusoidally with time. ‘Then ar sn 4 ete yi matin vale of ine cr in Wo bon whee fs he funy in He the intel et inte cil sper Fey's a i Mt 8 sino IN ax £08 (02 2g Gay (04 +90) EIN Wis 4A8 Mpa = 444 INA, B, where Ac=Core area of Cross Section Brigg Maximum flux densty The polarity of the emf must in aerorcance with Lenz's law, oppose the flux change tad thorefore, when the flux is increasing. Here the current and flux produced by the current are in phase with cach other. From equations (i) and (i) is found that the induced emf leads the fx by 90°. The induced emf and coil resistance drop oppose che applied voltage. Hos the resistance drop in many electromagnetic circuits is quite small and may be neglected ‘The electric power input to the magnetic circuit is shown in fig. 1.17, paie te ow were A> fox linkage The clectie coeny input which ges sored in the magnetic field inthe tims intra fora fan ‘ “ where j= fncrease in field enemy of the fx linkage changes fom 2y 40 nil terms w Ade fH, a, in Where Agi, 8 the volume of the core. Ths the energy deity i the felis given by J at, sn? Wy=An iron magnetic circuit has an uniform cross-sectional area of 4m? and a length of 25 ‘em. A coil of 125 turns is wound uniformly over the magnetic cireuit when the current i the coil is LA, the total flux developed is 0.3 mWb. Find the relative permeability of the (Nov/Dec. 2007) Given Data: em’, [= 25 em, N=125, = 1.5 3 mWb To find: > SOLUTION mmf NI Reluctance, ul = fluc @ 1 We tnow S=—+— HoH Mt. © Holt A Mt oA uy BAN 4, 10"? x03 1073 x 104 x 10 25x15 Electrical Machinas ¢ WORKED EXAMPLES ) 129 im iron ring of circular cross-section 10 xv? and mean circumference 30 em has an air-gap if2 mm. If the ring is wound with S00 turns, find the exciting current to extalish flux “Gf 04 milb inthe air gap. The relative permeability of iron may be assumed to be 2500. (AprilMay 2003) ‘Given Data: ‘Area of cross section (A) = 10 em? ‘mean circumference, [=30em, length of air-gap =2mm, N=500, 14 mW, = 2500 To find & SOLUTION lus density In the a oxi B=04 Whim? MMF = 9 15;+5,) Reluctance, 1+ Se 12 HAA” HbA 30% 107? . 2x10) Axx 1072500 x 101074 tex 10? 1 x 10% 10" = 95492.966 + 1591549.431 = 1687082397 5 ‘Total mmf 04% 109 x 1687042,397Calculate the inductance. Af the current flowing. in the coi ‘from 58. to = 5A in 0.035, find the emf induced in the coil Given Data: D=Sem, != 80cm, N= 1200, dImSAto-SA, dt=0.03 see To find: Le? =? 4 SOLUTION Sx (1200)? x rex 1077 1m 0x10? 35494.560%10°7 4.004 1 80% 10" [c= 0.004 W (i) emt induced in the coil e= 1.4 An air cored. solenoid of mean diameter S cm is 80 em long. It is wound with 1200 tury, lecrcal Machines | 131 “on rod 1.8 cm diameter is bent to from a ring of mean diameter 25 cm and wound 250 turns of wire. A gap of 1 mm exists in between the end faces. Calculate the required to produce a flux of 0.6 mWb, Take relative permeability of iron as 1200. (Mayiune 2007) fon the solenoid is ch (Apritttay 2035 jyen Date: d=1.8em, mean Diameter, D=25 em, N=250, y= 1 mm, = 1200 To find: 0=? “4 SOLUTION Mean length of iron rod, L,= 2D ~ | 20.25 — Lx WT 1,=0.786m Coss sectional area of magnetic circuit, Waly nx 10-7 x 1200 H 565 ATI NI 7 Ht N 1565 «0.784 250 We know [r=490.]0% of the total mmf. n Data: Mean Diameter D N 00, 4% SOLUTION mmf of the sel ring, amt of the airgap Gi) Total reluctance Reluctance of air gap, Sy scm, d=2em, |, SA, Mean length of the steel ring, Steel ring 30cm mean diameter and of circular section 2 em in diameter has an air gay T mm long. It is wound uniformly with 600 turns of wire carrying current of 2.5 A. Fist (1) total mmf (2) total reluctance (3) flux. Neglect magnetic leakage. The irom path tae; Imm =nD- =nx30xr?-1x 10% =0.941 m Cress sectional area of the magnetic circuit, 0 = 40. 1500 = 600 AT 60 soo 0¢ £0. 1500 = 900 AT - 001 fx 17 13.14 x10 = 2534 ATW pectin ! aA Reluctance of steel ring, 5 a 0941 nx 10-7 13.14 107 =2385 ATW Total Reluctance, $= S;+5, 2385 + 2834 [54919 ATW (i) Flux tot airgap _ _900 Reluctance of airgap ~ 2536 77-385 4 fo =0.385 Wo ‘A coil of 1000 turns ie linking a flux af 0.01 Wb. The flux is reversed in an interval of ‘a s. Caleulate the average value of the emf induced in the coil ‘Given Data: N= 1000 turns, = 0.01 Wh, To find: e=? % SOLUTION No Jono Dat, [e=1009) ‘A straight conductor 0.25 m Tone carries a current of 80 A and lies at right angles o a magnetic ‘ela of 05 T. Find the mechanical force developed on the conductor. If the force causes the ‘conductor to more at velocity of 12 mis, Calculate the emf induced in it, iNov/Dec 2007) OA, B=OST, v= 12sTo find: Mechanical force developed F= 2, () Poree developed on the conductor, F'= BIL =05 x 80%0.25 (ii) emf induced in the conductor e= Bly 50.25% 12 [e= 15] Two mutually linked aircored cots ‘a’ and ° have complete inductances Iq = 0.05 H and Ly= 0.5 HL Coll a” is excited and coil %” is left open. 1 is found that when the current fn coit a decreases at a uniform rate from 6 A to 1 A in 0.005 second a voltage of 60.6 Volts 4 induced in coll “Determine the mutual inductance and the coupling co-efficient. April/May 2005) Given Data £, $0005 H, y= 0.15 H d= 0.005 st, 99 = 606 V “To find: Mutual Inductance and K. % SOLUTION 4 sag ot hing Gy = O06 o diy 6-4 P= Boas = 1000 Als Hence the mutual induetanee from equ. (@) 606 _ Lay = Fa 20.001 H Tg = 0.061 We know Mutual Inductance, M= KEE Lag Vly Lye 0.061 kK uaslons Vela” YOOS x 0.15 x = 0.704] Jem the ovo cols are connected tn series, ther effective induclanc is found (o be 10H, When the connections of one coil are reversed, the effective inductance i GUL. Ifthe ouint of comping 0, Calculate the selfinductence of each col andthe mata inductance. (Wow/Dec 2005) ‘Given Data: Effective inductances = 10H, 6H. K=06 To fi: y= by M=? # SOLUTION Ly tly +2M = 10 “ Ly+Lg-2M=6 ~@ On subtracting equation (i) M= KE Squaring on both sides Wa Oi) PP 278 E06, Substitute Ly in equetion (i) ams 1,+2Z8 ax neto +278 +20, = 101, -suy+2 636 H (or) 0.363 11 from equation (i) y= 10-2M-Loctal Machines « Whe L,=7.636H, Ly = 0366 4 14 =0.36311, y=7.637 4 So Self inductance of coil-L, Self inductance of eoil-2, L Re Two identical coils A and B consisting of 1560 turns each tie in parallel planes such thet 70% of the flux produced by the current in coil A link the coil B. Current of 4A flowing in the coil A produces in it a flux of 0.04 mWb. While the same current in coil-B produce the same flux. Caleulate (i) Self inductance of each coil and (ii) Mutal inductance between them. (Aprivtay 2008) Data given 500, F=4.A, $=004 mWH # SOLUTION Self Inductance of Coil-A [za= oni | Self irductance of Coil B, ty Mie 1500 004x 5? la [én= 0015 0] ‘Mutal inductance between Coil A and B ‘The flux transfor from Coil-A to Coil-B is 70% 1500%0.7 0.04% 10°* - 4 = 0.01041 (eee LL The total core loss of a specimen of silicon steel is found to be 1500 W at $0 HZ. Keeping the flux density constant the loss becomes 3000 W when the frequency is raised y 75 HZ, Caleulate separately the hysteresis and eddy current loss at each of there foquencies. (AprilMtay ‘10, AprilMay ‘11) Given Data: At SO HZ core loss = 1500 W; At 75 HZ core loss ~ 3000 W #4: SOLUTION: At 50/HZ wearea? Whoasar Seat 7 At 50 HZ 1500 500 4+ B80) W0=A+50B “i At 75 HZ 3 a+Bas) 40=A+75B iy138 _ Bectical Machines 130 Solving equ () & Gi) 25B=10 —10_ 25 A=10 x? ix 1H, S000% 4104 4x10, a-10_o4 a At 50 HZ Hysteresis loss +50=500 9 dy curent loss = 850? 1000 W At 75 H, Hysteresis loss = 1075 =750 W Eddy current Joss For the magnetic cireuit shown in fig. determine the current required to establish a flux density of 0 T in the air gap. (NovDee “I0) Flux density in the ait, B= ve =A 1 10007 6 4 Aoeer x 16m 95 (2x22 104) la, Loose x 1a? =“ 5x42 107+ 1.0054 x 10? Lad 1000 16, Si 2en = 4.0003 A] ore 5000 A wrought bar 30 cm long and 2 em in diameter is bent in to a circular shape. I is then ound with 600 turns of wire Calculate the current required to produce a flux of 0.5 mWb 4: SOLUTION: inthe magnetic circuit in the following cases. (i) without air gap W, (iron) = 4000 (assumed Total reluctance of the ciruit, $= $,+5, constant; and (ji) with an alr gap of 1 mm; assume the following data for the * ‘magnetication of iron. fe tg Hin AT/m | 2500 | 3000 | 3500 | 4000 Mola Hod Bin Tesla 138 | 159 | 16 | 1615 | B+8+645)x10"? 1x) (May/tune* 2011) AIK (EX210 4) 4, 22109) % SOLUTION: (No siegapCore reluctance 30 10°? 48x10"? 4000 Rx 10 S.= 19% 108 We know, (mm 1 Se 2S. 1288 205% 107% 1.9 x 108 600 AT (ota) Total reluctance, ven Data: 9% 10° 425.33 x 108 Sa271x108 le AT.= He =3000x30% 10°? 0.001 mf, =0.3 1g =041 mm, jy = 5000, 1,5 = 1000, Hye = 10000, 600 OS _ 05x 103x271 x10° 258 A] i) Air sop = 1 mm, BH data as given sor From the given magnetization data (at B= 1.59 T) 1H, = 3000 ATI 265 + 900= 2165 Tet AT, [r=3.6a (i) reluctance of the sections. 9-75 104 Wo 2m, je=0.1.m, sat A ring composed of three sections. The cross section area is 0.001 m? for each section. The mean are length are [,=03.n,1y=02m,J,= 0m an air gap length of 0.1 mm is 1 xx 10-4 lt inthe ring. y for sections a,b and are $000, 1000 and 10000 respectively. Flux in 25.33% 108 lie air gap is 75% 10"* Wo, Find (3) mf (i) exciting current if the coil has 100 turns (Nov/Dec 11) 710 4 SOLUTION: ! Boia Reluctance, $= The ring have three sections. Each sections have reluctances. | Reluctance, $, rarer’ 03 "4 x 1077 x 3000 x 0.001 471468 Retuctance, 5,=—” Hy A 02 “nx 10"? 100% 0,001 =159.154% 109 6 Reluctance Reluctance of air gapy Sy= fi, yA ax" “ax 1071 x0.001 2795774 8 (Total mumf= Total ux (@)x Total Reluctance (8) =O Gp Spt 5 48) = 75 x 10"* (47746 + 159154-+ 7987.7 + 79577.8) [amy= 22082 Wo] eset mar - 4 i) Biting current, ‘Total mumf= NI _ Total ming 7=224] [emo mame QUESTIONS ‘Avo AuswERS: J State the 1vo types of Induction motors? (Now/Dee. 2004) (i). Sauierel cage Induction motor: Ui). Slip Ring (phase wound) Indvetion motor 2 Write the expressions for mmf and reluctance? (AprivMay 2008) MME = WI (A7) Nt etuctance’s = MME = NE cari R Tae = (ATI) where v= No. of tums in a coil 1 Current flow through ‘collin A. = Magnetic flux in We. 4% What is meant by Leakage flux? (ApriltMay 2011, ApriléMay 2003, 2008, ‘The flux in a magnetic cieuit that follows an undesired path is called leakage flux 4 State Lenz's law. This law states that any induced emf will circulate a current in such a diretion as & oppose the cause prelucing it a S. What are the different types of induced emf? Give examples (Nov/Dec 2003 @Statially induced emf Bg: Transformer Gi) Dynamically induced emf Ey: DC Generator, AC Generator1 lect 4 What is dynamically induced emf? (Aprivay 2010, Apritistay 2004) ‘When the induced emf is from the mechanical movement of coil with respect 0 fg, (01) movement of magnet with stationary coil, then itis ealled Dynamically induced emf Example: DC Generator, AC Generator. 7. What is statically induced emf. (Nov/Dec 2004) ‘The induced emf in a coil without any mechanical movement of coll (oF) magnet called stationary induced emf (or) statically induced erat. % Write the classification of statically induced emf. (i) Self induced emf; (i) Motually induced emf 9. Distinguish between statically induced emf and dynamically induced emf. (Nov/Dec. 2010, May/June 205) The induced emf in a coil without any mechanical movement of coil (oF) mage called stationary induced emf (or) statically induced emt. ‘When the induced emf js from the mechanical movement of coil with respect 10 fli (or) movement of magnet with stationary coil, then it is called Dynamically induced. emf 10. State Fleming’s teft hand rule? (Apriviay 2008) Keep the fore finger, middle finger and thumb of the left hand mutually perpendicul {0 one another. If the fore finger indicate the direction of magnetic field and the mide er indicates the direction of current in the conductor, then the thumb gives the direction ‘motion (force experienced by) of the conductor. Motion of he onda t 11, Define coefficient of coupling (AprivMtay 2008) ‘The coefficient of coupling (k) between two coils is defined as the fraction of magnets flux produced by the current in one coil that links the other col where ‘o-efficient of coupling tual inductance 1, = Self ind Ly We oF eo Self inductance of coil 2 iate Fleming's Right Hand Rule. “Exh ater If fore finger represents the diretion of “1 Sketch the fore finger, midlle finger and thumb of right hand matally perpendicular t ‘magnetic field, thumb represents the direction Gime of conductor, then the mille finger wll represent the direction of induced em. Motion of be coor Discton of tee ffx ents BB itow con the eddy current loss be reduced? ! (AprivMtay 2004 iy current loss can be minimised by laminating the core. 1A Define Torque. (ApriiMay'10, Torque is meant by turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. Ie is measuree by fe product of the force and the radius at which this force acts, Torque, 15. Give the analogy between electric cirent and magnetic circuit, Magnetic circu defined as magnetic circuit Toree in the magna circuit. (Unit is Ampere tuens) ‘The path traced by magnetic flux is[Puth traced by the current is called. as Xr Newionmetre, (Now/Dee'10, electric circu. Emf is the driving force sn an electric circuit (Unit is volt) [There will be the presence of flux, @ (WE) ATW, mt Fux, 4 Reluctance [Opposing force for flux is ‘reluctmce|There will be the presi v — There will be the presence of current, HA) of er (A) opposing fore for current is retitanc bel16, In a magnetic cireuit with a small air gap, in which part the maximum energy stored and why? (ovibes ‘The reluctance of air gap. Ry h high compared to the reluctance of Flux Fenging at Ai-gap in the average gup flux density. The fringing effect also disturbs the core flux pater depth near the gap. The effect of fringing inereases with the airgap length Wo the core ofan Electrical machines are laminated? (aythne201 17. What are the three types of base rotating electric machines? (Aprit / May’ 2 east ‘ . lectrical machines are laminated t© minimise the eddy current los. (DC Machines a" (ii) Synchronous machine (iy Induction machine Explain the methods of analyzing the magnetic eircuits (Nov/Dec 200 pts (1) Dynamically induced emt (2) Statically induced emt (Nov/Dec 200 A Faplain how an ems is induced (1) statically (2) Dynamically. (Mayllune 200 18. A conductor 80 cm long moves at right angle to its length at a constant speed afi 2 Explain the eo ‘mA in a uniform magnetic fleld of flux density 1.2 T. Find the emf induced the conductor motion is normal to the field flux. (aprivaay 24 4, Compare magnetic and electric circuit (Mav/lune 200, 5, Draw the typical BH curve and hysteresis loops and explain its concept (NoDec 200: 4 SOLUTION emf induced in the conductor ¢ = Divsin 8 5 Explain the ac operation of magnetic circuits. (Nov/Dec 2006, April/May 2005, Nov/Dec 200 male 7, What are the various types of losses of machines? Explain them, (Now/Dec 200 288) 4, Derive the relation between mutual inductance and self inductances of two magnetical ‘coupled cil (MasiJune 200 19, What is Hysteresis loss and how can this loss be minimized? (NowDee' P 9. Explain in detail about hysteresis and eddy current losses. (Masflune 200 When a magnetic material is subjected to a eyele of magnetisation und demagnetsa 10. Explain the various types of core loses (Apriviay 200. some of the energy loss will oceur due to molecular riedon. Energy is thus expanded in this opposition. This loss is inthe form of heat and is called hystet material in overeomi loss Hysteresis loss can be minimized by making the core of such materials which I low value of hysteresis. coe cient egailicon steel ih 20, What is fringing effect in a magnetic circuits? (Mas/dune AL an sit-gap in a magnetic core, the Mux fringes out into neighbouring air pais shown in fig. These being of reluctance comparable to that of the gup. ‘The res non-uniform flux density in the airgap, enlargements of the effective airgap area nlTransformer is a static device, which transforms the electrical power fiom one circuit ‘nother circuit atthe same frequency. It operates on the principle of mutual Induction, k g y Pan wean roa ore Fig. 21 A Single Phase Translomer |A transfomer operates on the principle of mutual inductance between two inductively, aapled coils, It consists of two windings in close proximity as shown in Fig. 2.1. The two ‘vinings are coupled by magnetic induction.(There is no conductive connection between the “vindings). One of the windings called primary is energised by 2 sinusoidal voltage. The second ‘nding, called secondary feeds the load. ‘The alternating current in the primary winding set up an alternating flux (@) in the ‘The secondary winding is linked by most of this flux and emfs are induced in the two windings. The emf induced in the secondary winding drives, current through the load connected to the winding, [Energy is transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary cireait through the medium of the magnetic field. & —In brief, a transformer is a device that: (transfers electric power from one circuit to another; Gi) it does. so without change of frequency; and ii) it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction (or mutual inductance) @ uw ‘Transformer is classified on the basis of Construction 1. Core type transformer TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION tansformer has the following essential elements, __ primary winding: The winging which is coonected to AC supply i called primary ‘winding. Secondary winding: The winding which is connected to load is called secondary winding. -prasformer core: The two windings of the transformer are magnetically coupled imaugh the core. The core is constructed of transformer sheet steel lnminations to frovide continuous magnet path with a minimum of ai gap inelnded Precore ia made up of silicon steel to reduce the hysteresis loss. The laminated tre uation of the core minimise the eddy current loss. The laminations are arated ffom each other by light coat of core plate varnish (or) by en oxide layer arthe surface. The thickness of the lamination varies from 0:35 mm fora frequency (of 50 He {0 0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Ha. SATION OF TRANSFORMER 2. Shell type transformer 3. Berry type transformer (i) Voltage Output Step down transformer Gi) Step up transformer il) Auto transformer © A suitable medium for insulating the core and its windings from each other and from the container. ve Suitable bushings for insulating and bringing the terminals of the windings cut of the case “The two basis types of transformer construction ae 1. The cove type: 2. The shell type ‘Another receat development is spral-core or wound core type. os tee nai ee | Gi). Potential transformer Gil) Power transformer (Gy) Application Welding transformer Core Type Transformer Gi). Fumace transformer ‘The completed magnetic cireuit of the core type transformer is in the shape of the rectangle, exactly as shown Fig. 2.2. (i) Ratio transformer | (9) Input supply @ Single phase transformer Gi), Three phase transformer | () Cooting t L (Dry type transformer (Air natural or Air blast). Gi) Oi immersed transformer Fig, 22 Core Type TransformerHes the wining surosnd the consrale par of he tansrmer is shown in i imp, THE 60 limbs in core type eansoner. The two windings are paced mb. Tn core type transformer there is only one path for the ‘magnetic flux. "7 Fg. 25 Laminations fons are cut in the form of long strips of Band I as shown in Fig, 2.5. After the cols in place, the core is butted together and held in place by two clamps one at top and _t bottom. TRANSFORMERS BASED ON COOLING The wansformers get heated due to iron and copper losses occuring in them, It's Pe. 29 Laminators g 10 dissipate this heat so that the temperature of the windings is kept below the ‘at which insulation begins to deteriorate “The cooling of transformers is more dilficull than that of rotating machines because (ype transformer, the steel core surroun ‘ottng machines create a turbulent flow which assists in removing the heat generated shown in Fig. 2.4, ids major part of the windings 1g losses. Luckily the losses in transformers are comparatively small ‘There are three limbs in the shell type transformer. ‘ae placed in the central limb as shown in Fig. 2.4, The primary and secondary wind “Trastbner Clasicalion bao upon coin The windings occupy the tate space in both windows of the core. The en asses through the cental limb, but divides between the outide limb Hace teen Daye eee : ! ee te hea produced by loses we] [Tn fy cae, ol acy w the wea ispate trove the extra srtce. | | to camy avay the hes, Dry type ansformers are small ouput | | Git immer tanformers are large irasiornes cutpt tarformers ‘ Dy 7 % Type = Air Natural Transformers Jn this method, the natural cirelation of surrounding air is utilised to camry away 6. 24 Shot Type Trarstomer the nes: generated by loses. A sheet metal enclosure protect the winding from mechanical injury. &(®) Air Blast Transformers Here the transformer is cooled by a continuous blast of cool air forced through core and winding (Fig. 2.6). The blast is produced by 2 fan. The air supply must be fil to prevent accumulation of dust in ventilating ducts. tt— Core |i Hie Fig, 28 Alr Bast Transformers fl Immersed Type Oil provides better insulation than air and it is a better conductor of heat than Mineral ‘oil is used for this purpose. Most transformers are of this type. (@) Oit Immersed Self-cooted Transformers ‘The transformer is immersed in oil and heat generated in cores and windings is pa to oll by conduction, Ol in cumiuct widh healed puts rises and its place is taken by oil from the bottom. ‘The natural ofl transfers its heat to the tank walls from where heat is taken away: ambient air. The oil gets cooler and falls to the bottom from where it is dissipated into surroundings, The tank surface is the best dissipator of heat but a plain tank will have to ‘excessively large, if used without any auxiliary means for high rating transformers. As space and oil are costly. These auxiliary means should not increase the cubic capacity of tank. The heat dissipating capacity ean be increased by providing 1. corrugations, 2. 3. tubes (Fig. 2.8) and 4, radiator tanks, ‘Transformer body Cooling Tubes ez EY oS Fig, 27 Ol Immersed Forced Oi Cooled Transormers (Gil natural cooling does not clog the ducts Windings are free from effects of moisture. Immersed Forced Air Cooled Transformers 1 Immersed Water Cooled Transformers Heat is extracted from the oil by means of a stream of water pumped through a metallic fmmessed in the oil just below the top of the tank. The heated water is in tum cooled ‘pray pond or a cooling tower, Wter Water m TI It Fig, 28 ll Immersed Wator Coolod Transformers it Immersed Forced Oil Cooled Transformers In such transformers heat is extracted from the oil by pumping the cil itself upward ih the winding and then back by way to external radiators which may themselves be equipment must of course be economically {op and bottom of enclosing tank IDEAL TRANSFORMER ‘An ideal transformer is one which bas (no winding resistance (id) mo magnetic leakage flux (i.e. the same Mux link both the windings). (ii) no iron losses (ie, eddy curent and hysteresis) in the core.28 2a Gv) no PR Toss Le copper loss. it a lr if Fig, 2.11 (9) Wave form of the thx Fig, 29 Ideal Transformer Consider an ideal transformer whose secondary is open and whose primary is con to sinusoidal alternating voltage Vj. The primary winding draws a small magnetising c Jig which lags behind the voltage Vj by 90°. No, of turns in primary winding No, of tums in secondary winding, Maximum flux in the core in Webers ‘This alternating curent J, produces an alternating flux @ which is in phase with £2, XA (where B,, is the maximum Mux density in the core and A is the core aca] This lux @ links both the winding and induces emf £; in the primary and emf E> in secondary = equeney of AC input in He a fer Fig. 2.11(0) flux increases from it zero value to maximum value Qj, in quater i ele ic, in LM f second. oo on = Ayorage rate of change of flux ~—2=— oy + r wap ae fp Wolse (or) Volt Es low, fle of change of flux per turn means induced emf in volts ve © Average emturn =4 fp, Volis Fig, 2:10 Phaser Diagram of an Idoa! Transformer The phasor diagram of an ideal transformer on no load are shown in Fig. 2.10. Si fix @ is common to both the windings, it has been taken as the reference phasor, the pri factor emf Ey and secondary emf Ey lag behind the flux by 90% Note that Bj and Fy are phase. But E; is equal and opposite to V; (Lent's law). Ems value of emfftur =1.11%4 fy ms value ‘verage value = 4.4 fd Vols tems value of emf induced in primary winding &D EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER 44 oq Ny Volts Consider that an alternating voltage V; of frequency f is applied to the primary al shown in Fig. 2.11 (a) Hist Ad shad Ni totw ®Similarly, rams value of emf induced in secondary winding B= 4.44 fq Ny Volts Eq= 4.44 fy AN, Volts @) VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to pr voltage. It is denoted by K. art when the transformer on no loathe primary, np curent Ist wholly piary opt curen under no loud conto (1) has 10 supply een oss io ie cor BD very wl amon of copper ios i, rimary. Nekad inpat power: Wy Vs 1900s From the above equations (i) and (i) of induced emf © N,>M, ie. K>1 then tansformer is called step-up transformer. © IN, < Mie, K by a component jfy%> to account for the secondary leakage flux. Fig. 220 (0) & () 27 VR ‘Total impedance of the transformer as referred to secondary is given by EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT ‘An equivalent cixcuit is merely a circuit interpretation of the equations which describe “fe behaviour of the device. ‘The transformer windings, in the equivalent circuit, are shown 8 ideal. ‘The resistance ‘and leakage reactance of the primary nd secendary are shown separately in the primary and ‘eeandary* circuits whose function is to transform the voltage.rat of trantormer Fig 222 Equiv ‘The no toad curent fy is simulated by pure inductance Xp king the magnets ‘component J, and non-inductive resistance R taking the working component Jy, conn in parallel across the primary circuit The value of &; is obtained by subtracting vectorially 1,7, from V,. ‘The value of and It is clear that & and & are related to each other FE, =NyN, =K. ‘To make the transformer calculations easy, the equivalent circuit ean be simplified transferring the secondary resistances and reactances to the primary side in such as way the ratio of E; to Fy is not affected in magninuds of phase, ‘The primary equivalent of the secondary induced voltage is Ky’= E/K= E}. Primary equivalent of the secondary cunent is Iy’=KIp. For transferring secondary impedance to primary K? is used. 4% eee mex" oT larly, primary equivalent of secondary terminal oF output voltage is Vy’ VK Fig, 223 Exact equivalent creat of the transformer “the same relationship is used for shifting an extemal load impedance to the primary. 2,/=278 “When sll dhe secondary impedances have been transfered to prinhary sie, the winding fot be shown in the equivalent circuit. The exact ((tal) equivalent circuit of the with all impedances transferred to the primary side is shown in Fig. iis found that total impedance between the inpot terminalis Z=0y+%qll Ca! +2) Pn(l’+%4) Tut a’ 424) =2+ where Zy!= Ry’ +X" Z,=itmpedance of the exciting cireuit, Zu (C' +2) But ©’ +2, yeh| 2+ ‘mato Equivalent Circuit ‘The equivalent cireut can be simplified by transferring the parallel branch consisting 18 Ry and Xo to the extreme left postion of the cicuit is shown in Fig. 2.24. This circuit ‘s known as approximate equivalent circuit. Analysis with the approximate equivalent circuit ies almost the same results as the analysis with the exact equivalent circuit. However, the alysis with the approximate equivalent circuit is simple because the resistance Ry and Ra Snd leakage reactance X, and Xq’ can be combined.= aes Ry, Xp Zi koed Fe. 225 Aoproxmat ecuvalor cast of tansomer reoned 10 primary VOLTAGE REGULATION 1. Itis defined as the chan full Yoad (ated toad) of specified power fore caeny Secon (lermina) volage, when fede 0 no fond wih pe Ne HEL spp ated vohage i eon aft Let o¥2= secondary terminal voltage st no-load AEi= KY; because a no load the impedance drop is negligible. Ya= secondary termifal voltage on full toad. 221 ‘change in terminal voltage from no load to full load is = 9¥%j~ Vp, This change Ql is known as regulation down. If this change is divided by V2. i.e, full load terminal voltage, then it is called regulation ‘up’. Va ~Vs down" =2=¥2 replation “down” = 272 x 00 Seregultion “up” ‘Approximate phasor diagram Yoliage regulation computations may also be done without involving complex: numbers ‘equations derived from approximate phasor diagrams. Lagging Power tactor load Jf we neglect the no-load current, the equivalent resistance and reactance of the x os referred to secondary side is given as R= Ry + Rik? and Nog “Xp 4X K Vp= socondary terminal voltage y= ull load curent ©05 $= load power factor (6 ~ 4) ¥ = input voltage ~ transformation Fig, 228 Phasor diagram of transform on lagging loadappears as =. In the simplified equivalent circuit of the transformer as referred to ccurent Ip flow through Roy andXo- ‘The primary voltage V; when refeired to secs ¥ ‘Thus we should have Mw naan Xen + Ve ‘The phasor (OA represents load terminal voltage AB represents resistive voltage drop ‘BC represents reactive voltage drop OC represents input terminal voltage (referred to secondary side) ‘Therefore, the right angle AOCF, we have 0c =0F + Fe - 8 (OA + AE+ BF P+ (DC-DFP (Va + TaRog 608 0+ loka sin 6)? + (X08 6 LaRoa: ° ‘This expression can be simplified. The resistive and reactive drops ZR and Xo, very small compared to the secondary voltage V2, We can therefore ignore the last which is square of a differential of very small quantities. Thus we get Mw Ez V 2+ TaRn 008 9 + 1aXon sin = Vo" Va!—Va fay 608 6+ 15%ap sin » % Regulation = ¥2 — Va _ fara 606 + Fa¥on 5 op Vp Va am can be drawn as shown in Fig. 2.26. In this phator diagram 4 Leading power factor load the Fig. 2.27 shows the phasor diagram for a leading power factor load, © 1, bXe B Ten Va Fig, 2.27 Phasor dagram of tanclorm on loading pt load ‘The volage regulation of transformer referred to secondary value 1nRaz 08 6— Xen sin @ % 100 ‘% regulation = Similarly, the vohage regulation of transformer referred by primary value is 1481 £05 9= LXo1 806 soy % Regulation * 1184 Unity power factor load ‘The Fig. 2.28 shows the unity power factor load, the voltage regulation of transformer to secondary value is DR "% Regulation = 2722 100 2 © We Xe vj AiR Bh Fig, 228 Unity Power Factor Load Similanly the voltage regulation of transformer referred to primary value is ‘% Regulation “Conaition for Zero Regulation To find the condition for which regulation is zero, is as followsass 1pRq 608 9+ 1aXoq sin 6=0 Ron ung The negative sign indicates that zero regulation is possible only at a leading i factor. Condition for Maximum Regulation The regulation will be maximum if the differentiation of regulation with rospet phase angle 6 ie equal to zero, That is 1pRn 0056+ 1X sin #) = Gp (2Ror 086+ lake sn )=0 or = fpfgg sin 6+ EaXq2 608 =O | o n gee \ Re ‘So maximum regulation occurs only at lagging power factor (i.e, phase angle 6 pest Fi, 229 Kapo Reguistion Diagram 2.13.5 Kapp Regulation Diagram i It is seen that the secondary terminal voltage falls ag the load on the transformer i Hence NL is the secondary no-load voltage V2 and the arithmetic difference increased when power factor is lagging and it increases when the power factor is leads (ON~O1) is the secondary drop from no-loed to full load ‘Thus the secondary terminal voltage not only depends on the load but on power factor a ‘Transfer triangle NLM to 00’ P as shown; then O'L= ON = gVq. Hence for a given secondary current, the locus of N is a circle with centre O and radius gV3, while the locus of L is a circle of radius o¥2 with centre 0. Dr. Kapp proposed the graphical method of determining the voltage drop in « transforma and the graphical construction is called Kapp regulation diagram. In order to, draw Kapp regulation diagiam it is necessary to know the equiva resistance and reactance as refered to secondary. 12, Ry dXop , = i “ie Roa To find the voltage drop on full load of any power factor cos}, draw a radius 005 inclined at angle © to OX. If the impedance triangle is drawn in postion UOT, then OU=OS, the secondary on load voltage oV3 and OQ= the secondary voltage on load Vp, Hence length QS represents the voltage drop. Procedure 1. Draw a vector OL to represent the secondary terminal voltage on loa Va 2 Draw OX at an angle gy fo OL, whore cos dy is the power factor of load. The (OX represents the phase of secondary curent | It willbe seen that for all phase angle 6 inclined between [XOV (which is leading) 3. Draw LMf parallel w OX and equal (o resistance drop refered to secondary igi} LOX (which is lagging), there is a voltage drop on load. For phase angles equal to ‘rRep and perpendicular MN equal to reactance crop refered t0 secondary 1; Set ofthese limits, the vole on load is equal to that on no-load. For phase engles between {kop Then NLM is the impedance tangle refered to the secondary and Nef OX and [XOV (likening isin anti-clockwise direction) there is actually incease of voltage the total voltage drop road.227 Uses, Output power ____ Output power |. Helpful in determining the variation of regulation with power factor. 7 Gurput Power + Losses Output power + Ci i Drawbacks {Input power—Losses Losses ‘The side lengths of the impedance triangle are very small compared to radi Tipu power Input power circles and so the diagram has to be drawn on a very large scale for getting accurate Ga LOSSES IM A TRANSFORMER In a transformer, there are no moving or rolaing parts, Hence there is no fi windage losses. The losses occuring in transformer are dition for Maximum Efficioncy FR 0 Ro Wow hysteresis loss + eddy curren lose WW, (Core (or) Iron toss idering primary side (ii) Copper toss ry inpu~ Vj 1,605 Vit c08 — Lesies whee © Core (or) Tron Loss: It includes both Hysteresis lose and Edy current Los Vityeos 0, R= Because core flux remains constant for loads, the core losses also remains Vs 16089 Hysteresis loos; Wy=n BES, . VWate RoW, "Vico Vit eondy ly cuentas, We? BJ? ? Was HMerentiting both sides with respect to J, We Bet ‘The Hysteresis loss is minimized by using steel of high silicon content for the and eddy current loss is minimized by using thin lamination of the core Koy W, Vi N,c08 8 V; Reo; GW) Copper Loss ‘This loss is due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer windings, Total coppet 1 10 be maximum, én a, Where Iyand lp are primary and secondary currents, Ry and Ry are primary and se Kou winding resistances. o Gs EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER J b ‘The efficiency of transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as 7 ‘output divided by the input Loss BR, + R= A Roy = Roy 0, Meace the above equation becomes or W.= Ff or B Rn W, Vyeos $1 Vy eos, ‘or Copper loss = Iron Loss Transformer efficiency, 1229 228 2.15.2 All Day Efficiency waumeter W, voltmeter V and an ammeter A are connected in the low-voltage winding. inary winding in the present case Al - day efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output energy (ie, cnergy a to the loads) to the input eneegy (i.e, energy supplied to the transformer), both being no load current Jp (as measured by ammeter) is small (usually 2 to over the same period, viz a day of 24 hours. eae 7 _ rated Joad current). Cu loss is negligibly small in primary and secondary. upc All day eficioney = (era nT bates W is the wattmeter reading then ‘This efficiency 8 always less than the commercial efficiency of a transformer Ge TRANSFORMER TESTS ‘The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis ofits equivalen hich contains four main parameters, (“The equivalent resistance Ry as refered to primary (or secondary Ke:) (iy The equivalent leakage reactance Xo, as refered to primary (or secondary ¥ i) "The core-1oss conductance Gp (or Resistance Ry) Gy=™,, se Gy = exctngcontcance (iv) ‘The magnetisng suseptanee By (or reactance X) “These constants (or) parameters can be easily determined by two toete, Bo=N¥G-G. here By= exciting susceptance (@) Open cir txt; (6). Short circuit test 2.16.1 Open Circuit (OC) or No-Load Test ‘The purpose of this testis to determine no-load loss or core loss and no-load, 4g which is helpful in finding, Xpand Ra, 182 Short - Circuit (or) Impedance test This is an economical method for determining the following: () Equivatent impedance (Zo, (of) Zn). leakage reactance (Noy (or) Xoq) and ota snes (Roy (r) Rog) of the transformer as refered to the winding. Isc — 6 ¥ u 5 nt ‘One of the windings is connected to the supply at rated voltage, while the other winl Ao ry x HV Ww gle | ©) Us = Fig. 231 Short - Cicut (o) Impedance tot Fig, 230 Open Ckeut (OC) oF No-Load Test2a G)_ Cu toss at ull oad. ond Test on Single Phase Transformer had test is helpful t0 determine the following: Gi) Regulation of the transformer. ‘The test in usually conducted from the HV side of the transformer while the Bificieney of the transformer. — ee connections are shown in Fig. 2:33 (a) following precautions are necessary. fe The variac should be kept in the minimum position while switching on and the supply side DPST switch should be kept off f@ At the time of switching on the supply there should not be any load connected 10 it Fg, 2.8¢ Equivalent Cul of the tanstormor under short creuted condtion “The transformer is excited to its rated voliage on no Toad, The meter readings are noted 0 load and then for step increase of load. The transformer is loaded to its rated capacity is deaws rated current from the supply, Since in this test, the applied voltage is a small percentage of the normal vo | ‘mutual flux @ produced is also a small percentage of its normal value ‘he equivalent circuit of the transformer under short circuited condition is vie 238 Nae tat th applied Youge tt rina si sold be kept at mad volage | nee cor os is very smal withthe result that he wat-metr reali rp full load Cu loss (or) PR loss for the whole transformer. ‘Let Ws= Ouiput power Fai Vac/ly Wp Input power ‘Aigo Wo Foy Ws 4 wiceney n= 95x 100 Roy se '% Regulation = Xo Vea) OV" no load secondary rated terminal voltage Why ‘Transformer Rating in KVA? Cu Joss of @ transformer depends on current and iron Joss on voltage, hence transformer loss depends on Volt - Ampere (VA) and not on angle betwoen voltage current. ‘That is why transformer rating is in KVA. Pan, fie sotiowing chmacenkies carves BES Gilt, Vz= Secondary terminal voltage on load,292 2.59 (@ Lond test on single phase txsformer [7 z x ‘Loxd eurent (A) —> 299 /AUTO-TRANSFORMER former in which part of the winding is common to both the primary and TBreuits is known as auto transformer. The primary is electrically connected to the Fas well a8 magnetically coupled t0 it ig. 233(€) IM is primary, winding having N turns and MS is secondary winding ‘tums If no-load current and iron losses are neglected. Fig. 2:33(e) Aro Transtormor 2.39 (b) Characteretl curves of single phase transformer | Fig. 229(e) Conventional wo Winding Transformer ‘The current jn the section MS is vootor difference of fy and Jy; but sines the turns 1S are practically in phase opposition, the resultant is (Fp- /y) where >294 Saving of copper: (in Comparison to conventional two winding. transformeey Saving in copper KX weight of eopper in ordinary transformer. The volume and hence weight of copper is proportion t the length and srossection ofthe conductors Ht the lng of conductor proportional We the (urns and cross-section depends on current, lence the weight of copper is. »ortional te product of number of turns and current to be carried. Bree “ It can be proved that power transformer = input (1 ~K) “the rest of the power is conducted directly from the source t0 the load. Weight of copper in conventional two winding transformer = (yf + Ngl) aniages of Auto-Transformer igh efficiene Weight of copper in auto-ransformer Tigh y ) Small size = weight of copper in section LS+ weight of copper in section 4 Pt Zi {iy Lower cost But weight of copper in section 18~(N, le of opper OND liv) Better voltage regulation when compared with a conventional two-winding and weight of eopper in soetion MSe Np (lp A) ‘weight of copper in auto-iransformer c= (NN), +N (ly) sdvantoges/Limitatio i) The primary and secondary are conductivity connected, rather than isolated as in the conventional transformer. Because of this, both sides are subject to any stress sot up by disturbances on either side weight of a) ‘weight of copper in onlinary wansformer (wi) to (=D Ma) MN Gi) As the voltage ratio of an auto transformer increases, the common coil is tnuel smaller compared with the entire winding. This means that the economy gained is only a small part of the transformer and this edvantage is: minimize. i= 20) H+ Noh ‘Thus, because of the above disadvantages, lack of isolation and decreased ceonomy.. lransformer are rarcly used ir ratios greater than 4:1, except for tow power devices on -voltage’ systems, eations 1. Vo te together transmission oF distribution circuits of slightly different voltage (eg. L1000 V"system with a 13200 V system) To obtain partial fine voltages for sarting induction and synchronous motors with squirrel cage windings. ‘To give a small boost to a distribution cable to correct for the voltage drop. [As Furnace transformers for getting a convenient supply to suit the furnace winding from a 230 V supply. As regu ing. transformer.296 GA} wmooucrion - runes puass ransronuen sar / Star or Y- Y connection “The voltage level of single phase ac power can be increased or decreased using suit ie connection is most economical for small, high-voltage transformers because the designed single phase transformer. si Gin / phase and the amount of insulation required is minimum (as phase voltage 1 however, the’ supply is uree phase power, as most often, is the case in {INS of tine voluge,) In Fig. 235 is shown a bank of 3 transformers conocod in practice three single phase transformers Would be reguited {0 raise or lower its volage the primary and the secondary sides. The ratio of fine voltages on the primary shury Hides are the same as the transformation ratio of each transformer. Principle of Operation there is @ phase shift of 30° between the phase voltages and line voltages the primary and secondary sides. ‘course line voltages on both sides as well as primary voltages are respectively in vith each other, This connection works satisfactory only if the load is balanced, with Ihalanced oad 10 the neutral, the neutral point shifts there by making the three wutral (Ue phase) voltages: unequal. Due to the non-sinusoidal nature of the magnetsing. curent, third harmonie components be present in the phase voltage and these produce third harmonic (or ripple frequency) ‘tne ints of phase (or line) curren. Hence an alternative path must be provided for these ane Frequency currents, The secondary windings connected instar, cannot obviously provi lence in practice, small auxiliary windings of a few turns are mounted, one in fags and these are connected in Delta. "The third Isianic components of the currents ‘The three cores are arranged at 120° from cach other. Only primary windings are % . ‘But at any instant, in a three phase systom, [y+ 1y +1 fluxes is also zero at any instant, Hence the centre leg does not e TT i 1 + | Three-Phase Transformer Connections Fig. 2.9 Preciple of operon ))_¥~¥ connection Gi) connection Git) connection Gi) = ¥ connection (Open Delta (or) VV conneetion (Vi) Scout connection (or) 1'= 7° connection Fig, 235 0° Angular Displacement298 can circulate around this closed winding called “tertiary winding” and thus they are py fom flowing in the lines Advan ses © Due to star connection, phase voluge is INS times of fine voltage. Hence number of turns are roquired. (ii) There is no phase shift between primary and secondary voltages Gi) As neutral is available, i¢ is suitable for three phase, four wire system, Disadvantages Gf the load: on the secondary side is unbalanced ‘connection is not satisfactory, (Bs present in t distortion in the secondary phase voltages. 2.182 Delta-Delta or A—A Connection ‘This connection is economical for large, low-volt vault al for large, low-voluge transformers in. which Problem mt xo gem esnus it neces th wr of ve per phase. cm TH fenthough the star or neutral point of the primary is earthed, the third hang altemator voltage: my appear on the secondary side. ‘This e 299 explained above, in ondor that the output voltage be sinusoidal, i is necessary Hi the magnotising current at the (ansformer must contain & third harmonic nt In this case, the third harmonic component of the magnetising current sn flow in the A.~ connected transformers primaries without ia the Tine. wits. “ho ifficury is experencod from unbalanced loading as was the case in Y-Y connection, hone of the transformer becomes disabled, the system ean continue to opersto in ‘open Delta or in V— Vi then the performance of (i Wye / Delta or Y/A Connection Inain usc of this connection is atthe substation end of the transmission line where Ee i to bo stepped dovn. The primary winding is Y-connected with grounded neutral hr in Tig. 237. The ratio between the secondary and primary tine voltage is IN'S yansformation rato of each transformer, There it a 30° shift bowen the primary Gndary line voltayé6 which means that a ¥~A transformer bank cannot be paralleled 2 ¥-Y (or) 4 A—A bank, Also third harmonic currents flows in the A to provide Fig, £37 Wye / Dalia or YA ConnectionThis connection is not open to the objection of, floating neutral and voltage because the existance of A-connection allows a path for third-harmonic currents. It would ‘observed that the primary and secondary line voltages and line currents are out of phage Tn recent years this connection has gained considerable populating because it can serve both, the Sphise power equipment and single-phase lighting cir e each other by 30°, ra Because of this 30° sit, itis impossible to parallel such bank with « A—A”¥—¥} upprciay 10 ryrtinn of tansformers even though the voltage ratios are conectively adjusted. The rato of Fa 299 Open Data or V-V Gormacton to primary voltage it V5 times the ransformaton ratio of each wansformer. 2.18.4 Delta / Wye (or) A/Y Connection oo ‘This connection generally employed where itis necessary 10 step up the voliage a, 7 ‘example at the beginning of high tension trarsmission system. The connection is as gy in Fig. 238 The neutral of the secondary is grounded for providing 3 phase 4 wire s ‘This method of transforming 3-phase power by means of only two transformers are ° < he open 8 or VV connection | loyed {Wren one of the vatsformers io a AA bank is disabled fi) When three-phase load is too small : ; r [ Or ee a ays Ss ive ain aso z . Scott: Connection or TT Connection “This is a connection by which 3-phase to S-phase transformation is accomplished with fof two tansformers as shown in Fig. 240. Since it was First proposed by Charles Fig. 28 Dota / Wie (1) 4/Y Connection » 2.18.5 Open Delta or V- V Connection a ‘ If one of a transformer of a 4A is removed and 3-phase supply is connected te primary as shown in Fig, 239 then three equal 3-phase voltages will be available at Si : secondary terminals on no-load, Fig, 240 Soot - Connesion of T-T Connection1, Scott itis frequently referred to as Scott connection. This connection is also be y 3 phase to 2-phase transformation. (One of the transformer has centre taps both on the primary and secondary wi and is known a the min transformer. 11 forms as the horizontal member of the connection. the other transformer has @ 0.866 Jap and is known as toaser transformer, ‘One end of both the primary and secondary of the teaser transformer is joined ‘centre taps on both primary and secondary of the main transform Ga PARALLEL OPERATIONS OF TRANSFORMER 2.19.1 Need for Parallel Operation ‘the following are the stations which may necessiiate (wo or more transforms coperated in parallel @ ‘he load demand as the transformer in course of time would have increased the capacity of the existing tansformer. Hence the existing transformer be replaced by a new one of greater KVA rating or additional wansformer To be Installed W share a portion of the load. ‘The cost of adding and, fnew transformers in parallel with existing one is cheaper than replacing, the transformer by @ new one of larger capacity. If the amount of power to be transformed is greater than the power built transformer, two or more transformers are installed and operated in paral ‘To ensure the reliability of suppljy itis customary to install a spare capacity of the largest unit operating in the plant. Hence the capacity and tied ff spare transformer unit will be les ifthe total load is supplied by (wo 9 rnumber of units operating in parallel 2.19.2 Conditions to be Satisfied “The following conditions mast be satisfied in order to avoid any local circulating ‘and (o ensure that the transformer share the common load is proportion to their KVA re Yrimary windings of the transformer should be suitable for the supply voltage and frequency. “The ransformer should be connected properly with regard to polarity. ‘the transformers should be having same RM ratio, The percentage should be equal in magnitude. o iy Gi ‘the voltage ratings of both primaries and secondaries should be identical 2a the equivalent impedances should met having different KVA. ratings. rating, if cireulating currents to be ah to the individual KVA vm for connecting two single phase transformers in parallel and it i n vy oad is shown in fig. 2.41. fig, 244 Paral Oporaion ot transform the two transformers A and B are connected in parallel. Before Fae pdary windings in parallel one has to ensure the fist three conditions are Shnue a single phase transformer, wo secondaries should be checked for ores! Seeetng one terminal of the secondary of transformer tothe secondary terminal rie ieugh a SPST switch in which a polarity check voltmeter is connected primary winding of t Fig, 242 Equlvalont Cit for Parallel OperationInthe poly check voter, Vj wil be 2c. A wrong polarity connection wf reading of tvie the voiage of cach secondary. Closing the SPST switch whe Vs tril eas the two tanfomers A and comet in parallel both inthe primey cody sd, ‘The DPS ii onthe loud sido when cloted iow the two nsf power oth common fad. The lad ied bythe two tanfowers A and cen ‘ih ie pf equvaleat cea sown Ini 242 By tnd Bare oe notd el inthe secondarin of th two tnsormer A and B reseeely.Zy and Zp Iman of the nnafrner efor a wcondary so. ad Ip ae the ore theo wanformas for atta oad cumont a fi 2: Equal Voltage Ratios tus assume that no-load voltages of both secondaries is the samme. ic. Uy = 6; F the wo voltage ate coincident. i. there is no phase difference between Ey and would be true if the magnetising currents of the two transformers are not much nom each other. Under these conditions, both primaries and secondaries of the two ps ean be connected in parallel and there will circulate no current between them (2) Caye 1: Ideal Case Lot us consider the ideal case of two transformers having the same voltage hhaving impedance voltage triangles identical in size and shape. Jonever, if we neglect the magnatising admitaness, the wo transformers can be connected m by their equivalent cieuits in fi 245. The vector diagram is shown in fg. 2.46. Fig. 248 Fig 2004 Let E be the no load secondary voltage of cach transformer and Vj the terminal wi 1g and Jy the currents supptied: by them and /, ~ Load current, lagging behind. Va Fg. 245 aa “Fao fig. 245 itis seen that it represents (wo impedances in parallel, considering al! Sconsisily with reference to secondaries, In fig. 2.44 a single tangle ABC represents the identical impedance voltage ‘of both the transformers. The: current J4 and Jy of the individual jransformers: are in th the load current J, and inversely proportional to the respective impedances. Yq y= Impedance of the wansformers respective currents Following relations are obvious, Tole hettle a= Common terminal voage = Inly=€—Iglp=E~hZay Load current (combined current) Y2=14 Sp are obtained in magnitude as well as in phase from the above vectorial 3: Unequal Voltage Ratios In this case, the vollage ratio (or transformation ratios) of the two Uansformers are means that their no-load secondary voltages are unequal lat iq, Hig= no-load secondary exm.fs of the wo transformers. 7, Lond impodance acres the secadary. ‘equivalent circuit and vector diagram are also shown in fig. 2.47 and fig. 2.48. seen that Wsa7tala=legg whore Zap is the combined impedance of Z and Za in parallel From equ @) we get lay is Ca) ying both sides by common terminal voltage Va, we have Zz Vilq~ Val oo Val= Vol Cb renal ray Lat Vplx 10 3S tho combined Toad KVA. Then, the kVA cared by cach transl s 4 i STE Tete 1s seen that even when secondaries are on nooad, there will be some cross-current ‘them because of inequality in their induced ems,24a lecticat cerment J, is glven by equations (3) and (i) then give the values of secondary currents. The primary Sie obtained by the division of tansformer ratio. ic K and by addition of the © Usually Eq and Ep have the same phase (as assumed above) but there may se diference betwoon the two due (0 some difference of internal connection in Trurfstar and stafdelta 3-phase transformer. (En= Eo) ‘As the’ induced emf of the two transformers are equal t0 the total drops i respective circuits fare small a8 compared to 7, ic. when the transformers ate not operated jreut conditions, then equations for Jy and Jy can be putin a simples aud sare rstundable form. Noglecting %4% in comperison with the expression IaZn + Vo ‘a=laeat Va i Now, Vp tty tata) = Load impedance yee... Ey lala + Un + bd Za, Dat) wit) i= tala Unt Ie 21, pe Welle 1 _ Mb a= En) + InZ al TAP CHANGING a | t ‘Substituting this value of /, in equation (iii), we get Necessity for Tap-changing i following are some of the reasons which qocesstate the tap changing io a ip Ng +L Eg Ba) + Nala pV +1ghZ, Ig = Wily ~ Up~ Eg) NC plp + 2 C+ 25) | From the symmetry of the expression, we get ‘To msintain the consumer voltage within the statutory limits (£6 percent) in a power supply grid. i) Tocontrol thereal and reactive power flow over atransmission fine ogenerating stations or substations terconnecting Une + Eg ZV alt 2, y+ Z9)) Also, i) To moet the seasonal, daily or short time voltage regulation of various parts of the network due to cyclic changes in load conditions. ai Zab, ala Ls, Cn Za) Location of Tapping By multiplying the numerator and denominator of this equation by ‘appings of the windings may be at Gi) The phase ends by %, we get fil) theneutrat ends Gi) the middle of the phases.The advantage of taking the appings near the phase ends is thatthe number fy insulators is roduced as the tapping point ise for ™ the output terminal aso, he insulation required between seven! live pars will be less if tppings ane al cads. This will have more advantage hen the voliage ring. is ary lanse Yor having « large change in the voltige ratio, the tappings should be made the Be Sts windng so tat te magne ssymmcry i leas and the react ll 2.20.3. Tapping on LVMV windings Tappings i transformers are normally carried at on LIV windings du to the fal © li construction, ITV windings are housod extemal to the ILV windings. Heal {is easy 10 take out the tappings points for extemal conncctions, For the same em? per turn, one tum in ff voltage than available in TIV- winding, the LV winding will be « large perce ‘A further advantage of having tappings in IV side, especially in a step transformer is that, at Tight loud conditions when the sccondary voltage hae Fig oar the maximum numer of turns added ii HV primary side wil {o reduction of emf per tum accompanied by a low value of fux density aod ha iron toss (nln tap changing sue wn 2 tum mio of transformer to regulate system volge wile ‘ing ‘These are used to change the ie tap changer the operating ‘he cheapest mod of changing the tum rao of a transformer ie the va See dein ee Pe oaay rove. Dering topic of tn on et cist ip charg At nave lea hi eure acne Seen een en Oe ee eateatin advo pad ta changing the tap. A simple no load tp changer is shown in fig 247 1 has eight sep changer the heuld get shorecircaiéd, All forme of on load tap changing clruits are rad had wht meu Sees ert RTH vee amy dg eal sei, A cata eos et eee ae ath Thogig option “The impedance cane be a erior ox cele tapped reactor. The on Tad ny changor can in peor be lid a ein or reacor (ps (@ Off toad tap chan 3 Ge winding is tapped 2% intemal ten 8 olale sim A is move ovr oa 12.23, 3 sons % 78 the winding incre educes progressvly by i en 100% a . in which one winding tap is changed tum at sade (12) 10 88% at suds (78) ber kr pov etomncomn sen (rich peng atone nig 24, Te ig aa tows ie sees of Gheston during the aan rom oe tap to the next. Bacup rain onc a Wh het restr for normal operon Carved with transormer dened a jets completed, an energy storage is provided ‘To prevent unauthorized operation of on off citeuit tap changer @ machaniéal lock To cme ht he tanston ence red os complatl an eb sas i provided provided further (0 prevent inadvertent operation, an electro magnetic latching micro swith] which see even if the auxiliary power See eee aah alas oma taTeurent is provided to open the circuit breakage 50 a to denergize the transformer as soon as HRN the corcet break Is made easier by the fact ‘ap changer handle is moved well before the contact of the arm with the stud opens {be opened to have unity power factor.202 FL Y transformer takes @ OS A at a powerficor of 0.2 on open circuit. Find jsing and working components of no load primary current. Data: ¥,=230V, I 5A, V2=115 V, Power factor cos gy =0.2 find: 1,=? 1 SOLUTION ‘Megnetising Component v=2 14> losin gy (OTS, = 055 in (cos! 02) =05x0979 ew eal BI otng coment ‘ rw CT : ores =08%02 oral Oncload tap ch ‘automatic control of Voltage level within recto gc fom simple uh un init tame: oping mpl te 4 specified tolerance or i is to maintain a given Tas th oe Te a compen lay and compounding elements, 4 200/250 V single phase transformer gives 0.6 A and 60 W as ammeter and watime tags when sup prot lo olagevinang and igh vole wd pen fine) Power for of mead caret (aging component. i) lor -anponnt Giver Data * complex oe 22 (0 load losses Py=60Ws Ig=06A, V; =250V, Vo = 2200 V,lp=0.6 A i254, SOLUTION carent (lo) () Power factor of no-load current Pye Vilq cos Po 40 Filo 25006 Po=Vilocos % Po 0 10" Vicor Gy 440 x04 [cor y= 0.4 (lasing) ii) Magnetising Component I= losing Component (6) 06 sin (cos! 0.4) ye Ni te - fase? a= 0-549 4] =NOuGT=O13 i {iron toss Component, fen % ‘phase transformer has 400 primary turns and 1000 secondary turns. The net eross ‘area of the core is Gen? if the primary winding is connceted to 0 Hz supply V. Calculate the value of maximum flux density in the core and the EMF induced =| 100, A= 60 en?, = 50 Hz V, (or) = 500 V, Find (i) active component and reactive components of wo load current; and (ii) no ‘current of 4407220 V single transformer if the power input on no load to the high winding is 60 W and power factor of no lood eurrent is 0.4 lagging. Given Data: Primary voltage Vi=440V, Secondary voltage Vz Py=60W VY, 08 69 To find yy slo~ 4 SOLUTION Active Component Ey 444 0M (y= {lg 608 0) 7 50 °° Fea fy 444% 50% 100 90.0056 We——— 2 We know = By A “ransformer with a ratio of 440/110 V takes a no load current of $ A at Massing. Jf the secondary supplies a current of 120 A at a pf of O8 the current taken by the primary. ‘A, 608 y= 0.2, fy = 120 A, €08 0 = 08. Flux density, By, ‘The required no - load ratio in a single phase $0 Hz core type transformer is Y. Find the number of turns in each winding, ifthe flux in the core isto be about Given Data: V; (or E}) = 6000, £)=250V, the average value of fx core = 0.06 Wo, f= 50 He To find: N,N; SOLUTION For a sinusoidal quantity, we have, Fig. at Maxirmuen valu (w/a) (Average valve) $508, 0= 05"! (08)=36" 54’, cos @y=0.2. Maxiinum value of flux Oy =7/2 0.06 wo ©) F=444/0,% AAW 0.06 x 50%. 1°36" ie between /y and 1’) ~ 78° 30’ = 36" 54 = ing parallelogram law of vectors DRS KW KeaS TT IO 12a