Bipolar Junction

Transistor
Şenol Mutlu
The first transistor ever assembled. A point
contact transistor with two pointed metal
contacts pressed onto the surface of the
germanium semiconductor material in 1947,
Bell Labs.

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 1

 Outline
• Bipolar Junction Transistor introduction
• Minority carrier injection in BJT
• Charge Transportation in BJT
• BJT Parameters
• Solving minority carrier diffusion equations in BJT
• Current derivations from the diffusion equations
• Ebers-Moll Large Signal Model
• Different Operations Modes
• Circuit Configurations

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 2

 Introduction
• Over the past 4 decades, the higher layout density and
low-power advantage of CMOS technology has eroded
away the bipolar junction transistor’s (BJT) dominance in
integrated-circuit products.
– (higher circuit density → better system performance)

• BJTs are still preferred in some digital-circuit and analog-

circuit applications because of their high speed and
superior gain.
✓ faster circuit speed
 larger power dissipation
• → limits integration level to ~104 circuits/chip
EE130, UC Berkeley

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 3

 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 4

 Introduction
• BJT is a 3-terminal device
• Two types: PNP and NPN
• We will use the PNP transistor for most explanations.
• In PNP, hole flow and current are in the same direction.
• NPN is more common because electrons have higher mobility.

VEB = VE – VB VBE = VB – VE
VCB = VC – VB VBC = VB – VC
VEC = VE – VC VCE = VC – VE
= VEB - VCB = VCB - VEB
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 5
 Minority Carrier Injection
• Consider a reverse-biased pn junction.
• Reverse saturation current depends on rate of minority-
carrier generation near the junction
• Can increase reverse current by increasing rate of
minority-carrier generation:
Optical excitation of carriers
That is how
Current is
independent of RL:
solar cells and
Reverse-biased Controllable photodiodes
constant current
source
work.

BJT: Electrical injection

of minority carriers into
the neighborhood of
the junction
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 6
 Minority Carrier Injection in a BJT
Emitter junction Collector junction
Forward biased junction Reverse biased junction
IC is constant
Collect injected carriers even though VBC
changes
Inject minority
carrier

𝑊𝑏 ≪ 𝐿𝑝
Narrow base region so that recombination is neglible 𝑊𝑏 ≪ 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 7
 Charge Transport in a BJT
With proper biasing:
(1) Injected holes lost to
recombination in the base;
Emitter Collector (2) Holes reaching the
reverse-biased collector
junction;

(3) Thermally generated

Base electrons and holes
making up the reverse
saturation current of the
collector junction;
(4) Electrons supplied by
the base contact for
recombination with holes;
(5) Electrons injected
across the forward-biased
emitter junction.
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 8
 BJT Performance Parameters (PNP)

• Emitter Efficiency: • Base Transport Factor:

𝐼𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝐶𝑝
𝛾≡ 𝛼𝑇 ≡
𝐼𝐸𝑝 + 𝐼𝐸𝑛 𝐼𝐸𝑝
– Decrease (5) relative to (1+2) – Decrease (1) relative to (2)
to increase efficiency to increase transport factor

• Common-Base d.c. Current Gain: 𝛼dc ≡ 𝛾𝛼T

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 9
 Collector Current (PNP)
• The collector current is comprised of
• Holes injected from emitter,
which do not recombine in the base  (2)
• Reverse saturation current of collector junction  (3)
𝐼𝐶 = α𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵0
where ICB0 is the collector current
which flows when IE = 0 (ICn)

𝐼𝐶 = α𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵0
α𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝐶𝐵0
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐵 + • Common-Emitter d.c.
1 − α𝑑𝑐 1 − α𝑑𝑐
= β𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶𝐸0 Current Gain:
𝐼𝐶 𝛼𝑑𝑐
where ICE0 is the collector current 𝛽𝑑𝑐 ≡ ≅
which flows when IB = 0 𝐼𝐵 1 − 𝛼𝑑𝑐
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 10
 BJT Performance Parameters
𝐼𝐸𝑝
– Emitter efficiency 𝛾≡
𝐼𝐸𝑝 + 𝐼𝐸𝑛

𝐼𝐶𝑝
– Base transport factor 𝛼𝑇 ≡
𝐼𝐸𝑝
𝐼𝐶𝑝
– Common base d.c. current gain 𝛼dc ≡ 𝛾𝛼 𝑇 =
𝐼𝐸

– Common emitter d.c. current gain 𝐼𝐶 𝛼𝑑𝑐

𝛽𝑑𝑐 ≡ ≅
𝐼𝐵 1 − 𝛼𝑑𝑐
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 11
 BJT Performance Requirements
• High gain (bdc >> 1)
– One-sided emitter junction, so emitter efficiency g  1
• Emitter doped much more heavily than base (NE >> NB)
– Narrow base, so base transport factor aT  1
• Quasi-neutral base width << minority-carrier diffusion length (W << LB)

• IC determined only by IB (IC  function of VCE,VCB)

– One-sided collector junction, so quasi-neutral base width W does
not change drastically with changes in VCE (VCB)
• Based doped more heavily than collector (NB > NC)

(W = WB – xnEB – xnCB for PNP BJT)

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 12

 BJT Electrostatics
• Under normal operating conditions, the BJT may be
viewed electrostatically as two independent pn junctions

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 13

 Electrostatic potential, V(x)

Electric field, e(x)

Charge density, r(x)

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 14

 Notation (PNP BJT)

NE = NAE NB = NDB NC = NAC

DE = DN DB = DP DC = DN
tE = tn tB = tp tC = tn
LE = L N LB = L P L C = LN
nE0 = np0 = ni2/NE pB0 = pn0 = ni2/NB nC0 = np0 = ni2/NC

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 15

 Ideal Transistor Analysis
• Solve the minority-carrier diffusion equation in each quasi-neutral
region to obtain excess minority-carrier profiles
– different set of boundary conditions for each region
• Evaluate minority-carrier diffusion currents at edges of depletion
regions

𝑑Δ𝑛𝐸 𝑑Δ𝑝𝐵
𝐼𝐸𝑛 = −𝑞𝐴𝐷𝐸 ቤ 𝐼𝐸𝑝 = −𝑞𝐴𝐷𝐵 ቤ
𝑑𝑥" 𝑥"=0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0
𝑑Δ𝑛𝐶 𝑑Δ𝑝𝐵
𝐼𝐶𝑛 = 𝑞𝐴𝐷𝐶 ቤ 𝐼𝐶𝑝 = −𝑞𝐴𝐷𝐵 ቤ
𝑑𝑥′ 𝑥′=0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑊

• Add hole & electron components together → terminal currents

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 16

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 17
 Emitter Region Solution

• Diffusion equation: 0 = 𝐷𝐸
𝑑 2 Δ𝑛𝐸 Δ𝑛𝐸
−
𝑑𝑥"2 𝜏𝐸

• General solution: Δ𝑛𝐸 (𝑥") = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑥"/𝐿𝐸 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑥"/𝐿𝐸

• Boundary conditions: Δ𝑛𝐸 (𝑥" → ∞) = 0

Δ𝑛𝐸 (𝑥" = 0) = 𝑛𝐸0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)

• Solution: Δ𝑛𝐸 (𝑥") = 𝑛𝐸0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)𝑒 −𝑥"/𝐿𝐸

𝑑Δ𝑛𝐸 𝐷𝐸
𝐼𝐸𝑛 = −𝑞𝐴𝐷𝐸 ቤ = 𝑞𝐴 𝑛𝐸0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝑑𝑥" 𝑥"=0 𝐿𝐸
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 18
 Collector Region Solution

• Diffusion equation: 𝑑 2 Δ𝑛𝐶 Δ𝑛𝐶

0 = 𝐷𝐶 −
𝑑𝑥′2 𝜏𝐶

• General solution: Δ𝑛𝐶 (𝑥′) = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑥′/𝐿𝐶 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑥′/𝐿𝐶

• Boundary conditions: Δ𝑛𝐶 (𝑥′ → ∞) = 0

Δ𝑛𝐶 (𝑥′ = 0) = 𝑛𝐶0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)

• Solution: Δ𝑛𝐶 (𝑥′) = 𝑛𝐶0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)𝑒 −𝑥′/𝐿𝐶

𝑑Δ𝑛𝐶 𝐷𝐶
𝐼𝐶𝑛 = 𝑞𝐴𝐷𝐶 ቤ = −𝑞𝐴 𝑛𝐶0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝑑𝑥′ 𝑥′=0 𝐿𝐶
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 19
 Base Region Solution

• Diffusion equation: 𝑑 2 Δ𝑝𝐵 Δ𝑝𝐵

0 = 𝐷𝐵 −
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜏𝐵

• General solution: Δ𝑝𝐵 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝐵 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑥/𝐿𝐵

• Boundary conditions: Δ𝑝𝐵 (0) = 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)

Δ𝑝𝐵 (𝑊) = 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)

• Solution: (𝑊−𝑥)/𝐿𝐵 − 𝑒 −(𝑊−𝑥)/𝐿𝐵

𝑒
Δ𝑝𝐵 (𝑥) = 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝑒 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 − 𝑒 −𝑊/𝐿𝐵
𝑒 𝑥/𝐿𝐵 − 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝐵
+𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) 𝑊/𝐿
𝑒 𝐵 − 𝑒 −𝑊/𝐿𝐵

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 20

 Since 𝒆𝝃 − 𝒆−𝝃
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝝃 =
𝟐
we can write
𝑒 (𝑊−𝑥)/𝐿𝐵 − 𝑒 −(𝑊−𝑥)/𝐿𝐵
Δ𝑝𝐵 (𝑥) = 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝑒 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 − 𝑒 −𝑊/𝐿𝐵
𝑒 𝑥/𝐿𝐵 − 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝐵
+𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) 𝑊/𝐿
𝑒 𝐵 − 𝑒 −𝑊/𝐿𝐵

as
sinh 𝑊 − 𝑥 ൗ𝐿
𝐵
Δ𝑝𝐵 (𝑥) = 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
sinh 𝑊ൗ𝐿
𝐵
sinh 𝑥ൗ𝐿
𝐵
+𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
sinh 𝑊ൗ𝐿
𝐵
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 21
 𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝜉 − 𝑒 −𝜉 𝑒 𝜉 + 𝑒 −𝜉
sinh 𝜉 = = = cosh 𝜉
𝑑𝜉 𝑑𝜉 2 2

sinh 𝑊 − 𝑥 ൗ𝐿 sinh 𝑥ൗ𝐿

𝐵 𝐵
Δ𝑝𝐵 (𝑥) = 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) + 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
sinh 𝑊ൗ𝐿 sinh 𝑊ൗ𝐿
𝐵 𝐵

𝑑Δ𝑝𝐵
𝐼𝐸𝑝 = −𝑞𝐴𝐷𝐵 ቤ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0
𝐷𝐵 cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝑞𝑉 /𝑘𝑇 1
= 𝑞𝐴 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝐸𝐵 − 1) − 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵/𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )

𝑑Δ𝑝𝐵
𝐼𝐶𝑝 = −𝑞𝐴𝐷𝐵 ቤ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑊
𝐷𝐵 1 𝑞𝑉 /𝑘𝑇
cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝑞𝑉 /𝑘𝑇
= 𝑞𝐴 𝑝 (𝑒 𝐸𝐵 − 1) − 𝑒 𝐶𝐵 −1
𝐿𝐵 𝐵0 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 22

 Terminal Currents
• We know:
𝐷𝐸
𝐼𝐸𝑛 = 𝑞𝐴 𝑛𝐸0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵/𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝐿𝐸
𝐷𝐵 cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝑞𝑉 /𝑘𝑇 1
𝐼𝐸𝑝 = 𝑞𝐴 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝐸𝐵 − 1) − 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵/𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )

𝐷𝐵 1 cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝑞𝑉 /𝑘𝑇

𝐼𝐶𝑝 = 𝑞𝐴 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵/𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝑒 𝐶𝐵 −1
𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )
𝐷𝐶
𝐼𝐶𝑛 = −𝑞𝐴 𝑛𝐶0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵/𝑘𝑇 − 1)
• Therefore:
𝐿𝐶

𝐷𝐸 𝐷𝐵 cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝐷𝐵 1
𝐼𝐸 = 𝑞𝐴 𝑛𝐸0 + 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝑝𝐵0 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝐸 𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )

𝐷𝐵 1 𝐷𝐶 𝐷𝐵 cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑞𝐴 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑝𝐵0 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 23

 Simplification
• In real BJTs, we make W << LB to achieve high
current gain. Since:

sinh 𝜉 → 𝜉 for 𝜉 << 1

𝜉2
cosh 𝜉 → 1 + for 𝜉 << 1
2

Then, we have:
𝑥 𝑥
Δ𝑝𝐵 (𝑥) ≅ 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) 1 − + 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝑊 𝑊

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 24

 BJT Performance Parameters
1
𝛾= Assumptions:
𝑛𝑖 𝐸 2 𝐷𝐸 𝑁𝐵 𝑊
1+ • emitter junction forward
𝑛𝑖 𝐵 2 𝐷𝐵 𝑁𝐸 𝐿𝐸
biased, collector junction
1 reverse biased
𝛼𝑇 =
1 𝑊 2 • W << LB
1+
2 𝐿𝐵
1
𝛼𝑑𝑐 =
𝑛𝑖 𝐸 2 𝐷𝐸 𝑁𝐵 𝑊 1 𝑊 2
1+ 2 +
𝑛𝑖 𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝑁𝐸 𝐿𝐸 2 𝐿𝐵
1
𝛽𝑑𝑐 =
𝑛𝑖 𝐸 2 𝐷𝐸 𝑁𝐵 𝑊 1 𝑊 2
2 +
𝑛𝑖 𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝑁𝐸 𝐿𝐸 2 𝐿𝐵
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 25
 Ebers-Moll Model

increasing

(npn) or VEC (pnp)

The Ebers-Moll model is a large-signal equivalent circuit

which describes both the active and saturation regions of
BJT operation.
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 26
 𝐷𝐸 𝐷𝐵 cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝐷𝐵 1
𝐼𝐸 = 𝑞𝐴 𝑛𝐸0 + 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝑝𝐵0 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝐸 𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )

𝐷𝐵 1 𝐷𝐶 𝐷𝐵 cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑞𝐴 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑝𝐵0 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )

If only VEB is applied (VCB = 0): V EB V CB

IB
𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐹0 (𝑒 − 1)
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐹 𝐼𝐹0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
E B C
𝐼𝐵 = 1 − 𝛼𝐹 𝐼𝐹0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) IC

aR : reverse common base gain

If only VCB is applied (VEB = 0):
aF : forward common base gain
𝐼𝐶 = −𝐼𝑅0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝐼𝐸 = −𝛼𝑅 𝐼𝑅0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) Reciprocity relationship:
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝑅0 (1 − 𝛼𝑅 )(𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) 𝐷𝐵 𝑝𝐵0
𝛼𝐹 𝐼𝐹0 = 𝛼𝑅 𝐼𝑅0 ≡ 𝑞𝐴
𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 27
 In the general case, both VEB and VCB are non-zero:

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐹 𝐼𝐹0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝐼𝑅0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)

IC: C-B diode current + fraction of E-B diode current that
makes it to the C-B junction

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐹0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝛼𝑅 𝐼𝑅0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)

IE: E-B diode current + fraction of C-B diode current that
makes it to the E-B junction
Large-signal equivalent circuit for a pnp BJT

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 28

 𝐷𝐵 1 𝐷𝐶 𝐷𝐵 cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵)
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑞𝐴 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝑞𝐴 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑝𝐵0 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐹 𝐼𝐹0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝐼𝑅0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)

𝐷𝐸 𝐷𝐵 cosh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵) 𝐷𝐵 1
𝐼𝐸 = 𝑞𝐴 𝑛𝐸0 + 𝑝𝐵0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝑞𝐴 𝑝𝐵0 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝐸 𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 ) 𝐿𝐵 sinh( 𝑊/𝐿𝐵 )

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐹0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1) − 𝛼𝑅 𝐼𝑅0 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐶𝐵 /𝑘𝑇 − 1)

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 29

 Modes of Operation
Common-emitter output
characteristics
(IC vs. VCE)

- Active mode
Mode Emitter Junction Collector Junction
for amplifiers,
CUTOFF reverse bias reverse bias analog usage.
Forward ACTIVE forward bias reverse bias* - Saturation and
cut-off modes
Reverse ACTIVE reverse bias* forward bias
for digital
SATURATION forward bias forward bias circuits.
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 30
 Circuit Configurations

Output Characteristics for Common-Emitter Configuration

Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 31

 Common • Capacitors are open-
Emitter circuit for DC
• Capacitors are short-
circuit for AC
𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝑑𝑐 ≡
𝐼𝐵
5V

+ 30 Ω
100 Ω 1V IE
-
+
5 − 4.7 IB 0.7 V
𝐼𝐸 = = 10 𝑚𝐴 -
30
𝛽 ~ 100 for active mode
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐸 = (𝛽 + 1)𝐼𝐵 + IC
400 Ω
10 4V
𝐼𝐵 = = 0.099 𝑚𝐴 -
101
250 Ω
𝑉0 = 250 × 100 × 0.099 × 10−3 = 2.475 𝑉
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 32
 (𝛽 + 1)𝐼𝐵
10 − 0.7 − 5 5V
𝐼𝐵 = = 0.086 𝑚𝐴 10 V
50 𝑘 IE
IB
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 = 100 × 𝐼𝐵 = 8.6 𝑚𝐴 +
IB 0.7 V
-
500 Ω
𝛽𝐼𝐵 50 kΩ IC

The transistor is useful in amplifiers

because the currents at the emitter and
collector are controllable by the relatively
small base current.
Semiconductors and Electronic Devices 33