A PRIMER IN LATIN MORPHOLOGY

ACCORDING TO
‘THE STEM METHOD’

Freshman Language
Fall 2017
 38.1 Latin Nouns: Endings

Nom Gen Dat Acc Abl

Common Endings
-s / —a -m
Sg. -i/-s -i — / -e
N: -m / — N: -m / —
-i / -es -s
Pl. -um -is / -bus -is / -bus
N: -a N: -a

Endings by Stem Type - Singular

-a a- a-(i→)e a-(i→)e a-m a-
(o→)u-s
-o o/-i o-/i (o→)u-m o-
N: (o→)u-m
-e e-s e-i e-i e-m e-
u-s u-i u-m
-u u-s u-
N: u- N:u-/i N: u-
C-sb C-em
C C-i s C-i C-e
N: C- N: C-
i-s / /i-s i/-em i/-ec
-i i-s i/-i
N: /i / (i→)e- N: /i / (i→)e- N: i-

Endings by Stem Type - Plural

-a a-(i→)e a-r um a/-is a-s a/-is
o/-i o-s
-o o-r um o/-is o/-is
N: /o-a N: /o-a
-e e-/es e-r um e-bus e-s e-bus
u-/es u-s
-u u-um u
/ -i bus u
/ -i bus
N: u-a N: u-a
C-es C-es
C C-um C-i bus C-i bus
N: C-a N: C-a
i/-es i/-es
-i i-um i-bus i-bus
N: i-a N: i-a
a
The notation “-s / —” means that this form either takes the ending -s or remains
as the bare stem.
b
Liquids (l, r ) reject the -s (amor- → amor ). Dentals (d, t) drop out before -s
(aestat- → aestas). Usually -n drops out and the -s is lost (leon- → leo).
c
In the ablative singular adjectives always use the bare stem, even when modifying
masculine and feminine nouns: leone gravi.
 A PRIMER IN LATIN MORPHOLOGY
ACCORDING TO “THE STEM METHOD”
 Contents

Introduction vii

First Reading: Aristotle xvii

Second Reading: St. Augustine xix

Third Reading: Flannery O’Connor xxi

1 Alphabet and Pronunciation 1

2 Nominal and Verbal Sentences 9

3 Nouns, Case 11

4 *Reading: Saint Thomas Aquinas 19

5 The Genitive Case 21

6 The Nominative Case; e-Stem and u-Stem Nouns 23

7 Nominative Case: Consonant Stem Nouns 31

8 Nominative Case: i-Stem Nouns 35

9 Nominative Case: o-Stem and a-Stem Nouns 41

10 Double Stem and Ambiguous Stem Nouns 47

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CONTENTS

11 o- and a-Stem Adjectives 51

12 i-Stem and Consonant Stem Adjectives 55

13 The Past, Present, and Future of est and sunt 61

14 The Progressive Indicative System of sum, esse 65

15 Compounds from sum, esse; *Reading: Descartes 69

16 The Ablative Case 75

17 The Subjunctive Mood 81

18 The Subjunctive of sum, esse 85

19 Independent Uses of Moods; Infinitive 91

20 Mixed Verbs and the Perfect System of sum 97

21 Overview of the Latin Verbal System 103

22 The Common Progressive Temporal Formants 115

23 eo, ire, ii (ivi), itum 119

24 The Accusative Case 123

25 *Readings: Newton and St. Augustine 131

26 do, dare, dedi, datum and the Dative Case 135

27 fero, ferre, tuli, (t)latum 143

28 Voice, Progressive Passive System 149

29 Middle Voice and Deponents, Perfect Passive 153

30 possum, posse, potui ; Complementary Infinitive 157

31 volo, nolo, malo 163

iv
 CONTENTS

32 Remaining Root Verbs 169

33 Long Vowel Verbs; Perfect Stem 175

34 ĕ-Stem Conjugation; Formation of the Prog. Stem 183

35 The Imperative Mood 191

36 Participles 195

37 Pronouns 205

38 *Review of Noun Formation 213

39 *Poetry; Animula vagula blandula 217

40 *Readings 219

A Appendix: Vocabulary Lists 223

v
 Introduction

Why Another New Method of Teaching

Latin
The method of teaching Latin now common in schools involves presenting
the student with various lists—paradigms and glossaries, lists of the uses of
the ablative or the genitive, and so on—and expecting him to avail himself
of these lists in the act of reading or, more likely, of translating Latin texts.
Sometimes he must also use such lists to translate into Latin. This method
does almost nothing to help the student move from those lists to the acts of
reading and translating. Those of us who have learned to read Latin each
have our ways of bridging this gap.
But many students do not bridge the gap. The paradigm remains a long
list through which they trudge each time they encounter an accusative or
ablative plural. The list of subjunctive uses remains in a state of confusion
and is consulted erratically. The glossary becomes the end rather than the
beginning of the student’s vocabulary.
The “Stem Method” of teaching Latin morphology and syntax was
worked out precisely to bridge such gaps. The study demanded for this
task has led back to the actual principles of the language again and again.
(Very often these were not those suggested in the standard primers and
grammars.) Thus this method is appropriate for those who would study
grammar as a liberal art. For the liberal art of grammar, as part of the
trivium, is a “way into philosophy.” It is appropriate that the student be-
gin to learn here how to resolve things to true, proper, and, when possible,
scientific causes. And though these principles were found in very learned

vii
INTRODUCTION

books, encrusted with academic jargon, they demand little more than at-
tention to the various letters of the alphabet and to the most fundamental
ways in which we speak.
By resolving to such principles, whether in morphology or syntax,1 the
unity and order and the near absence of irregularity in the Latin language
are brought home forcefully. For example, the student sees very easily
that the progressive system of the word sum, esse, despite its apparent
irregularity, is formed according to very determinate rules from the root es-.
Again, almost all subjunctive usage in subordinate clauses can be traced
back to its independent uses: the potential, the optative, and the jussive.
Note here that most primers do not even teach all three of these independent
uses and most teach independent usage after dependent usage.

The Stem Method and Speculative Grammar

At Thomas Aquinas College the language tutorial is principally devoted to
the study of speculative grammar. It is natural to wonder how the stem
method serves this end, but one should first wonder about what speculative
grammar is. For grammar is by its nature an art, which means it is practi-
cal. Since the practical is divided against the speculative, the very idea of
a “speculative art of grammar” should be puzzling. St. Thomas Aquinas
explains the meaning of this and similar expressions thus. While the prac-
tical is always ordered to action, one may consider the principles of an art
in a way that is more or less directly connected to the art to which they
are ordered. The art of grammar aims at the construction of fitting sen-
tences, but some grammatical principles may be considered in a way rather
removed from constructing sentences. For example, the consideration of
the nature of a noun or even predication will usually be separated from the
consideration of any particular sentence. To speak of speculative grammar,
then, is to speak of the most universal principles of sentences. The more
proximate and particular the principles, the less their consideration can be
considered speculative.
But it should not be thought that the most universal principles of gram-
mar are found merely by abstracting from any particular language. For
1
Morphology is the study of the formation of words for use in sentences. Syntax is
primarily the study of the order among words or the composition of words in a sentence.

viii
 INTRODUCTION

example, the nature of a noun is a prime example of what would be consid-

ered by speculative grammar, and yet the nature of a noun is not altogether
the same in Latin and in English. In Latin, adjectives are not a distinct
part of speech from the noun, while in English they are. To be sure, the
more universal the grammatical properties, the less they will be restricted
to a single language, but at most a very few principles of grammar are
completely universal.
Morphology is undoubtedly a part of grammar, for the inflection of
words serves to signify the properties of words by which they are able to
be constructed into a sentence. Yet morphological principles are usually re-
stricted to a single language or perhaps a single family of languages. More-
over, the principles of morphology are much closer to the construction of
particular sentences than more general principles of predication, the parts
of speech, syntax, and so on. So, while morphology is by its nature less
speculative than syntax, the stem method aims to study morphology in as
speculative a manner as possible. While other methods of presenting Latin
noun morphology present nouns as being composed of a “base” and an
ending, for example, the stem method identifies the true stems from which
nouns are formed. Similarly, the nominative plural of filia and filius are
usually presented as having different endings, but the stem method shows
that each is formed by adding the ending -i to the stem, noting at the same
time that -i turns to -e after an a. The point is that the more common
method of teaching Latin produces the correct forms—filiae and filii —but
it does not allow you to accurately consider how those forms came to be or
why they are what they are. The stem method aims to do that.
The stem method books move generally from less speculative matters—
still considered in as speculative a manner as possible—to the more spec-
ulative. The first semester focuses on morphology, and in fact nearly all
Latin forms are introduced during this time. The second semester changes
the emphasis to syntax and reading. Reading Latin texts is preferred to
exercises because the constructions of the Latin language are better ap-
preciated in their natural context than in abstract and artificial exercises.
More particular constructions, many of them specific to Latin, are the first
syntactical matters to be considered. These include the various uses of the
cases, constructions such as indirect statement or the passive periphrastic,
and various uses of the subjunctive. The most universal considerations of
grammar are the focus of the second year. Readings from St. Augustine,
for example, raise questions about the nature of language and its place in

ix
INTRODUCTION

the development of man’s reason. Martin of Denmark’s Tractatus de modis

significandi treats of the first and most universal principles of the art of
grammar, the modes of being, of understanding, and of signifying.

Morphology in the Stem Method

The name of the stem method comes from its presentation of morphology.
It has already been suggested, however, that the approach to teaching Latin
in the stem method is new in more ways than simply in how morphology
is taught. What more generally characterizes the whole stem method is
the study of principles. While certain aspects of language are matters of
complex historical development, and in some cases the reasons for things
is simply unknown, there are very many matters where the principles are
understood and the development of the language can be presented to the
intelligent student without entering into details that are of interest only to
the specialist in linguistics.
The first readings in this Primer provide an introduction to language
in general. Aristotle defines “voice” and St. Augustine defines “sign.”
The division of signs into natural and conventional allows one to situate
language. The text by Flannery O’Connor should stimulate wonder about
aspects of language with which we are all familiar but are nevertheless
difficult to understand.
Latin is an inflected language, which means that words are formed gen-
erally by adding letters to a stem. Thus, morphology must be preceded by
a short consideration of phonology, i.e., what are the letters of the Latin
language and how they may be classified. Because the sounds that cor-
respond to different letters are made in different parts of the mouth, it is
easier to pronounce some letters after others. For this reason, there are
certain phonological rules that the speakers of Latin followed that concern
how letters changed due to their proximity to other letters. These rules are
not presented all at once, although they may be seen together in the book-
let Latin Morphological Principles, n. 1. Rather each principle is presented
when it is first used.
Here it is worthwhile to note two things that are generally true about
language. Since language is a tool of man used to accomplish a certain end,
the rules of language do not have the strictness of mathematics or even of
the moral life. There may be exceptions and often these are abundant. For

x
 INTRODUCTION

example, the speakers of Latin generally changed the letter s to r when

it appeared between two vowels. But this does not mean that they could
not tolerate an s between two vowels, and there are words such as vasis
where this occurs. Still, they did make this change as a rule and there are
many places where one can explain the words that do exist only by invoking
this rule. Secondly, the reasons we have for doing things in language are
rarely necessary, but they are still good reasons. Since the sound of the
letter r is made with the parts of the mouth in nearly the same positions
in which vowel sounds are made, it is easier to pronounce an r between two
vowels than an s, which is made with the front of the mouth closed. That
something is easier is a good reason to do it that way, but it does not make
this necessary. In fact, sometimes it is difficult to say that one way of doing
something is better than another, yet one can still be chosen over another
for what makes it good. For example, the noun sol (“sun”) is masculine
in Latin, and there is a fittingness that makes this good: one can see some
similarity between the inanimate sun and masculine characteristics. But
one may also see similarities of the sun to feminine characteristics and it
may even be impossible to say whether the sun is more like the male than
the female. Still, the likeness to the male means that there is good reason
for the noun to be masculine. It must not be thought that to find the reason
for things in language means to explain why they cannot be otherwise.
After the brief introduction to phonology, the morphology of nouns is
introduced. A brief overview of the morphology of nouns is given below.
The stem method differs by dividing the presentation of noun morphology
more by case than by the classes of nouns, which are usually called declen-
sions. A reason for this is that the endings for each case are common to the
different declensions, but this is often difficult to see, especially when the
declensions are presented separately. In the stem method the declensions
are named not by numbers but by what characterizes each of them: the
ending of the noun stem. Thus, we speak of “a-stem” nouns rather than
“first declension” nouns.
After most of noun morphology has been covered, the stem method be-
gins the consideration of verbs with a class of verbs called root verbs. These
verbs are called irregular verbs in other methods, but a proper consideration
of the principles of verb formation shows that root verbs are truly regular.
In fact, they serve well as the prime examples of verbs from which the rules
of formation can be learned. There are ten such verbs in Latin, and only
after all of these have been considered are the other classes of verbs covered.

xi
INTRODUCTION

Morphology cannot be separated from syntax, since the forms of words

are signs of their syntactical use. Thus, it is necessary to cover the basic
syntax of each of the noun cases and the principal properties of verbs. There
is a deliberate attempt to de-emphasize syntax in the Primer for the sake
of morphology, but it is not altogether absent. Nor should it be thought
that all the morphology is to be mastered as it is presented. The drills
and exercises that accompany the Primer aim to build the habits of word
formation and identification. The Primer moves at a rate that assumes
that the student will always be reviewing and shoring up what has been
previously studied even as new material is continually being presented.

An Overview of Nouns in the Stem Method

The “stem method” considers how words are formed by adding prefixes,
infixes2 and suffixes to stems. It also considers how stems are formed
from roots. Roots are the most basic and original parts of words, usually
consisting of a single syllable. Roots may be found by stripping from a
word all the prefixes, infixes and suffixes that have been added to make
that word. For example am- is the root of the noun amor and of the verb
amare. It can be found by removing -a and -re from amare or -or from
amor.3
In the vocabulary lists the entries for verbs will include the four principal
parts of the verb along with the root in parentheses: for example, habeo,
habēre, habui, habitum (hab-). The entries for nouns will include the stem
in parenthesis: for example, mens, mentis (menti-) f. How to use the entries
to identify and make all the forms of a given noun or verb will be studied
later.
2
Infixes are letters added not to the beginning or end of a word but to the middle.
Infixes are often called formants.
3
Linguists use the term “root” both with more flexibility and with more precision
than we will use it here. They sometimes call a root that to which something has already
been added; we will call a root only that to which nothing has been added. By the term
“root” linguists may also refer to something in Latin’s parent language, Indo-European.
For our purposes we will consider the root only as the basis of words in Latin. Thus we
will consider the Latin verb fuit as being derived from the root fu-, while a scholar of
Indo-European would say that fuit comes from the root bheu@-. (The only exception to
this will be when we compare Latin words to words in other languages. For example, we
may say that fuit and “being” are derived from the same root.)

xii
 INTRODUCTION

As we study nouns in the stem method, we will give little direct at-
tention to the roots. A particular noun such as calorem results from the
combination of a stem (calor-) and an ending (-m). Occasionally the stem
or ending will be modified as they combine. Sometimes an extra vowel,
called a theme vowel, will be inserted between the stem and ending for
phonetic reasons. (The Romans apparently preferred calorem to calorm.)
There are rules that govern all of this and these rules are made intelligible
in part through a handful of morphological principles that can be found at
the beginning of Latin Morphological Paradigms (LMP).

An Overview of Verbs in the Stem Method

In the stem method verbs are considered at four levels of completion. The
root is the most basic and most incomplete part of the verb. The pro-
gressive stem and perfect stem are formed by adding letters to the root
according to the rules studied later (cf. LMP 27.1–2). Together the pro-
gressive and perfect stems may be called the aspect stems, since they
convey either the progressive or perfect aspect by their forms. This also
distinguishes them from the ten tense-mood stems that are made by
adding formants to the aspect stems. The formants convey tense (present,
past, or future) and mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive). Finally,
the personal endings are added to convey person (first, second or third),
number (singular or plural) and voice (active or passive). As an example
we may consider the verb amo, amare, amavi, amatum (am-):

1. root am-

2. aspect stems ama- amav-

3. tense-mood stems ama- amav-i-

ama-ba- amav-era-
ama-bi- amav-eri-
am/a-e- amav-eri-
ama-re- amav-isse-

4. finite verbs e.g., amat, e.g., amaverit,

ametis amavisses

xiii
INTRODUCTION

All of this is presented here as an overview. The many principles of

noun and verb morphology will be covered in the chapters of the Primer.
One may profitably refer back to this overview when working through the
Primer.

Vocabulary in the Stem Method

Hearing or reading a word should bring to mind a meaning. When you
hear a word in your mother tongue, nothing else is necessary for you to call
to mind the idea by which you know the thing named by that word. As
you advance in your study of Latin, it will be the case less and less that
hearing or reading a Latin word will first bring to mind a word in English.
You will come to understand the Latin sentence without first translating it
into English, even in your mind. So from the very beginning of your study
of Latin vocabulary, you should use English words as a way to understand
Latin with the expectation that you will some day comprehend the Latin
without the aid of English.
In the meantime, it is necessary to memorize the English equivalents
of many Latin words. In fact, there are around a thousand common Latin
words that you must become familiar with. The vocabulary lists in this
Primer and in the books that follow are intended to help you learn these
words systematically over the next four semesters. Each list will contain
no more than twenty-five words and is presented at the end of every third
chapter of this Primer ; you should learn the words on one list in a week’s
time. In this way you will learn more than 300 words per semester. Every
word you will regularly encounter in your reading of Latin will be on these
lists. You will learn other words, even without special study, simply by
looking up unfamiliar words as you encounter them in your reading. And
there are many words whose meaning you can ascertain through English
derivatives and cognates or by their relation to other Latin words you know.
The Latin word lists you will be given do not include English equivalents.
You must have a good pocket dictionary which you use extensively. It
should always be by your side or in your hand as you study and read Latin,
as you will refer to it very often. Your dictionary will usually present you
with many English equivalents for a single Latin word. In any language,
words have many meanings or shades of meaning, and which English word
best translates a Latin word will depend upon context. When you look

xiv
 INTRODUCTION

a Latin word up, note the range of related meanings and try to identify
a principal meaning or meanings which unify the many possible English
equivalents.
When learning Latin words, you must also memorize their stems. You
will learn to recognize a word’s stem in the chapters to come. Learning the
stem is absolutely necessary for being able to recognize and form the many
forms a single Latin word can take. For nouns you must also memorize their
gender. One way to do this more easily is to remember a noun together
with an adjective, e.g., oratio obliqua. The adjective’s ending indicates the
gender of the noun, which in this case is feminine.
Finally, while there are many concepts in language where to understand
them is to learn them, there are other aspects of language that are matters
of memorization. In addition to vocabulary, this is true for the forms of
nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives (i.e., morphology). Memorization is
aided by frequent, careful repetition. It is far better to study vocabulary
and morphology for five to ten minutes several times a day than to spend
an hour in continuous study.

xv
 First Reading: Aristotle

On The Soul, Book II, Chapter 8

Voice is a kind of sound characteristic of what has soul in it; nothing that
is without soul utters voice, it being only by a metaphor that we speak
of the voice of the flute or the lyre or generally of what (being without
soul) possesses the power of producing a succession of notes which differ in
length and pitch and timbre. The metaphor is based on the fact that all
these differences are found also in voice.
Many animals are voiceless, e.g., all non-sanguineous animals and, among
sanguineous animals, fish. This is just what we should expect, since voice
is a certain movement of air. The fish, like those in the Achelous, which
are said to have voice, really make the sounds with their gills or some sim-
ilar organ. Voice is the sound made by an animal and that with a special
organ. As we saw, everything that makes a sound does so by the impact of
something against something else, across a space filled with air; hence it is
only to be expected that no animals utter voice except those which take in
air.
Once air is breathed in, the nature uses it for two different purposes,
as the tongue is used both for tasting and for articulating. In that case, of
the two functions, tasting is necessary for the animal’s existence (hence it is
found more widely distributed), while articulate speech serves its possessor’s
well-being. Similarly, in the former case, the nature employs the breath both
as an indispensable means to the regulation of the inner temperature of the
living body and also as the matter of articulate voice, for its possessor’s well-
being. Why its former use is indispensable must be discussed elsewhere.
The organ of respiration is the windpipe, and the organ to which this

xvii
FIRST READING: ARISTOTLE

is related as means to end is the lungs. The latter is the part of the body
by which the temperature of land animals is raised above that of all others.
But what primarily requires the air drawn in by respiration is not only this
but the region surrounding the heart. That is why when animals breathe
the air must penetrate inwards.
Voice then is the impact of the inbreathed air against the windpipe,
and the agent that produces the impact is the soul as dwelling in these
parts of the body. Not every sound, as we said, made by an animal is voice
(even with the tongue we may merely make a sound which is not voice, or
without the tongue as in coughing); what produces the impact must have
soul in it and must be accompanied by an act of imagination, for voice is a
sound with a meaning, and is not the result of any impact of the breath as
in coughing; in voice the breath in the windpipe is used as an instrument
to knock with against the walls of the windpipe. This is confirmed by our
inability to speak when we are breathing either out or in—we can only do so
by holding our breath; we make the movements with the breath so checked.
It is clear also why fish are voiceless; they have no windpipe. And they
have no windpipe because they do not breathe or take in air. Why they do
not is a question belonging to another inquiry.

xviii
 Second Reading: St. Augustine

On Christian Doctrine, Book I, Chapter 2

All instruction is either about things or about signs; but things are learnt
by means of signs. I now use the word ‘thing’ in a strict sense, to signify
that which is never employed as a sign of anything else: for example, wood,
stone, cattle, and other things of that kind. Not, however, the wood which
we read Moses cast into the bitter waters to make them sweet, nor the
stone which Jacob used as a pillow, nor the ram which Abraham offered up
instead of his son; for these, though they are things, are also signs of other
things. There are signs of another kind, those which are never employed
except as signs: for example, words. No one uses words except as signs
of something else; and hence may be understood what I call signs: those
things, to wit, which are used to indicate something else. Accordingly, every
sign is also a thing; for what is not a thing is nothing at all. Every thing,
however, is not also a sign. And so, in regard to this distinction between
things and signs, I shall, when I speak of things, speak in such a way that
even if some of them may be used as signs also, that will not interfere with
the division of the subject according to which I am to discuss things first
and signs afterwards. But we must carefully remember that what we have
now to consider about things is what they are in themselves, not what other
things they are signs of.

§ § §

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SECOND READING: ST. AUGUSTINE

On Christian Doctrine, Book II, Chapter 1

As when I was writing about things, I introduced the subject with a warning
against attending to anything but what they are in themselves, even though
they are signs of something else, so now, when I come in its turn to discuss
the subject of signs, I lay down this direction, not to attend to what they
are in themselves, but to the fact that they are signs, that is, to what they
signify. For a sign is a thing which, over and above the impression it makes
on the senses, causes something else to come into the mind as a consequence
of itself: as when we see a footprint, we conclude that an animal whose
footprint this is has passed by; and when we see smoke, we know that there
is fire beneath; and when we hear the voice of a living man, we think of
the feeling in his mind; and when the trumpet sounds, soldiers know that
they are to advance or retreat, or do whatever else the state of the battle
requires. Now some signs are natural, others conventional. Natural signs
are those which, apart from any intention or desire of using them as signs,
do yet lead to the knowledge of something else, as, for example, smoke when
it indicates fire. For it is not from any intention of making it a sign that
it is so, but through attention to experience we come to know that fire is
beneath, even when nothing but smoke can be seen. And the footprint of
an animal passing by belongs to this class of signs. And the countenance of
an angry or sorrowful man indicates the feeling in his mind, independently
of his will: and in the same way every other emotion of the mind is betrayed
by the tell-tale countenance, even though we do nothing with the intention
of making it known. This class of signs, however, it is no part of my design
to discuss at present. But as it comes under this division of the subject, I
could not altogether pass it over. It will be enough to have noticed it thus
far.

xx
 Third Reading: Flannery
O’Connor

The Life You Save May Be Your Own (excerpt)

The old woman and her daughter were sitting on their porch when Mr.
Shiftlet came up their road for the first time. The old woman slid to the edge
of her chair and leaned forward, shading her eyes from the piercing sunset
with her hand. The daughter could not see far in front of her and continued
to play with her fingers. Although the woman lived in this desolate spot
with only her daughter and she had never seen Mr. Shiftlet before, she could
tell, even from a distance, that he was a tramp and no one to be afraid of.
His left coat sleeve was folded up to show there was only half an arm in it,
and his gaunt figure listed slightly to the side as if the breeze were pushing
him. He had on a black town suit and a brown felt hat that was turned
up in the front and down in the back and he carried a tin toolbox by a
handle. He came on, at an amble, up her road, his face turned toward the
sun which appeared to be balancing itself on the peak of a small mountain.
The old woman didn’t change her position until he was almost into her
yard; then she rose with one hand fisted on her hip. The daughter, a large
girl in a short blue organdy dress, saw him all at once and jumped up and
began to stamp and point and make excited speechless sounds.
Mr. Shiftlet stopped just inside the yard and set his box on the ground
and tipped his hat at her as if she were not in the least afflicted; then he
turned toward the old woman and swung the hat all the way off. He had
long black slick hair that hung flat from a part in the middle to beyond the
tips of his ears on either side. His face descended in forehead for more than

xxi
THIRD READING: FLANNERY O’CONNOR

half its length and ended suddenly with his features just balanced over a
jutting steel-trap jaw. He seemed to be a young man but he had a look of
composed dissatisfaction as if he understood life thoroughly.
“Good evening,” the old woman said. She was about the size of a cedar
fence post and she had a man’s gray hat pulled low over her head.
The tramp stood looking at her and didn’t answer. He turned his back
and faced the sunset. He swung both his whole and his short arm up and his
figure formed a crooked cross. The old woman watched him with her arms
folded across her chest as if she were the owner of the sun, and the daughter
watched, her head thrust forward and her fat helpless hands hanging at the
wrists. She had long pink-gold hair and eyes as blue as a peacock’s neck.
He held the pose for almost fifty seconds and then he picked up his box
and came on to the porch and dropped down on the bottom step. “Lady,”
he said in a firm nasal voice, “I’d give a fortune to live where I could see
me a sun do that every evening.”
“Does it ever evening,” the old woman said and sat back down. The
daughter sat down too and watched him with a cautious, sly look as if he
were a bird that had come up very close. He leaned to one side, rooting
in his pants pocket, and in a second he brought out a package of chewing
gum and offered her a piece. She took it and unpeeled it and began to chew
without taking her eyes off him. He offered the old woman a piece but she
only raised her upper lip to indicate she had no teeth.
Mr. Shiftlet’s pale, sharp glance had already passed over everything in
the yard—the pump near the corner of the house and the big fig tree that
three or four chickens were preparing to roost in—and had moved to a shed
where he saw the square rusted back of an automobile. “You ladies drive?”
he asked.
“That car ain’t run in fifteen year,” the old woman said. “The day my
husband died, it quit running.”
“Nothing is like it used to be, lady,” he said. “The world is almost
rotten.”
“That’s right,” the old woman said. “You from around here?”
“Name Tom T. Shiftlet,” he murmured, looking at the tires.
“I’m pleased to meet you,” the old woman said. “Name Lucynell Crater
and daughter Lucynell Crater. What you doing around here, Mr. Shiftlet?”
He judged the car to be about a 1928 or ’29 Ford. “Lady,” he said, and
turned and gave her his full attention, “lemme tell you something. There’s
one of these doctors in Atlanta that’s taken a knife and cut a human heart—

xxii
 THIRD READING: FLANNERY O’CONNOR

the human heart,” he repeated, leaning forward, “out of a man’s chest and
held it in his hand,” and he held his hand out, palm up, as if it were
slightly weighted with the human heart, “and studied it like it was a day-
old chicken, and lady,” he said, allowing a long significant pause in which
his head slid forward and his clay-colored eyes brightened, “he don’t know
no more about it than you or me.”
“That’s right,” the old woman said.
“Why, if he was to take that knife and cut into every corner of it, he
still wouldn’t know no more than you or me. What you want to bet?”
“Nothing,” the old woman said wisely. “Where you come from, Mr.
Shiftlet?”

Parts of Speech
A word can be considered according to the force that it has in a particular
sentence, as a “part of the sentence.” It can also be considered according
to the force it has insofar as it is one kind of word rather than another,
wherever it may appear in the sentence. In this sense we refer to a word as
a “part of speech.”
Usually eight parts of speech are listed, though not always the same
eight. In modern English we usually list the noun, pronoun, adjective,
adverb, verb, preposition, conjunction, and exclamation. In some lists the
participle or the article replaces one of these. (Sections 5–19 of the Latin
Syntax Guide (LSG) list the parts of speech, though 5–10 are “parts” of
the noun and 14–16 are “parts” of the verb.)

Classroom Drill 1. In the Flannery O’Connor reading above, determine

what part of speech each italicized word is.

Parts of the Sentence

Various grammatical terms describe the role or “part” that a word or phrase
plays in a sentence. Here the word or phrase is considered according to a
particular role that it plays in a sentence or in a kind of sentence, such
as “subject,” “predicate,” “object” and so on. Hence, different “parts of

xxiii
THIRD READING: FLANNERY O’CONNOR

speech” or different forms of one “part of speech” may be the same part of
a sentence.
Read in Concepts in Latin Syntax the accounts of the noun (found in
the text preceding CLS 5–11) and the verb (found in the text preceding
CLS 14–16). Then read the initial general accounts of other parts of speech
(CLS 11–13 and CLS 17–19, skipping sub-sections 11.1, 11.2, etc.). Also
read the accounts of the infinitive, gerund, and participle (CLS 15.1, 15.2,
and 16).

Classroom Drill 2. In the Flannery O’Connor reading above, determine

what part of the sentence each underlined word or phrase is. (Read “Parts
of the Sentence,” the introduction to CLS 3. Look over LSG 3–4 and their
subsections to see some fundamental parts of the sentence.)

xxiv
1 Alphabet and Pronunciation

In Latin and English, speech is called lı́ngua (leen-gwa) and “tongue,”

respectively. The word lı́ngua has an ambiguity found in the English
“tongue.” It can name the organ used in speaking or the speech itself. The
word “language” is a more abstract term, derived from the French word for
the tongue—langue (lawng)—which is itself derived from the Latin lı́ngua.
The French langue shares the ambiguity mentioned.
Since language is something formed by the tongue, it is worthwhile ex-
amining the most fundamental sounds formed in the Latin language by a
consideration of its letters. These letters are organized for study in an al-
phabet. Since the Roman alphabet is used in the English language, the
written symbols of the Latin language are already familiar. Many of the
sounds are likewise familiar. But the naming and pronunciation of the
letters of the alphabet in Latin is not the same as that in English.
The pronunciation presented here is that of “Church Latin.” Such a
pronunciation has been more or less in common use in liturgical and intel-
lectual Latin since the Middle Ages. Hence, most of the sounds are common
to Romance languages, such as Spanish, Italian, French, and Portuguese.
(Even English shared these long vowel sounds before the “great vowel shift”
between middle and modern English.)

Distinction of Vowels and Consonants

The elements or “letters” of vocal sound are first divided into vowels and
consonants. The word “vowel” is derived through French from the Latin
vocális (voh-cah-lees) meaning“vocal” or “pertaining to the voice.” This

1
1. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION

1.1 Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation

Letter Name Sound Letter Name Sound

A,a ah father N,n en no

B, b be bet O,o oh no
C,c che cat, chill P,p pe pet
D,d deh debt Q,q coo question
E,e eh bet R,r era thrill
F,f ef f ee S,s es see or easy
G,g je giraffe, gap T,t te test, tootsie
H,h ha — or history V,u oo loot
I,i ēē fee oob vote
(J,j) ēēc yet X,x eeks ex
K,k ka cat Y,y oopsilon heat or hoot
L,l el lit Z,z zeta zip
M,m em meat
a
also called littera canina, or “the dog letter”
b
oo consonans, or “consonant oo”
c
ēē consonans, or “consonant ee”

word vocális is itself derived from vox (vohks), which means “voice.” The
word “consonant,” however, is a compound from con- (cohn), meaning “to-
gether,” and -sonans (so-nahns), meaning “sounding” or “making sound.”
The word is again derived from Latin through French.

This distinction must not be understood as dividing sounds perfectly.

Some letters lie on the “border” between vowels and consonants. Often
these are called “semi-vowels” or “semi-consonants.” Such descriptions do
not refer to the fact that some written letters are sometimes sounded as
vowels and at other times as consonants, as the y in “you” and in “why”,
or the two examples of w in “wow”. Rather they refer to instances, often
involving the very same letters, in which the sound “glides” because the
position of the organs of speech changes, while “voice” or “whisper” is
continued. In common such sounds can be called “vocal-glides.”

2
 1. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION

Vowels
The Latin vowels and diphthongs use sounds which all exist in English:

1.2 Vowels and Diphthongs

Vowels Diphthongs

a as in father ae or oe as in hey
e as in met au as in ouch
i as in meat
o as in open
u as in oops

One must be careful, especially at the beginnings of words, not to intro-

duce the y-sound that usually precedes the English u: “universe,” “usual.”
When the Latin u follows q, it produces the w sound also found in
that position in many English words: “question,” “quite.” This is unlike
Spanish or French (and some Italian) pronunciations in which qu- is merely
a k-sound rather than a kw-sound.

Consonants
The sounds of the consonants of the Latin language are relatively familiar.
In Ecclesiastical pronunciation (or Church Latin) the following consonants
differ from their English counterparts only in being slightly less distinct: b,
d, f, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v. Examples follow:

bos (b-oh-s) bull, cow

dos (d-oh-s) dowry, gift
fócus (foh-coos) hearth, focus of ellipse
Kalendárium (kah-lehn-dah-ree-oom)
lı́ngua (leen-gua) tongue, language
mos (mohs) custom, habit
nos (nohs) we, us
paúper (pow-pear) poor man

3
1. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION

rósa (roh-sah) rose

sóbrius (soh-bree-oos) sober, serious
tı́gris (tee-grees) tiger, tiger-skin
vı́num (vee-noom) vine, wine

The consonants c and g have a varied pronunciation. Before the

vowels a, o, and u and the diphthong au, they are “hard”:

cárus (kah-roos), dear, valuable

contra (cohn-trah), against
curiósitas (koo-ree-oh-see-tahs) curiosity
caúsa (kow-sah) cause
gámba (gahm-bah) hoof
Góthi (goh-tee) the Goths
gubernátor (goo-bear-nah-tohr) navigator, governor
gaúdium (gow-dee-oom) joy

These consonants are also hard before the consonants l or r : clámor

(clah-mohr) shout, glória (gloh-ree-ah) glory, crux (kroocks) cross,
grus (groos) crane. The same consonants are “soft” before the vowels
e and i and the dipthong ae:

cénsus (chehn-soos) census

cı́rcum (cheer-coom) around
caeléstis (chey-lehs-tees) celestial
génu (jeh-noo) knee
régimen (reh-jee-mehn) guidance

The consonant t has its usual pronunciation before an i, when the i

is followed by a consonant: tı́midus (tee-mee-doos) timid. But it too
is soft, when the i is followed by another vowel: caútio (kow-tsee-oh)
caution. The soft t adds an s sounds between the t and i.1

The letter x represents the cluster ks: dux (dooks) leader.

1
An exception to this exception is when s immediately precedes the t: quaestio. The
t remains hard even though followed by an i and a vowel.

4
 1. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION

One peculiarity of the letter c is its even softer character before e, ae,
or i, and after an s: scélus (sheh-loos) crime, sciéntia (shee-ehn-tsee-
ah) science, but scápulae (skah-poo-lay) shoulder blades. This is also
caused by the s hidden in the letter x (ks): excélsus (ek-shehl-soos)
high. The x or s may even belong to the previous word in the same
sentence: bonus cives (boh-noos-shee-vehs) good citizen, rex caelestis
(rehk-shay-lehs-tees) celestial king.
The letters c and t are “hard” when followed by an h: chérubim
(keh-roo-beem), Thómas (tow-mahs).
The letter g followed by n results in a y sound after the n: ágnus
(ahn-yoos), mágnum (mahn-yoom).
The letter h is either lightly pronounced or omitted: hóra (hoh-rah
or oh-rah) hour. Even in ancient times this letter was sometimes not
pronounced. Public inscriptions of the time often omit it, where it
should be present.
The letter j is the consonantal form of the vowel i, and thus it is often
written i. The letter is a consonant when it occurs before a vowel
except at the end of a word. In the word iustitia, only the first i is a
consonant. It is pronounced like the English consonantal y: iustı́tia
(yoo-stee-tsee-ah) justice; coniungo (kohn-yoon-goh) I conjoin.
Likewise the letter v is the consonantal form of the vowel u. Before
a vowel it is close to the English v, though somewhat closer to b: vir
(veer) man. Sometimes the letter v had only a slight w sound. In
such cases it is called a semi-vowel, though this is considered a kind
of consonant: cui (kwee) to whom. When it retained this sound it
was not written. As you will see, its influence was still felt in a few
words.
The consonant q is always followed by u. The cluster qu- is pro-
nounced “kw:” quaéstio (kways-tee-oh) question. Note that here u
(just another way of writing v ) is a semi-vowel.
Latin words derived from Greek sometimes include the letters y and
z and the clusters ph and ps: dýnamis (dee-nah-mees) plenty, zélus
(dseh-loos) jealous, philosóphia (fee-loh-soh-fee-ah) philosophy, psálmus
(psahl-moos) psalm.

5
1. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION

Classification of Letters
Consonants are divided in several ways. To judge which of these divisions
is most fundamental, a rather difficult and disputed question, is beyond our
present purpose or ability. But perhaps the most fundamental division is
the division into stops, continuants, and semi-vowels (or semi-consonants).
Some consonants are called stops because they interrupt the breath at
some part of the mouth. The other major group includes various contin-
uants. These allow the breath to pass through the mouth, so that the
sound can be “continued.” When the letter v (perhaps spelled u) has a
full consonant sound, as in “vote” or vinum, it is a stop. When it has the
w sound, as in “quite” or quia, it is considered a semi-vowel. Note that
in the last two examples the letter u does not have its full character as a
vowel. This is the only (or perhaps the principal) Latin semi-vowel.

Division of Continuants
The Latin continuants are of three kinds. The letters l and r are liquids,
because they are “rolled” through the mouth: “roll,” “roast.” (These can
follow stops to form clusters: tr-, br-, dr-, cl-, gl- and so on.) The letter
s is called a sibilant because of its characteristic “hissing” sound: “sit.”
The letters m and n are nasals, because the breath must pass through the
nose: “no,” “me.” One of these is considered a “dental nasal,” the other a
“labial nasal.” The following division of stops may help you judge which is
which.

Division of Stops
The Latin stops include b, hard c, d, f, g, k, p, ph-, qu-, t, th-, v. They
are further divided according to the part of the mouth used to stop the
breath.2 Some are labials, because the breath is stopped at the lips:
“beast,” “pipe,” “f eet,” “vice,” “philosophy” “lips,” “labial.” Those in
which the breath is stopped at the teeth (including where the teeth enter
2
Some of these are called fricatives: f, ph, th and v. They do not stop the breath
completely, but they do obstruct the breath more than the continuants. Although this
may be difficult to hear in modern English pronunciation, it is suggested by the spelling
of ph and th. We are interested in phonology only insofar as it has a bearing on Latin
morphology, so, for our purposes, the fricatives can be included with the stops.

6
 1. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION

into the gums) are called dentals: “teeth,” “dental.” (In Latin th is more
like our t: “hot,” while their t has less “breath” in it: “hot” without the
slight h at its end.) The breath is also stopped at the palate or roof of
the mouth. These consonants are called velars (vee-l@rs): “case,” “kid,”
“queen,” “got.”

Accentuation
Latin words are never (some argue very rarely) accented on the last or
“ultimate” syllable. If a word has only two syllables, it is therefore accented
on the second to last, the “penultimate,” syllable: ágnus, zélus. (As in
“peninsula,” a paene or “almost” island, the second to last syllable is the
paene or “almost ultimate” syllable.) Words of three syllables or more may
be accented on the second to last syllable or on the third to last syllable, the
“antepenultimate” (“before” the “almost ultimate”), according to certain
general rules. Since the rules depend upon information that is found in
dictionaries but not in Latin texts, it is more useful to become habituated
to accent patterns. In this manual accents will be marked for all words of
three or more syllables.

Pronunciation of Words
Practice the pronunciation of the following Latin nouns, adjectives, and
adverbs.

bos (b-oh-s) bull, cow cı́rcum (cheer-coom) around

dos (d-oh-s) dowry, gift clámor (clah-mohr) shout
fócus (foh-coos) hearth, focus contra (cohn-trah), against
of ellipse crux (kroocks) cross
caeléstis (cheh-lehs-tees) celes- excélsus (ek-shehl-soos) high
tial gaúdium (gow-dee-oom) joy
cárus (kah-roos), dear, valu- génu (jeh-noo) knee
able glória (gloh-ree-ah) glory
caúsa (kow-sah) cause grus (groos) crane
caútio (kow-tsee-oh) caution lı́ngua (leen-gua) tongue, lan-
cénsus (chehn-soos) census guage

7
1. ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION

mos (mohs) custom, habit ence

nos (nohs) we, us sóbrius (soh-bree-oos) sober,
paúper (pow-pear) poor man serious
régimen (reh-jee-mehn) guid- tı́gris (tee-grees) tiger, tiger-
ance skin
rósa (roh-sah) rose tı́midus (tee-mee-doos) timid
scélus (sheh-loos) crime vı́num (vee-noom) vine, wine
sciéntia (shee-ehn-tsee-ah) sci-

bonus cives (boh-noos-shee-vehs) good citizen

curiósitas (koo-ree-oh-see-tahs) curiosity
gubernátor (goo-bear-nah-tohr) navigator, governor
rex caelestis (rehk-shay-lehs-tees) celestial king
scápulae (skah-poo-lay) shoulder blades

For additional practice with pronunciation, read aloud the sentences in

Chapter 3.

8
2 Nominal and Verbal Sentences

Read CLS I (Introduction & “Kinds of Sentence”), 1, 1.1, 1.2, 2.

Predication is the most fundamental grammatical act. Through predi-
cation, a predicate—what is being said about something—is joined to a
subject—what one is speaking about. As it was explained earlier (page xxiii),
words and phrases become parts of a sentence through their role in the
subject or predicate. The part of the sentence played by any word or phrase
can only be determined by consideration of its context in a particular sen-
tence. (Look over sections 3 and 4 of your Latin Syntax Guide to see some
fundamental parts of the sentence.) The parts of speech are a classifica-
tion of words according to their kinds without regard to the role played in
a particular sentence. Any word is one or another part of speech regardless
of its role in a particular sentence.
Sentences are called nominal sentences when the principal part of the
predicate is a nómen (noh-mehn): “Socrates is a man.” Verbal sentences
have some finite verb as the principal part of their predicates: “Dogs bark.”
“The boy walks the dog.” This Latin grammatical term nómen can often
be translated “noun” in grammatical considerations. But the Latin term is
able to signify what are called adjectives in English as well as nouns.1
Clearly a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, an adverb, or a prepositional
phrase can complete a copulative or linking verb: “Socrates was a philoso-
pher.” “It was you.” “Socrates was Greek.” “Socrates was here.” “Socrates
was in court.” They nonetheless do so in different ways.
Often it is thought that the appositional sentence (1.1) is a form of
sentence found in Latin and a few other languages, but not in English.
1
Earlier in English grammar the noun and adjective were distinguished under the
names “substantive” and “adjective.”

9
2. NOMINAL AND VERBAL SENTENCES

This is far from true. Many English sentences use this form, and they
are among the most expressive in the language: “Lousy shot.” “Boring
book.” “Man overboard.” “All in order.” “Everything fine?” English does,
however, use such sentences less often in formal speech than Latin does.
Some of those who recognize the appositional sentence hold that the
copula is “understood.” A clear case of a word or words being understood
occurs in answering many questions: “Would you like coffee or tea?” “Cof-
fee.” In the response most of the sentence is “understood” from the ques-
tion itself: “[I would like] coffee.” Is this what happens in the appositional
sentence?
Perhaps a distinction between the logical order and the grammatical
order is useful. In the appositional sentence, the union of subject and pred-
icate is clearly an element of our thought and thus an element of the logical
order. But it does not seem that a word is missing from the sentence.
“Murder most foul!” seems to be another, more expressive way of saying
“This murder was most foul.” If so, apposition (placing next to) is a suf-
ficient cause of predication and no words are (in the grammatical order)
understood.
In the English copulative sentence, the copula is generally after the
subject and before the predicate: “The circle is a figure.” Word order
causes the one to be subject and the other predicate, though there are
exceptions, e.g. “A fine fellow he was!” In Latin, however, word order is
more free. The order used in English is possible in Latin: circulus est figura.
The more common order in Latin places the predicate after the subject and
the copula last: circulus figura est. Again, for emphasis, as in English, the
predicate may come first: figura circulus est!
Note that Latin does not have a definite article (“the”). Most of the
sentences you have read may be taken universally or indefinitely. Circulus
figura est: “The circle is a figure,” or “A circle is a figure.” But they may
also be taken as said about a particular mathematical being. Thus one
can also say: Triangulus est rectus. Circulus est magnus. “The triangle is
right.” “The circle is big.”

10
3 Properties and Differences of
Nouns; Case

Read the following sentences. Have someone listen to be sure you pronounce
them correctly. Attempt to translate them.
(1) Púnctum est sı́ne párte.
poonk-toom ehst see-neh pahr-teh
(2) Púnctum est sı́ne pártibus.
poonk-toom ehst see-neh pahr-tee-boos
(3) Púncta sunt sı́ne párte.
poonk-ta soont see-neh pahr-teh
(4) Púncta sunt sı́ne pártibus.
poonk-ta soont see-neh pahr-tee-boos
(5) Púnctum non hábet pártem.
poonk-toom nohn (h)ah-beht pahr-tehm
(6) Púncta non hábent pártes.
poonk-ta nohn (h)ah-behnt pahr-tehs
(7) Lı́nea est longitúdo sı́ne latitúdine.
lee-neh-ah ehst lohn-jee-too-doh see-neh lah-tee-too-dee-neh
(8) Lı́neae sunt longitúdines sı́ne latitúdine.
lee-neh-ay soont lohn-jee-too-dee-nehs see-neh lah-tee-too-dee-neh
(9) Extremitátes lı́neae sunt dúo púncta.
ehks-treh-mee-tah-tehs lee-neh-ay soont doo-oh poonk-tah
(10) Extrémitas lı́neae est púnctum.
ehks-treh-mee-tahs lee-neh-ay ehst poonk-toom
(11) Superfı́cies sunt longitúdines cum latitúdine.
soo-pehr-fee-chee-ehs soont lohn-jee-too-dee-nehs koom lah-tee-too-dee-neh

11
3. NOUNS, CASE

(12) Extremitátes superficiéi sunt lı́neae.

ehks-treh-mee-tah-tehs soo-pehr-fee-chee-eh-ee soont lee-neh-ay

(13) Extrémitas superficiéi est lı́nea.

ehks-treh-mee-tahs soo-pehr-fee-chee-eh-ee ehst lee-neh-ah

(14) Cı́rculus est figúra.

cheer-coo-loos ehst fee-goo-rah

(15) Cı́rculi sunt figúrae.

cheer-coo-lee soont fee-goo-ray

(16) Cı́rculus est figúra plána.

cheer-coo-loos ehst fee-goo-rah plah-nah

(17) Cı́rculi sunt figúrae plánae.

cheer-coo-lee soont fee-goo-ray plah-nay

(18) Semicı́rculus étiam est figúra plána.

seh-mee-cheer-coo-loos eht-see-ahm ehst fee-goo-rah plah-nah

(19) Semicı́rculi étiam sunt figúrae plánae.

seh-mee-cheer-coo-lee eht-see-ahm soont fee-goo-ray plah-nay

(20) Triángulus est figúra.

tree-ahn-goo-loos ehst fee-goo-rah

(21) Triánguli sunt figúrae.

tree-ahn-goo-lee soont fee-goo-ray

(22) Triángulus est figúra plána.

tree-ahn-goo-loos ehst fee-goo-rah plah-nah

(23) Triánguli sunt figúrae plánae.

tree-ahn-goo-lee soont fee-goo-ray plah-nay

(24) Triánguli sunt récti, obtúsi, vel acúti.

tree-ahn-goo-lee soont rehk-tee, ohb-too-see, vehl ah-coo-tee

(25) Triángulus est réctus, obtúsus, vel acútus.

tree-ahn-goo-loos ehst rehk-toos, ohb-too-soos, vehl ah-coo-toos

Classroom Drill 1. Pronounce and translate these sentences.

Re-read CLS 1, 1.2. Almost all the Latin sentences written above are
nominal, copulative sentences. Determine which are verbal sentences.

Classroom Drill 2. Determine what sort of predicate is used in the

translation of each nominal sentence.

12
 3. NOUNS, CASE

Case, Number, and Gender

Note that the difference between the forms “he” and “him” (or again be-
tween the forms “I” and “me”) is a difference in case. Case is a property of
nouns that indicates the relation of the noun to other parts of a sentence:
“I tickled him.” “He hit me.”

Read CLS 6 & 6.2. When the English pronoun is a predicate noun,
it has the same form that it has when it serves as subject to a sentence:
“She is my cousin.” “It was she who mentioned it to me.” In Latin this
form is called the nominative form or the nominative case. With a few
exceptions, the nouns and adjectives in the Latin sentences written above
are in the nominative case.
In Latin the nominative case is generally distinguished from other cases
by its ending. Nonetheless, the nouns and adjectives written above in the
nominative do not all end in the same letter or letters. There are several
reasons that this is so.
Some of the differences in ending signify number (singular or plural):
linea, lineae; circulus, circuli ; extremitas, extremitates; punctum, puncta.
The verbs likewise change to agree with the singular or the plural. The
sentences are listed to facilitate comparison of the singular and plural.
Another reason for differences in ending (within the nominative case)
is the stem-ending. The stem is the part of the word that does not
change or rarely changes (linea-, circulo-, extremitat-; puncto-). When
changes occur, such changes usually result from what has been added
(circulo- + s → circulus; extremitat- + s → extremitas; puncto- + m →
punctum).
Latin nouns are classified according to stem-ending, that is, the let-
ter with which the stem ends. There are five classes of nouns, usually
called declensions. Stems that end in consonants are classified together
(in the third declension) with stems that end in the vowel i : extremitat-,
longitudin-, animali-. The remaining four declensions include nouns us-
ing stems ending in one of the four remaining vowels: a, e, o, u: linea-,
superficie-, triangulo-, intellectu-.
Of these five declensions, three are most important—the -e- and -u-
declensions have only a handful of nouns. Four of the five declensions can
be found in the sentences written above.

13
3. NOUNS, CASE

Sometimes the five declensions use the same case-endings for the same
case and number. For example, the case-ending of the singular accusative or
“object” (the parallel of the English “him”) is always -m: linea-m, punctu-
m, circulu-m, longitudin-e-m, superficie-m, intellectu-m.
But sometimes more than one ending is used for a case. For example,
the nominative singular either takes the case-ending -s or takes no end-
ing, instead using the “bare stem”: superficie-s, but linea-; cornu-, but
intellectu-s; circulu-s, but consul-. The nominative plural usually uses the
ancient case-ending -es, but in some stems a later case-ending -i or even
(in the neuter) the case-ending -a: extremitat-es and longitudin-es, but
circulo-i → circuli and linea-i → lineae; again, animali-a and punct-a;
further, intellectu-es → intellectus; superficie-es → superficies. There are,
however, never more than two possible endings for any case and number,
with neuter endings introducing a third possibility in a few cases. Look at
table 2 of your Latin Morphological Paradigms or table 38.1 on the inside
of the front cover.
A final reason for differences in ending is gender. Gender is the signifi-
cation or representation of something as if it is “masculine” or “feminine”
(or perhaps “active” and “passive”). A more fundamental distinction is the
representation of something as if it is animate or inanimate. Masculine and
feminine are both animate, of course, while the signification of something
as inanimate is called the neuter gender, as if it is “neither” masculine nor
feminine.
Case-endings do not differ for masculine and feminine. These genders
sometimes appear to have different case-endings. This occurs because a
stem, such as the a-stem, is almost always associated with one gender,
such as the feminine. But only the neuter has case-endings proper to it-
self. Further, the neuter case-endings are almost exclusively reserved to the
nominative and accusative cases.
The most important grammatical characteristic of gender is its use in
forming adjectives to modify nouns. Agreement demands that masculine
forms of adjectives modify masculine nouns, feminine forms modify feminine
nouns, and neuter forms modify neuter nouns. Thus the gender of nouns
must be learned very carefully. It is useful to memorize a noun together with
an adjective with a stem ending in -a- and -o-, to help identify its gender:
superficies plana, “plane surface”; leo superbus, “proud lion”; donum carum,
“expensive gift.”
Be sure you understand the following grammatical terms: agreement,

14
 3. NOUNS, CASE

case, case-ending, declension, gender, neuter, nominative, number, stem,

stem-ending.

15
3. NOUNS, CASE

Vocabulary List 1a

et (et. . . et) 4b
sed 4
vel 4
aut (aut. . . aut) 4
linea, lineae f. (linea-) 6
circulus, circuli m. (circulo-) 7
numerus, numeri m. (numero-) 7
punctum, puncti n. (puncto-) 7
triangulus, trianguli m. (triangulo-) 7
pars, partis (parti-) f. 22
rēctus, rēcta, rēctum (recto-) 23
ūnus, ūna, ūnum (unius) 28
duo, duae, duo (dual) 28
tres, tria 28
quattuor (indecl.) 28
quı̄nque (indecl.) 28
sex (indecl.) 28
septem (indecl.) 28
octō (indecl. dual) 28
novem (indecl.) 28
decem (indecl.) 28
nōn 37
etiam 38

a
A new vocabulary list appears at the end
of every third chapter.
b
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

16
 3. NOUNS, CASE

Notes on Vocabulary List 1 In these vocabulary lists, various kinds of information

are included in parenthesis. et. . . et and aut. . . aut are idiomatic uses of these words
which need to be considered distinctly. parti- is the stem of the noun pars. As we will
see later, it is often not easy to find the noun’s stem just from looking at the dictionary
entry of the noun. unius is the irregular genitive singular of the adjective unus, una,
unum. The genitive singular form of an adjective is not usually part of the dictionary
entry. It is included here only because it is irregular. indecl. means that this adjective
is indeclinable, i.e., its endings do not change to reflect different number or case as most
adjectives’ endings do. dual refers to an almost lost alternative to singular and plural.
The dual number refers to having two and only two of something. octo means “eight”
and is thought of as two fours. The root of octo refers to the four fingers on the hand
to which the thumb is opposed. One apparently showed the number eight not by using
five fingers on one hand and three on the other but by holding up both hands with
the thumbs folded down. (As can be seen in the notes just given, some provide useful
information; others are more for the sake of taking delight in language.)

17
4 *Reading: Saint Thomas Aquinas

Read the following paraphrase of a passage from Saint Thomas Aquinas

out loud. The meanings of several words are presented below to help you
understand the passages. The meanings of some words should be obvious
from English; the meanings of others should be obvious from context.

Peccátum est actus humánus malus. Peccátum nihil áliud est

peccato-m es-t actu-s humano-s malo-s peccato-m alio-d es-t

quam actus humánus malus. Et actus humánus est actus

qua-m actu-s humano-s malo-s actu-s humano-s es-t actu-s

voluntárius. Sed actus humánus malus non habet própriam

voluntario-s actu-s humano-s malo-s habe-t propria-m

mensuratiónem in voluntáte. Mensúra est rátio humána vel lex

mensuration-e-m voluntat-e- mensura- es-t ratio(n)- humana- leg-s

aetérna id est rátio divı́na. Ergo Augustı́nus dicit: “Peccátum

aeterna- i-d es-t ratio(n)- divina- Augustino-s dic-i-t peccato-m

est áliquid dictum vel factum vel desiderátum contra legem

es-t aliqui-d dicto-m facto-m desiderato-m leg-e-m

aetérnam.”
aeterna-m

actus act desideratum desired

aliud other dicit says
aliquid something dictum said
contra against ergo therefore

19
4. *READING: SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS

factum done propriam its own proper

habet has quam (conj.) than
lex and legem law ratio reason
mensura measure sed (conj.) but
mensurationem measurement voluntarius voluntary
nihil nothing voluntate will
peccatum sin

20
5 The Genitive Case

It will be helpful, before studying the five classes of Latin noun-stems, to

consider another case, the possessive or genitive case. This case first
signifies possession but is extended to signify many other relations.
In English the possessive or genitive is formed in two ways: with an
apostrophe and -s or with the preposition “of.” Note, however, that, while
these are in some uses equivalent to one another, in other cases, they cannot
be exchanged.
Note that in ancient English the genitive could be formed merely by
placing it before the word to be modified and drawing the main accent
away from the modified word and toward the genitive: “stóne bridge,”
which is the equivalent of “bridge of stone.” This is distinct from the use
of an adjective which maintains a distinct accent on both words: “a stóne
brı́dge.”

Classroom Drill 1. Determine in which examples the two genitive forms

can have the same meaning and in which they cannot.

1. “Peter’s book,” “the book of Peter”

2. “Peter’s arm,” “the arm of Peter”
3. “Peter’s fear,” “the fear of Peter”
4. “Caesar’s murder,” “the murder of Caesar”
5. “Brutus’ murder of Caesar,” “Caesar’s murder of Brutus”
6. “Love’s words,” “Words of love”
7. “Spiders’ fear,” “fear of spiders”
8. “the body’s surface,” “the surface of the body”
9. “the circumference’s curvature,” “the curvature of the circumference”

21
5. THE GENITIVE CASE

10. “the men’s three,” “three of the men”

11. “Caesar’s coming,” “the coming of Caesar”
12. “virtue’s desire,” “a desire of virtue”

In Latin the genitive singular originally took some form of -s ending,

usually preceded by a vowel: turri-s, animali-s, consul-is, nomin-is; cornu-s.
(Unfortunately, the nominative singular often uses an -s ending too: turri-s;
cornu-s.) But in some stems an -i ending has replaced the -s ending: die-i ;
cervo-i → cervi ; gladio-i → gladii. After -a-, this -i ending becomes -e:
anima-e. Three stems take the -i ending: a-stems, o-stems, and e-stems.
The genitive plural ending is -um. This occurs everywhere, although
the a-stems, o-stems, and e-stems have introduced an -r- before this ending:
nomin-um, ventri-um, cornu-um, puero-r-um, anima-r-um, die-r-um.

Read CLS 10 & 10.11, 10.111–114, 10.14–17. The primary use of

the genitive is to represent something as the possessor of what is signified
by the noun modified by the genitive. This sense of possession leads to
other senses which will be carefully studied in later chapters. At present a
few secondary uses of the genitive should be noted: the father or genitor
(perhaps the first use of this case chronologically), the whole, the subject
of a property, the sphere to which something “belongs.”

boves agricolá-r-um, the farmers’ bulls

fı́lius patr-is, the son of his father
fı́lius Caesár-is, Caesar’s son
pars cápit-is, part of the head
multi mı́lit-um, many of the soldiers
superfı́cies córpor-is, the body’s surface
verba amór-is, words of love
libri philosóphia-e, books of philosophy

22
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 5 Name____________________________________

The genitive singular is formed by adding –s or –i to the stem. u-stem, i-stem, and consonant stem nouns add –s to the
stem (consonant stems insert –i– between the stem and the ending). a-stem, o-stem, and e-stem nouns add –i to the stem
(note that the -i changes to –e after –a and that the stem ending is lost from o-stem nouns).

The genitive plural is formed by adding –um to the stem. a-stem, o-stem, and e-stem nouns insert an –r– between the
stem and the ending.

You need not write the words with hyphens in them.

Dictionary Entry Stem Genitive Singular Genitive Plural

femina, feminae f. femina- femina-i → feminae femina-r-um
amica, amicae f. amica-
aqua, aquae f. aqua-
causa, causae f. causa-
corona, coronae f. corona-
creatura, creaturae f. creatura-
dea, deae f. dea-
nauta, nautae m. nauta-
poeta, poetae m. poeta-
amicus, amici m. amico- amico-i → amici amico-r-um
angelus, angeli m. angelo-
annus, anni m. anno-
filius, filii m. filio-
medicus, medici m. medico-
humus, humi f. humo-
liber, libri m. libro-
vir, viri m. viro-
argentum, argenti n. argento-
caelum, caeli n. caelo-
concilium, concilii n. concilio-
forum, fori n. foro-
dies, diei f./m. die- die-i die-r-um
fides, fidei f. fide-
res, rei f. re-
species, speciei f. specie-
actus, actus m. actu- actu-s actu-um
cursus, cursus m. cursu-
effectus, effectus m. effectu-
manus, manus f. manu-
cornu, cornus n. cornu-
 genu, genus n. genu-
finis, finis m. fini- fini-s fini-um
navis, navis f. navi-
piscis, piscis m. pisci-
ars, artis f. arti-
dens, dentis m. denti-
gens, gentis f. genti-
nox, noctis f. nocti-
mare, maris n. mari-
animal, animalis n. animali-
venter, ventris m. ventri-
aroma, aromatis n. aromat- aromat-is aromat-um
drama, dramatis n. dramat-
caput, capitis n. capit-
aetas, aetatis f. aetat-
dignitas, dignitatis f. dignitat-
veritas, veritatis f. veritat-
laus, laudis f. laud-
pes, pedis m. ped-
salus, salutis f. salut-
crux, crucis f. cruc-
lex, legis f. leg-
ops, opis f. op-
princeps, principis m. princip-
consul, consulis m. consul-
sol, solis m. sol-
creator, creatoris m. creator-
inventor, inventoris m. inventor-
amor, amoris m. amor-
frater, fratris m. fratr-
nix, nivis f. niv-
carmen, carminis n. carmin-
nomen, nominis n. nomin-
multitudo, multitudinis f. multitudin-
homo, hominis m. homin-
occasio, occasionis f. occasion-
canis, canis m./f. can-
6 The Nominative Case; e-Stem and
u-Stem Nouns

As stated earlier, the Latin noun has five classes or “declensions” according
to the letter with which its stem ends. Beginning in this chapter the forma-
tion of singular and plural forms of the nominative case will be examined,
starting with stems ending in -e and -u.

Nominative Case Formation

There are two common methods of forming the nominative singular and
two of forming the nominative plural.
The nominative singular is formed either by using the bare stem or
by adding an -s.

Bare stem: femina-, consul-, and cornu-. Some masculine

and feminine and all neuter nouns use the bare stem in the
nominative singular, with some alterations and an important
exception described below.

-s: fructu-s, die-s, servo-s → servu-s, princep-s and turri-s.

Masculine and feminine nouns with stems in -e and -u and -o
add an -s to the stem for the nominative singular.

The nominative plural is formed by adding -es or -i/e.

-es: consul-es, princip-es, die-(e)s, turri-es → turres, fructu-es

→ fructus

23
6. THE NOMINATIVE CASE; E-STEM AND U-STEM NOUNS

-i/e: servoi → servi, femina-i → feminae.

Two apparent exceptions affect neuter nouns. The -m ending for the
neuter nominative singular of -o- stems, as puncto-m → punctu-m, should
be understood as imported from another case, the “object” or accusative
case. This will be discussed later.
The -a ending for virtually every neuter nominative plural may have
been a former nominative singular of a collective noun with an -a stem.
Thus, what was originally a singular ending is now used universally for
neuter plural nouns. [An example of this “in reverse,” that is, a plural
noun becoming singular, is “the news.” The word “news” first meant “new
things.” The finite verb accompanying it was then plural. Now that “the
news” is heard as a collective noun, i.e., “an assembly of reports about new
things,” we use a singular verb.]

Gender
The beginning Latin student must learn to distinguish the gender of nouns.
Practically speaking, gender concerns what form of an adjective can modify
or be predicated of a noun. For an adjective must “agree” with the noun it
modifies, or is predicated of, in gender, number, and case. Thus, we cannot,
in English, say “the poetess William Blake,” although one can understand
what someone who says this means: “the poet William Blake.”
More fundamental to gender is the manner of representing the thing
signified. Both masculine and feminine agree in representing something as
animate, while they are distinguished by something found in the two sexes.
The neuter gender represents something as inanimate.
Many Latin adjectives therefore distinguish only two genders: the ani-
mate and the inanimate. These are usually described as masculine/feminine
or “common” and neuter. Examples are singularis, singulare; pluralis, plu-
rale. The former in each pair is common to the masculine and feminine
genders; the latter in each pair is neuter. Other Latin adjectives distin-
guish all three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Examples are
magnus, magna, magnum; acer, acris, acre. Adjective formation will be
considered after noun formation.
Two declensions of nouns contain words almost all of which are femi-
nine: the a-declension and the e-declension. Two declensions contain words

24
 6. THE NOMINATIVE CASE; E-STEM AND U-STEM NOUNS

almost all of which are masculine or neuter: the o-declension and the u-
declension. The remaining declension—containing stems ending in -i and
in consonants—contains very many words in all three genders.

e-Stems
There are not many Latin nouns with stems that end in -e (the “fifth”
declension). The two most important are dies and res. It should be kept in
mind that all e-stem nouns are feminine, though one, dies, is sometimes
masculine. All these nouns form the nominative singular by the addition
of an -s to the stem. The nominative plural is formed by the addition of
-es, but the -e contracts with the -e of the stem. All the most important of
these nouns are listed below. Look them up in the dictionary. Note which
of these nouns are familiar to English speakers through some cognates or
derivatives. (MLWL 20)

6.1 e-Stems

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

die-s die-es → dies dies, diei
re-s re-es → res res, rei
fide-s fide-es → fides fides, fidei
spe-s spe-es→ spes spes, spei
specie-s specie-es → species species, speciei
facie-s facie-es → facies facies, faciei
superficie-s superficie-es → superficies superficies, superficiei

u-Stems
The u-stems (the “fourth” declension) are likewise few in number. (MLWL
19)

25
6. THE NOMINATIVE CASE; E-STEM AND U-STEM NOUNS

Masculine u-Stems

Most are masculine and these too use the nominative singular ending -s
and the nominative plural ending -es. In the plural, however, the -e is lost.
In compensation, the -u of the stem, which is originally short, lengthens,
which is therefore called compensatory lengthening. The following are
the important masculine nouns of this stem. Most of these can be related
to English derivatives or cognates. (MLWL 19.1)

6.2 Masculine u-Stems

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

fructu-s fructu-es → fructūs fructus, fructūs
adventu-s adventu-es → adventūs adventus, adventūs
effectu-s effectu-es → effectūs effectus, effectūs
spiritu-s spiritu-es → spiritūs spiritus, spiritūs
sensu-s sensu-es → sensūs sensus, sensūs
visu-s visu-es → visūs visus, visūs
auditu-s auditu-es → auditūs auditus, auditūs
odoratu-s odoratu-es → odoratūs odoratus, odoratūs
gustu-s gustu-es → gustūs gustus, gustūs
tactu-s tactu-es → tactūs tactus, tactūs

Feminine u-Stems

There are three significant feminines of the u-stem: manus, tribus, and do-
mus. These add the same endings as do the masculines of this declension.
Note, however, that from ancient times domus has been declined partly as
a noun of the u-declension and partly as a noun of the o-declension (cf.
MLWL 21) . The nominative forms take the -s ending in the singular and
the -es ending in the plural. English derivatives will make the meanings of
these nouns easy to remember. (MLWL 19.2)

26
 6. THE NOMINATIVE CASE; E-STEM AND U-STEM NOUNS

6.3 Feminine u-Stems

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

domu-s domu-es → domūs domus, domūs
manu-s manu-es → manūs manus, manūs
tribu-s tribu-es → tribūs tribus, tribūs

Neuter u-Stems
Two neuter nouns of the u-stem are of some importance. These nouns use
the other principal nominative singular ending, namely the bare stem.1 As
was mentioned earlier, the nominative plural ending -a, which is used for
virtually all neuter nominative plurals, is not a standard Latin nominative
plural ending. In origin it is probably a singular collective noun of the a-
declension. Again, the meaning of these two nouns will be familiar from
English cognates and derivatives.

6.4 Neuter u-Stems

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

cornū cornu-a cornū, cornū-s
genū genu-a genū, genū-s

1
The lengthening of the stem vowel may indicate that this was once a “dual” rather
than a singular form. This is supported by these two most important instances.

27
6. THE NOMINATIVE CASE; E-STEM AND U-STEM NOUNS

Vocabulary List 2

pater, patris (patr-) m. 14a

servus, servi (servo-) m. 7
tribus, tribūs f. 19
adventus, adventūs m. 19
domus, domūs f. 19
effectus, effectūs m. 19
fructus, fructūs m. 19
manus, manūs f. 19
sensus, sensūs m. 19
spiritus, spiritūs m. 19
cornū, cornūs n. 19
genū, genūs n. 19
acies, aciei f. 20
diēs, diēi f./m. 20
facies, faciei f. 20
superficiēs, superficiēi f. 20
fides, fidei f. 20
res, rei f. 20
speciēs, speciēi f. 20
spes, spei f. 20

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

28
 6. THE NOMINATIVE CASE; E-STEM AND U-STEM NOUNS

Notes on Vocabulary List 2 Macrons are placed over certain vowels to indicate
that they are long by nature: tribūs. We will not be attending to the length of vowels at
all times, but only when it is helpful for the sake of morphology. The ancient Romans
did not mark vowel lengths; rather, they are the addition of later editors of Latin texts.
More importantly, it is an unnecessary burden to learn the length of every vowel. And
while it is possible to explain the length of most vowels in Latin words and why they
shift from short to long or long to short, this is a very specialized knowledge far beyond
beginning students. servus and tribus would seem to belong to the same declension if
one considered only the nominative singular form. The genitive singular form shows that
servus is an o-stem and tribus is a u-stem. The stem of servŏ- ends in a short o. The
short u is pronounced with the mouth in almost the same position as for the short o,
but the jaw is slightly more closed. Since the s sound requires the jaw to close after the
short o sound (say, “boss”), it was natural to begin the closing of the jaw even during
the vowel sound, turning the short o into a short u. (Did you say, “bah-uss”?) Thus
the phonological principle (LMP 6): ŏ in a final syllable, when followed by a consonant,
generally corrupts to ŭ: servo-s → servus. This is not to claim that such a corruption
was necessary, but only to justify why it did occur. cornu and genu are the only two
neuter u-stem nouns you will be asked to learn. acies and the other e-stem nouns given
here are the only eight e-stems you will be asked to learn. dies can be either masculine
or feminine, and some Latin grammars give an account of when it is masculine and when
it is feminine.

29
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 6 Name____________________________________

The nominative singular is formed by adding –s or using the bare stem. (Note that neuter u-stem nouns use the bare
stem.)

The nominative plural is formed by adding –es or –i (as always –i changes to –e after a), though for neuters –a is used. e-
stem nouns drop one e so that there are not two of them in the final form: die-es → dies. u-stems also drop an e to avoid
having –ue– in the final form.

Dictionary Entry Stem Nominative Singular Nominative Plural

dies, diei f./m. die- die-s die-es → dies
fides, fidei f. fide-
res, rei f. re-
species, speciei f. specie-
acies, aciei f. acie-
facies, faciei f. facie-
spes, spei f. spe-
superficies, superficiei f. superficie-
actus, actus m. actu- actu-s actu-es → actus
adventus, adventus m. adventu-
apparatus, apparatus m. apparatu-
arcus, arcus m. arcu-
casus, casus m. casu-
cursus, cursus m. cursu-
effectus, effectus m. effectu-
affectus, affectus m. affectu-
defectus, defectus m. defectu-
eventus, eventus m. eventu-
exercitus, exercitus m. exercitu-
fluctus, fluctus m. fluctu-
fructus, fructus m. fructu-
gradus, gradus m. gradu-
intellectus, intellectus m. intellectu-
metus, metus m. metu-
motus, motus m. motu-
ornatus, ornatus m. ornatu-
partus, partus m. partu-
senatus, senatus m. senatu-
sensus, sensus m. sensu-
spiritus, spiritus m. spiritu-
transitus, transitus m. transitu-
 tumultus, tumultus m. tumultu-
versus, versus m. versu-
vultus, vultus m. vultu-
domus, domus f. domu- (domo-)
manus, manus f. manu-
tribus, tribus f. tribu-
cornu, cornus n. cornu-
genu, genus n. genu-

Practice a few genitives.

Dictionary Entry Stem Genitive Singular Genitive Plural

vita, vitae f. vita-
aqua, aquae f. aqua-
causa, causae f. causa-
oculus, oculi m. oculo-
magister, magistri m. magistro-
res, rei f. re-
species, speciei f. specie-
spes, spei f. spe-
cursus, cursus m. cursu-
versus, versus m. versu-
dens, dentis m. denti-
piscis, piscis m. pisci-
veritas, veritatis f. veritat-
lex, legis f. leg-
nomen, nominis n. nomin-
7 Nominative Case: Consonant
Stem Nouns

The declension (“third”) with stems that end in consonants or -i is the

largest. The i-stem nouns are the subject of the next chapter. This chapter
will distinguish the various sub-classes of consonant stems and account for
the formation of the nominative singular and plural for each sub-class. As
will be evident, the various consonants used to end the stems give rise
to these various sub-classes, according to the classification of consonants
discussed in the phonological study: stops, continuants, the semi-vowel, as
well as further divisions.

Masculine/Feminine Nouns
Singular
As with all Latin nouns, the masculine and feminine nominative singulars
of consonant stems are “formed” either by adding the -s ending (e.g., op-s)
or by using the bare stem (e.g., auctor-).
But the nominative may also exhibit ablaut (e.g. princip-s → princeps,
carmin- → carmen, and patr- → pater ). “Ablaut” is the changing of a
vowel, either in quantity or quality.
In stems ending in -n, the stem ending often drops, with or without
ablaut: latitudin- → latitudo and legion- → legio.
Note also that the addition of the -s may corrupt the consonant to
which the -s has been added: cruc-s → crux and custod-s → custos. All
these possibilities will be studied below in detail.

31
7. NOMINATIVE CASE: CONSONANT STEM NOUNS

Plural
The common nominative plural ending -es is used.
Attempt to identify the consonant with which each stem ends by taking
the -es ending off the nominative plural. With one important exception, this
consonant must be discerned in a case other than the nominative singular.
Pay attention to how these consonants differ, especially the manner in which
the breath is situated and the position of the tongue in the mouth. They
are presented in Tables 7.1–7.3 in three fundamental groups with various
sub-groups.

7.1 Group 1: Stops

Nominative Singular Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

Labialsa,b (-p or -b)
princep-s princip-es princeps, principis
caeleb-s caelib-es caelebs, caelibis
Dentalsc,d (-d or -t)
custod-s → custos custod-es custos, custodis
milit-s → miles milit-es miles, militis
quantitat-s → quantitas quantitat-es quantitas, quantitatis
virtut-s → virtus virtut-es virtus, virtutis
ariet-s → aries ariet-es aries, arietis
Velarsc,e (-g or -c)
reg-s → rex reg-es rex, regis
duc-s → dux duc-es dux, ducis
iudic-s → iudex iudic-es iudex, iudicis
a
Note ablaut.
b
-s ending added to a labial stem is stable and thus each remain.
c
Some ablaut.
d
-s ending added to a dental stem is not stable. The dental disappears.
e
-s ending added to a velar stem is stable, written as the “double” consonant -x.

32
 7. NOMINATIVE CASE: CONSONANT STEM NOUNS

7.2 Group 2: Continuants

Nominative Singular Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

Liquidsa,b (-l or -r )
consul-s → consul consul-es consul, consulis
dolor-s → dolor dolor-es dolor, doloris
honor-s → honor honor-es honor, honoris
pater-s → pater patr-es pater, patris
Sibilantsb,c (-s)
d
flos-s → flos flos-es → florese flos, floris
cines-s → cinis cines-es → cineres cinis, cineris
Nasalsb (-n or -m)
sanguin-s → sanguisf sanguin-es sanguis, sanguinis
cognition- → cognitio cognition-es cognitio, cognitionis
imagin- → imago imagin-es imago, imaginis
pan-i-s pan-esg panis, panis
hiem-sh hiem-es hiems, hiemis
a
Liquid stems reject the -s ending.
b
Some ablaut.
c
s-stems must be carefully distinguished from r-stems.
d
-s- in nom. sing.
e
-s- between two vowels became an -r-: “rhotacism of intervocalic -s-.” See LMP
1.1
f
M./f. stems in -n usually drop the stem ending. One adds the -s ending.
g
Three stems add -i- before -s (can-i-s, pan-i-s, and iuven-i-s) and look like
i-stems.
h
There is only one stem ending in -m; it takes the -s ending and is stable.

Neuter Nouns
All neuter nouns of the consonant declension use the bare stem in the
nominative singular. Some exhibit ablaut; others do not. A few suffer loss
of the final consonant. The neuter nominative plural ending is -a, and the
stem is recognized by taking the -a ending off the nominative plural form.
These are presented in Table 7.4.

33
34 7. NOMINATIVE CASE: CONSONANT STEM NOUNS

7.3 Group 3: Semi-vowel (-v )

Nominative Singular Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

bov-s → bos bov-es bos, bovis
gru(v)-s → grusa gru(v)-es → grues grus, gruis
nig-s → nixb niv-es nix, nivis
su(v)-s → susc su(v)-es → sues sus, suis
a
Left unwritten when it remained a w sound. Written when it became a -v.
b
Nix seems to be formed from nig-. The remaining forms are from niv-.
c
There are only these four v-stems.

7.4 Neuter Nouns

Nominative Singular Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

Dentals (-d or -t)
a
poemat- → poema poemat-a poema, poematis
capit- → caputb capit-a caput, capitis
cord- → corc cord-a cor, cordis
Liquids (-l or -r )
d
mell- → mel mell-a mel, mellis
femur femor-a femur, femoris
Nasals (-n)
nomene nomin-a nomen, nominis
Sibilants (-s)
genus genes-a → gener-af genus, generis
os oss-ag os, ossis
vas vas-ah vas, vasis
a
Many neuter stems ending in -mat lose the -t in the nominative singular.
b
One neuter t-stem retains the -t with ablaut.
c
cord- lost the -d whence its nominative singular ends in -r.
d
Double consonants at the ends of words are contracted to a single consonant.
It is impossible to pronounce the second consonant unless it begins another syllable.
e
Neuter n-stems suffer ablaut in the nominative singular.
f
s-stems undergo “rhotacism” outside the nominative singular.
g
One s-stem protected by a second -s lost in nominative singular: oss-.
h
Another s-stem retains -s between vowels for reasons unknown: vas-a.
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 7 Name____________________________________

Determine the stem for the following nouns. You can often recognize the stem by removing –s or –i from the genitive
singular; however, as you know, in the genitive singular o-stems lose their stem-ending and consonant stems insert –i–
between the stem ending and –s and thus look like i-stems (which means you may need to look such words up to be sure).
In addition, nouns whose stem ends in –s will look like r-stems, since –s– changes to –r– between two vowels.

Dictionary Entry Stem Dictionary Entry Stem

flos, floris m. flos- lux, lucis f.
fuga, fugae f. ratio, rationis f.
terra, terrae f. homo, hominis m.
venia, veniae f. panis, panis m.
agricola, agricolae m. opus, operis n.
species, speciei f. hiems, hiemis f.
facies, faciei f. soror, sororis f.
dies, diei f./m. mulier, mulieris f.
motus, motus m. exsul, exsulis m./f.
spiritus, spiritus m. iudex, iudicis m.
portus, portus m. sanitas, sanitatis f.
cornu, cornus n. stigma, stigmatis n.
nomen, nominis n. urbs, urbis f.
ius, iuris n. pestis, pestis m.

Determine the dictionary entry of the following nouns from the stem. Look up those about which you are unsure.

Stem Dictionary Entry Stem Dictionary Entry

flos- (m.) flos, floris m. color- (m.)
die- (f./m.) labor- (m.)
re- (f.) consul- (m.)
fide- (f.) sol- (m.)
arcu- (m.) greg- (m.)
senatu- (m.) radic- (f.)
intellectu- (m.) forcip- (f./m.)
gradu- (m.) ped- (m.)
genu- (n.) quiet- (f.)
mos- (m.) libertat- (f.)
tempos- (n.) humilitat- (f.)
ordin- (m.) niv- (f.)
ration- (f.) flumin- (n.)
vision- (f.) aromat- (n.)
Indicate if anything special has occurred in the formation of the nominative singular of the following nouns; possibilities
include ablaut, loss of the stem-ending, and corruption of the stem ending. Supply the nominative plural.

Dictionary Entry Stem Nominative Singular Nominative Plural

carmen, carminis n. carmin- ablaut carmina
frater, fratris m. fratr- ablaut
latitudo, latitudinis f. latitudin- loss of -n; ablaut
legio, legionis f. legion- loss of -n
crux, crucis f. cruc- corruption of -c
particeps, participis m. particip-
ops, opis f. op-
paries, parietis m. pariet-
laus, laudis f. laud-
merces, mercedis f. merced-
libertas, libertatis f. libertat-
pax, pacis f. pac-
radix, radicis f. radic-
lex, legis f. leg-
exsul, exsulis m. exsul-
mel, mellis n. mell-
victor, victoris m. victor-
imperator, imperatoris m. imperator-
furor, furoris m. furor-
pubes, puberis m. pubes-
mus, muris m./f. mus-
leo, leonis m. leon-
remissio, remissionis f. remission-
solitudo, solitudinis f. solitudin-
imago, imagines f. imagin-
iuvenis, iuvenis m./f. iuven-
baptisma, baptismatis n. baptismat-
drama, dramatis n. dramat-
fel, fellis n. fell-
aes, aeris n. aes-
rus, ruris n. rus-
latus, lateris n. lates-
8 Nominative Case: i-Stem Nouns

Latin noun stems ending in -i are included in the “third” declension for two
closely related reasons. The Latins used identical case endings for i-stems
and consonant stems. But they also had difficulty distinguishing these two
stems.
Hence, a few nouns, such as cor, cordis, can be called “mixed” stems.
In most cases where there is some difference, the stem ends in -d (e.g.,
cord-a), but in one case it ends in -i (cordi-um). Thus, cor looks like a
consonant stem in the ablative singular (corde, not cordi ) and nominative
and accusative plural (corda, not cordia), while it looks like an i-stem in
the genitive plural (cordium, not cordum). See MLWL 21.
I-stem nouns are divided into different groups as an aid to distinguishing
them from consonant stems. There are two principles of division. Masculine
and feminine nouns are alike one another but different from neuter nouns.
Those nouns that have the same number of syllables in their nominative and
genitive singular forms are called parisyllabic and distinguished from those
that have a different number of syllables in these two forms. See MLWL 8.
It is easy to distinguish parisyllabic i-stems from consonant stems, but it
may be difficult to distinguish imparisyllabic i-stems from consonant stems.
See MLWL 22.4 and 22.5.

Masculine and Feminine i-Stems

The i-stems exhibit the normal nominative masculine and feminine case
endings: -s for the singular and -es for the plural. But the plural suffers
loss of the -i from the stem and a resultant compensatory lengthening of

35
8. NOMINATIVE CASE: I-STEM NOUNS

the -e of the ending: turri-es → turrēs, hosti-es → host-ēs, fini-es → fin-ēs.

Thus the stem cannot be identified in the nominative plural.

Standard or Parisyllabic Masc. and Fem. i-Stems

Because the i-stems form the nominative singular for masculine and femi-
nine nouns by adding the common ending -s, most nominatives of this stem
end in -is. This results in a characteristic dictionary entry: turris, turris;
hostis, hostis; finis, finis. (MLWL 8.1)

8.1 Standard or Parisyllabic Masc. and Fem. i-Stems

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

tussi-s tussi-es → tuss-ēs tussis, tussis
turri-s turri-es → turr-ēs turris, turris

These i-stems are called “parisyllabic” (par means “equal” or “even”)

because the two parts of the dictionary entry have an equal number of
syllables. There are, however, three n-stems whose dictionary entries are
indistinguishable from the standard masculine and feminine i-stems . These
three n-stems are canis, canis; iuvenis, iuvenis, and panis, panis. (See
MLWL 18.3.) Any other consonant stem that would have a nominative
singular form with an -i in the last syllable would not be parisyllabic: e.g.,
lapis, lapidis (lapid-).

Imparisyllabic Masc. and Fem. i-Stems

Often the -i of the stem was lost in two syllable stems: urbi-s → urbs or
dōti-s → dōs. The nominative singular form then has one syllable while the
genitive singular has two. This group of i-stems is thus named “imparisyl-
labic,” and there are many consonant stems that have a dictionary entry
that is indistinguishable from an imparisyllabic i-stem: nox, noctis (nocti-)
vs. vox, vocis (voc-); dos, dotis (doti-) vs. flos, floris (flos-). See MLWL
22.4. These will be further discussed in chapter 10.
Only i-stems with a long vowel in the first syllable could lose the stem
ending and become imparisyllabic. The vowel might be long by nature
(dōti-, plēbi-) or it might be long “by position,” which means that it was

36
 8. NOMINATIVE CASE: I-STEM NOUNS

short in itself but pronounced long because it was followed by two conso-
nants (dĕnti-, nŏcti-).

8.2 Imparisyllabic Masc. and Fem. i-Stems

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

urbi-s → urb-s urbi-es → urbēs urbs, urbis
morti-s → mort-s → mors morti-es → mortēs mors, mortis
nocti-s → noct-s → nox nocti-es → noctēs nox, noctis
dōti-s → dōt-s → dō-s dōti-es → dōtēs dōs, dōtis

In accordance with phonological rules, 1) the -b remains before the -s

ending: urb-s, 2) the -t is lost when the -s ending is added: mort-s →
mors and dōt-s → dōs (LMP 1.4) 3) -c-s is written as -x in the nominative
singular nox. Such nouns are called “imparisyllabic” (the negative prefix
“in-”) because the nominative and genitive singular forms do not all have
the same number of syllables.

Plural Used for Nominative Singular

A few i-stem nouns have nominative singulars with a plural form: sēdēs,
nubēs, prōlēs. Many of these nouns also exhibit the standard -is ending
(MLWL 8.5). The meaning of such words should explain why there is some
confusion between the singular and the plural.

8.3 Plural Used for Nominative Singular

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

sedēs (but also sedi-s) sedi-es → sed-ēs sedēs, sedis
nubēs (but also nubi-s) nubi-es → nub-ēs nubēs, nubis

Stems Ending in -bri and -tri

Four stems that end in -ri do not take the -s ending. Rather, they drop
the -i of the stem, and insert an -e: imbri- → imber, lintri- → linter, ūtri-
→ uter, ventri- → venter. (MLWL 9)

37
8. NOMINATIVE CASE: I-STEM NOUNS

8.4 Stems in -bri and -tri

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

imbri → imbr- → imber imbri-es → imbrēs imber, imbris
lintri- → lintr- → linter lintri-es → lintrēs linter, lintris
ūtri- → utr- → uter utri-es → utrēs uter, utris
ventri- → ventr- → venter ventri-es → ventrēs venter, ventris

Neuter i-Stems
Neuter i-stems use the bare stem for the nominative singular. Hence neuter
i-stems do not take the -s ending. But the -i is weak in this position and
two forms of corruption are found. These are discussed below.
The nominative and accusative plural ending for all neuter i-stems is -a
resulting in an -ia ending: mari-a, reti-a, sedili-a, animali-a, exemplari-a.

-i → -e: Neuter Parisyllabic i-Stems

The -i of the stem often suffers ablaut in the nominative singular to -e:
sedile, mare. Such nouns are therefore “parisyllabic.” (MLWL 8.3)

8.5 -i → -e: Neuter Parisyllabic i-Stems

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

mari- → mare mari-a mare, maris
reti- → rete reti-a rete, retis
sedili- → sedile sedili-a sedile, sedilis

Loss of -i : Neuter Imparisyllabic i-Stems

When the stem ending is preceded by a liquid, -l or -r, sometimes the -i of
the stem is lost in the nominative singular (with a consequent shortening
of the vowel in the previous syllable): animāli → animal ; exemplāri →
exemplar. Hence, these nouns are “imparisyllabic.”

38
 8. NOMINATIVE CASE: I-STEM NOUNS

8.6 Loss of -i : Neuter Imparisyllabic i-Stems

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

animali- → animal animāli-a animal, animalis
exemplari- → exemplar exemplāri-a exemplar, exemplaris

Take heart when attempting to distinguish i-stems from consonant stems.

Most follow the rules. But the Romans themselves had difficulty distin-
guishing them. A few nouns are formed in some cases as if their stems
ended in consonants and in others as if they ended in -i (e.g. cord-a, but
cordi-um). A few others have forms that use an i-stem formation as well as
a consonant stem formation for the same case, though usually one prevails
(e.g., the genitive plurals mensi-um and mens-um).

39
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 8 Name____________________________________

Indicate whether the nominative singular adds -s (S), loses an -i (I), exhibits ablaut by the –i changing to –e (A), uses the
plural for the singular (P), or uses the bare stem (B). Explain other changes where they occur.

Dictionary Entry Stem Explanation Dictionary Entry Stem Explanation

auris, auris f. auri- S mare, maris n. mari- A
ars, artis f. arti- I; loss of t nubes, nubis f. nubi- P
civis, civis m./f. civi- navis, navis f. navi-
animal, animalis n. animali- nox, noctis f. nocti-
arx, arcis f. arci- orbis, orbis m. orbi-
clavis, clavis f. clavi- pars, partis f. parti-
dens, dentis m. denti- pestis, pestis f. pesti-
dōs, dotis f. doti- piscis, piscis m. pisci-
exemplar, exemplaris n. exemplari- plebs, plebis f. plebi-
finis, finis m. fini- pons, pontis m. ponti-
frons, frontis f. fronti- sedes, sedis f. sedi-
gens, gentis f. genti- sedile, sedilis n. sedili-
hostis, hostis m. hosti- turris, turris f. turri-
imber, imbris m. imbri- tussis, tussis f. tussi-
linter, lintris f. lintri- urbs, urbis f. urbi-
mens, mentis f. menti- uter, utris m. utri-
mensis, mensis m. mensi- venter, ventris m. ventri-
mons, montis m. monti- vis, vis f. vi-

Give the stem of the following nouns and form the nominative and genitive plural.

Dictionary Entry Stem Nominative Plural Genitive Plural

civis, civis m./f.
animal, animalis n.
arx, arcis f.
clavis, clavis f.
dens, dentis m.
dōs, dotis f.
exemplar, exemplaris n.
finis, finis m.
frons, frontis f.
gens, gentis f.
hostis, hostis m.
imber, imbris m.
linter, lintris f.
 mens, mentis f.
mensis, mensis m.
mons, montis m.
navis, navis f.
nox, noctis f.
orbis, orbis m.
pars, partis f.
pestis, pestis f.
piscis, piscis m.
plebs, plebis f.
pons, pontis m.
sedes, sedis f.
sedile, sedilis n.
turris, turris f.
tussis, tussis f.
urbs, urbis f.
uter, utris m.
venter, ventris m.
vis, vis f.
auris, auris f.
ars, artis f.
mare, maris n.
nubes, nubis f.

For the following consonant stems, indicate if anything special has occurred in the formation of the nominative singular
and then supply the genitive plural.

Dictionary Entry Stem Explanation Genitive Plural

homo, hominis m. homin-
nix, nivis f. niv-
codex, codicis m. codic-
dogma, dogmatis n. dogmat-
exsul, exsulis m. exsul-
mater, matris f. matr-
princeps, principis m. princip-
pes, pedis m. ped-
prex, precis f. prec-
9 Nominative Case: o-Stem and
a-Stem Nouns

o-Stem Nouns
Nouns with stems ending in -o are deceptive because the Latin ŏ usually
becomes a u when it is followed by a consonant in a final syllable, e.g.,
servo-s → servus and servo-m → servum (LMP 1.6). Hence most beginning
students would guess that nouns of this declension have stems that end in
u. (MLWL 7.1)
There are two major sub-classes: members of the first sub-class are
almost all masculine. The other comprises the neuters.

Masculine o-Stems
All the masculines (and a few feminines) originally added the normal -s
ending to the stem to form the masculine singular; at the same time there
was a corruption of the -o to -u, which is common in final syllables: servo-
s → servus. The only exceptions to this rule are stems that end in -ro-.
(MLWL 7.1)
The -s ending has been maintained in some stems ending in -ro, however:
umero-s → umerus and numero-s → numerus. (MLWL 7.1–7.4)
But some -ro stems have lost the -s together with the stem vowel. Such
nouns therefore end in -er or -ir : puero-s → puer, agro-s → agr- → ager,
viro-s → vir. Begin to note, however, which -ro stem nouns have an -e or
an -i as part of their stem and which do not. (MLWL 7.3)

41
9. NOMINATIVE CASE: O-STEM AND A-STEM NOUNS

9.1 Masculine o-Stem Nouns

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

circulo-s → circulus circulo-i → circuli circulus, circuli
domino-s → dominus domino-i → domini dominus, domini
muro-s → murus muro-i → muri murus, muri
numero-s → numerus numero-i → numeri numerus, numeri
puero-s → puer puero-i → pueri puer, pueri
agro-s → agr- → ager agro-i → agri ager, agri
viro-s → vir viro-i → viri vir, viri

The masculine plurals were once formed with -es. But this too has been
lost. An -i ending replaced the -es. The -o, however, has been lost: circulo-i
→ circuli.
This change of ending must have occured even before Greek and Latin
split from one another. For masculine plurals of the Greek o-stems end in
-oi without corruption of the -o. One such noun has entered English: hoi
polloi, meaning “the many” or “the vulgar.”
Feminine nouns of this class are humus, humi (meaning “earth”) and
the names of plants, e.g., pōpulus, pōpuli naming the “poplar” tree. The
feminine u-stem has some forms that use an o-stem, e.g., domorum. (MLWL
21)
One neuter noun is found in this class: vulgus, vulgi “throng,” “the
crowd.” It is only used in the singular.

Neuter o-Stems
The neuter singular does not use the bare stem, as do neuters of other stem
endings. Rather, the ending -m is added to the stem. This ending belongs
to another case, the object or accusative case. It seems that these neuters,
represented as inanimate, were first used only as objects. When they were
at last used as subjects of verbs, they continued to be used with the form
of the object (accusative) case. Like all other neuters, the o-stems form the
nominative plural with -a, which appears to be in origin a collective noun
of the a-stem. (MLWL 7.4)

42
 9. NOMINATIVE CASE: O-STEM AND A-STEM NOUNS

9.2 Neuter o-Stem Nouns

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

aedificio-m → aedificium aedificio-a → aedificia aedificium, aedificii
dono-m → donum dono-a → dona donum, doni

o-Stems vs. u-Stems

It is critical from the beginning to distinguish o-stem nouns from u-stem
nouns (cf. Chapter 6), especially in their dictionary entries. Compare the
two in Table 9.3.
9.3 Dictionary Entries: o-Stems vs. u-Stems

u-Stem Dictionary Entry o-Stem Dictionary Entry

fructus, fructūs circulus, circuli
spiritus, spiritūs dominus, domini
sensus, sensūs numerus, numeri
manus, manūs puer, pueri
tribus, tribūs ager, agri
vir, viri
cornū, cornūs aedificium, aedificii
genū, genūs donum, doni

a-Stem Nouns
The vast majority of a-stems are feminine. The exceptions are nouns
describing occupations generally held by men: nauta “sailor,” agricola
“farmer,” poeta “poet.” In the nominative singular a-stems use the bare
stem. Like the o-stems, the nominative plural once took the -es ending.
Apparently in imitation of the o-stems, the a-stems replaced this ending
with an -i. This diphthong ai was regularly spelled ae. Hence femina-i →
feminae. (MLWL 6.1, 6.2)
The nominative plural ending can be heard clearly in Greek place names
(often plural forms) such as Thermopolai. In Greek the city of Athens is

43
9. NOMINATIVE CASE: O-STEM AND A-STEM NOUNS

9.4 a-Stem Nouns

Nominative Sing. Nominative Plural Dictionary Entry

femina femina-i → feminae femina, feminae
regina regina-i → reginae regina, reginae
poeta poeta-i → poetae poeta, poetae

named Athenai, the plural form of Athena, the goddess to whom the city
was once dedicated.

44
9. NOMINATIVE CASE: O-STEM AND A-STEM NOUNS

Vocabulary List 3

philosophia, philosophiae f. 6a
philosophus, philosophi m. 7
imber, imbris (imbri-) m. 8
nox, noctis (nocti-) f. 8
turris, turris (turri-) f. 8
urbs, urbis (urbi-) f. 8
sedes, sedis (sedi-) f. 8
animal, animalis (animali-) n. 8
exemplar, exemplaris (exemplari-) n. 8
mare, maris (mari-) n. 8
miles, militis (milit-) m. 10
quantitas, quantitātis (quantitat-) f. 10
poema, poematis (poemat-) n. 10
caput, capitis (capit-) n. 10
rex, regis (reg-) m. 11
princeps, principis (princip-) m. 12
caelebs, caelibis (caelib-) m./f. 12
consul, consulis (consul-) m. 13
flos, floris (flos-) m. 15
genus, generis (genes-) n. 15
sanguis, sanguinis (sanguin-) m. 18
panis, panis (pan-) m. 18
iuvenis, iuvenis (iuven-) m./f. 18
nomen, nominis (nomin-) n. 18

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

45
9. NOMINATIVE CASE: O-STEM AND A-STEM NOUNS

Notes on Vocabulary List 3 The stems of consonant and i-stem nouns will regularly
be given. animal derives from animus (“mind, spirit”), from which anima (“breath,
soul”) is another derivative. Although n-stem nouns regularly lost the n in the nominative
singular, canis, panis and iuvenis exhibit the n even in this form. Historical evidence
shows that even canis and iuvenis lost the n at one time, but for different reasons the n
was restored. panis is unique among n-stems in that the stem ending was not originally
preceded by a vowel: the original form was pastnis. Presumably, the -st helped save the
n. canis comes from the root kuon-: the loss of the first vowel and shift of the second
yields the stem can-. In a different development, the root lost the second vowel and
the k softened to h: hun-. From this we eventually get the English “hound.” iuvenis,
given as a noun here, would have the same form as an adjective meaning “young.”
The comparative iuvenior, “younger,” contracted to iunior, yielding in English “junior.”
The loss of the syllable -ve makes more sense if one recalls that the consonant v was
pronounced more like our w. It is possible that miles is related to the English “mile”
through the Latin word mille (“thousand”). The English “mile” is derived from the
Latin expression for “a thousand paces.” The miles was a foot soldier, not a knight
mounted on a horse or other specialized kind of soldier, the kind of soldier that one had
“by the thousand.” princeps is derived from primus (“first,” “foremost,” superlative of
prior, “in front of,” pro, “before”) and capere (“to take”): one who takes the first place.

46
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 9 Name____________________________________

From the dictionary entries of the following nouns, identify the stems. It is not always possible to distinguish between a
consonant stem and an i-stem from the dictionary entry, but it is possible to do so for the nouns given below.

Dictionary Entry Stem Dictionary Entry Stem

ager, agri m. nomen, nominis n.
anima, animae f. oculus, oculi m.
animus, animi m. odium, odii n.
aurum, auri n. opinio, opinionis f.
auxilium, auxilii n. orator, oratoris m.
caelebs, caelibis m./f. orbis, orbis m.
calculus, calculi m. pater, patris m.
canis, canis m./f. pestis, pestis f.
caritas, caritatis f. piscis, piscis m.
casus, casūs m. puella, puellae f.
custos, custodis m./f. puer, pueri m.
dea, deae f. quadrus, quadri m.
dominus, domini m. ratio, rationis f.
dubium, dubii n. res, rei f.
figura, figurae f. rex, regis m.
facies, faciei f. salus, salutis f.
fel, fellis n. sedes, sedis f.
flos, floris m. sensus, sensūs m.
fluctus, fluctūs m. servus, servi m.
furor, furoris m. sidus, sideris n.
gladius, gladii m. signum, signi n.
gratia, gratiae f. silentium, silentii n.
hiems, hiemis f. species, speciei f.
honor, honoris m. spes, spei f.
hypocrita, hypocritae m. spiritus, spiritūs m.
imago, imaginis f. stadium, stadii n.
iustitia, iustitiae f. thema, thematis n.
manus, manūs f. toga, togae f.
mare, maris n. tumulus, tumuli m.
mola, molae f. turris, turris f.
motus, motūs m. villa, villae f.
nauta, nautae m. vir, virī m.
Which three n-stem nouns retain the stem ending in the nominative singular and thus look like i-stem nouns?

____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________

Form the nominative plural of the following nouns.

Dictionary Entry Nom. Pl. Dictionary Entry Nom. Pl.

ager, agri m. nomen, nominis n.
anima, animae f. oculus, oculi m.
animus, animi m. odium, odii n.
aurum, auri n. opinio, opinionis f.
auxilium, auxilii n. orator, oratoris m.
caelebs, caelibis m./f. orbis, orbis m.
calculus, calculi m. pater, patris m.
canis, canis m./f. pestis, pestis f.
caritas, caritatis f. piscis, piscis m.
casus, casūs m. puella, puellae f.
custos, custodis m./f. puer, pueri m.
dea, deae f. quadrus, quadri m.
dominus, domini m. ratio, rationis f.
dubium, dubii n. res, rei f.
figura, figurae f. rex, regis m.
facies, faciei f. salus, salutis f.
fel, fellis n. sedes, sedis f.
flos, floris m. sensus, sensūs m.
fluctus, fluctūs m. servus, servi m.
furor, furoris m. sidus, sideris n.
gladius, gladii m. signum, signi n.
gratia, gratiae f. silentium, silentii n.
hiems, hiemis f. species, speciei f.
honor, honoris m. spes, spei f.
hypocrita, hypocritae m. spiritus, spiritūs m.
imago, imaginis f. stadium, stadii n.
iustitia, iustitiae f. thema, thematis n.
manus, manūs f. toga, togae f.
mare, maris n. tumulus, tumuli m.
mola, molae f. turris, turris f.
motus, motūs m. villa, villae f.
nauta, nautae m. vir, virī m.
10 Double Stem and Ambiguous
Stem Nouns

Nouns with Double Stems

Seven nouns that use two stems can be found in MLWL 21. Below these
nouns are listed, alongside, the two stems used in its formation. Three use
one stem for the nominative (and perhaps accusative) singular and another
for the rest of the declension: iter, itineris; nix, nivis; senex, senis. Vis,
vis uses one stem for the singular and another for the plural. The rest use
one stem principally, but a second erratically: cor, cordis; domus, domūs;
vesper, vesperis.

10.1 Nouns with Double Stems

Dictionary Entry Stems Used in Formation

cor, cordis cord-, cordi-
domus, domus domo-, domu-
iter, itineris itiner-, iter-
nix, nivis niv-, nig-
senex, senis sen-, senec-
vesper, vesperis (sing. only) vesper-, vespero-
vis, vis vi-, viri-

47
10. DOUBLE STEM AND AMBIGUOUS STEM NOUNS

Nouns with Ambiguous Stems

Ambiguous stems are those that are difficult to distinguish from another. In
one case—vas, vasis (vas-)—the stem is ambiguous merely because it does
not follow the expected phonological rule. In most cases, ambiguity arises
through various accidents in the formation of the parts of the dictionary
entry. Several lists of ambiguous stems can be found in MLWL 22.
Some s-stem and r-stem nouns produce identical forms in certain case
and number combinations. (MLWL 22.1)
Three n-stems take an -i- before the masculine/feminine nominative sin-
gular ending -s. These therefore look like standard i-stem nouns. Commit
these three nouns to memory. Whenever you see a dictionary entry with
two forms ending in -is, repeat these three nouns, canis, panis, iuvenis, to
be sure when you have found a true i-stem. (MLWL 22.2)
The student should remember that mel and fel in fact have stems ending
in -ll. The loss of the final l in the nominative/accusative singular may lead
one to guess that the stem ends in only one l. (MLWL 22.3)
The next two kinds of stem demand careful consideration: i-stems that
have lost the stem ending in the nominative singular. These cannot be dis-
tinguished by their dictionary entries from certain consonant stems. Since
such i-stems have lost one syllable (the -i ) from their stems in the nomina-
tive singular, the nominative singular and the possessive or genitive singular,
which is the second part of the dictionary entry, have an unequal number of
syllables. They are therefore called “imparisyllabics.” Here the prefix in- is
negative; pari- means “equal.” Other i-stem nouns are called “parisyllab-
ics” because their dictionary entries have forms with an equal number of
syllables (MLWL 22.4, 22.5). These imparisyllabics can be usefully divided
into masculine/feminine imparisyllabic and neuter imparisyllabics.
The masculine/feminine imparisyllabics arise from stems of two sylla-
bles. There are two conditions in which the stem ending may be lost: a)
when the -i is preceded by two consonants and b) when the first syllable has
a long vowel, even if the -i is preceded by only one consonant. Most mas-
culine/feminine imparisyllabics have stems with two consonants preceding
the -i.
After losing the stem ending -i and adding the case ending -s, the nom-
inative singular form will have only one syllable. Sometimes the resulting
syllable is stable: plebi-s → plebs; urbi-s → urbs. At other times the re-

48
 10. DOUBLE STEM AND AMBIGUOUS STEM NOUNS

sulting syllable undergoes further contraction: arci-s → arc-s → arx ; arti-s

→ art-s → ars; doti-s → dot-s → dos; nocti-s → noct-s → noc-s → nox.
The phonological rules involved are all familiar to you. Examine each of
the i-stems in MLWL 22.4 and describe its contraction or contractions.
These masculine/feminine imparisyllabics have dictionary entries that
look just like those of one-syllable consonant stems. You should recognize
that consonant stems add -is in the genitive singular, while i-stems add
-s. The one-syllable consonant stems in your word list are presented on
the right side of MLWL 22.4. You should now commit the (shorter) list
of i-stems to memory, so that you will not confuse these stems with one
another.
As noted in Chapter 8, neuter i-stems form the nominative singular in
one of two ways: a) with corruption of the -i to -e: mari- → mare; reti- →
rete or b) in some stems ending in -li and -ri with loss of the stem ending:
animali- → animal, exemplari- → exemplar, but mari- → mare and sedili-
→ sedile.
The neuters that drop the stem ending are also “imparisyllabics.” These
have dictionary entries that look like neuters with stems ending in -l or -r
(MLWL 22.5). Memorize the two neuter imparisyllabics in your word list
now: animal, animalis; exemplar, exemplaris.

49
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 10 Name____________________________________

For the following nouns, give the stem (look it up if necessary) then note why there is some ambiguity about the stem.

Dictionary Entry Stem Explanation

cadaver, cadaveris n. cadaver- C-stem that ends in –r: looks like exemplar (exemplari-)
pax, pacis f. pac- one syll. C-stem: looks like imparasyll. i-stem
aer, aeris n. aer- looks like aes (aes-) in some forms
aes, aeris n.
animal, animalis n.
ars, artis f.
canis, canis m./f.
crux, crucis f.
dens, dentis m.
exemplar, exemplaris n.
fel, fellis n.
femur, femoris n.
grex, gregis m.
guttur, gutturis n.
iuvenis, iuvenis m./f.
lex, legis f.
mel, mellis n.
mens, mentis f.
os, oris n.
os, ossis n.
nix, nivis f.
panis, panis m.
sol, solis m.

Every noun has gender: masculine (masc.), feminine (fem.), or neuter (neut.). Every noun has number: singular (sg.) or
plural (pl.). Every noun is in a case: nominative (nom.), genitive (gen.), dative (dat.), accusative (acc.), or ablative (abl.).
(As of now, you have studied only the nominative and genitive cases.) Identify the following nouns by circling the correct
gender, number, and case. (There may be more than one correct answer.)

Noun Identification Noun Identification

philosophiae masc/fem/neut sg/pl patres masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
imber masc/fem/neut sg/pl regum masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
domuum masc/fem/neut sg/pl panum masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
urbes masc/fem/neut sg/pl numerus masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
turris masc/fem/neut sg/pl effectus masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
 fructus masc/fem/neut sg/pl caelebs masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
maria masc/fem/neut sg/pl lineae masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
sedes masc/fem/neut sg/pl cornu masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
genua masc/fem/neut sg/pl floris masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
quantitas masc/fem/neut sg/pl philosophorum masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
militum masc/fem/neut sg/pl acies masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
dierum masc/fem/neut sg/pl sanguis masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
capita masc/fem/neut sg/pl noctium masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
poematis masc/fem/neut sg/pl circuli masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen
res masc/fem/neut sg/pl iuvenes masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen nom/gen

For the following exercise, classify the i-stem nouns according to the following chart:

PARISYLLABICS IMPARISYLLABICS
MASCULINE & 1) Standard: simply add –s 4) Add –s, loss of –i, etc.
FEMININE civis, civis m./f. (civi-) urbs, urbis f. (urbi-)
finis, finis m. (fini-)
2) Plural for Singular
nubes, nubis f. (nubi-)
3) bri- & tri- stems: bare stem,
loss of –i, insert –e
imber, imbris m.
NEUTER 5) Bare stem, –i → –e 6) Bare stem, loss of –i
mare, maris n. (mari-) animal, animalis n. (animali-)

i-stem Noun Type i-stem Noun Type

civis, civis m./f. 1 animal, animalis n. 6
pons, pontis m. dos, dotis f.
sedes, sedis f. uter, utris m.
sedile, sedilis n. orbis, orbis m.
piscis, piscis m. exemplar, exemplaris n.
plebs, plebis f. dens, dentis m.
vis, vis f. venter, ventris m.
linter, lintris f. clavis, clavis f.

Which three consonant stem nouns look like parisyllabic i-stems of type 1?

Which type of i-stem noun is hardest to distinguish from consonant stems? Why?
11 o- and a-Stem Adjectives

An adjective is a part of speech that represents what it signifies as having

a determinate and stable nature: “white,” “hot,” “triangular,” “human,”
“wooden.” In this it is like a noun but unlike a verb. But whereas a noun
represents what it signifies as a substance “standing by itself” (“man,” “an-
imal,” “house,” but even “speech,” “angle”), an adjective represents what
it signifies as inhering in or “thrown against” (jactum ad ) another (“white,”
“hot,” but even “human”). For this reason, an adjective must always mod-
ify a noun, at least implicitly (“The poor will be with you always.”). This
modification is shown through agreement, whereby an adjective shows the
same gender, number and case as the noun it modifies. As will be seen
below, this does not necessarily result in the adjective and noun having the
same ending (sanctificetur nomen tuum; fiat voluntas tua. . . ).

o/a-Stem Adjectives
Latin morphology involves three classes of adjective: one kind using both
the a-stem and the o-stem, another kind using an i-stem, and a small third
class having consonant stems. Adjectives employing stems ending in -i or
a consonant will be discussed in the next chapter. Those employing stems
ending in -a and -o, (named as “o/a-stems”) and their “sub-declensions,”
are discussed here. Their morphology is presented in LMP 6–8.
Most adjectives taking both the a-stem and the o-stem are generally
inflected just as are the nouns using those stems. The dictionary entry for
such adjectives presents three nominative singulars: masculine, feminine,
and neuter: bonus, bona, bonum; magnus, magna, magnum. Hence the

51
11. O- AND A-STEM ADJECTIVES

plural of bonus is boni, that of bona is bonae, and that of bonum is bona.
These adjectives take the a-stem to agree with feminine nouns or the o-
stem to agree with masculine or neuter nouns. Learn the meanings of the
o/a-stem adjectives in Table 11.1.

11.1 Some o/a-Stem Adjectives

alto/a- altus, alta, altum

antiquo/a- antiquus, antiqua, atiquum
bono/a- bonus, bona, bonum
duro/a- durus, dura, durum
humano/a- humanus, humana, humanum
iusto/a- iustus, iusta, iustum
magno/a- magnus, magna, magnum
malo/a- malus, mala, malum
novo/a- novus, nova, novum
perfecto/a- perfectus, perfecta, perfectum
recto/a- rectus, recta, rectum
stulto/a- stultus, stulta, stultum
ultimo/a- ultimus, ultima, ultimum
vero/a- verus, vera, verum
vivo/a- vivus, viva, vivum

ro/ra-Stem Adjectives
There are, however, some adjective stems that end in -ro and -ra (named as
“ro/ra-stems”). Like the “pure” o/a-stem adjectives, these give the nomi-
native singular forms as the dictionary entry and most but not all of these
stems decline almost exactly as -ro noun stems do. As are the ro-stem
nouns, these noun stems are distinguished from the “pure” o/a-stem adjec-
tives only in the masculine nominative singular formation: liber, aeger.
The ro/ra-stems that form a sub-declension come in two forms. In
some the -e of the nominative singular is part of the stem, thus liber, libera,
liberum; in others it is only in the masculine nominative singular, thus
aeger, aegra, aegrum. This will appear, as in these examples, in the second
and third parts of the dictionary entry. Hence the plural of liber is liberi,

52
 11. O- AND A-STEM ADJECTIVES

while the plural of aeger is aegri. Learn the meanings of the ro/ra-stem
adjectives in Table 11.2.

11.2 Some ro/ra-Stem Adjectives

aspero/a- asper, aspera, asperum

dextro/a- dexter, dextra, dextruma
libero/a- lı̄ber, lı̄bera, lı̄berum
nigro/a- niger, nigra, nigrum
misero/a- miser, misera, miserum
pulchro/a- pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum
sinistro/a- sinister, sinistra, sinistrum
a
Originally dexter, dextera, dexterum from dextero/a-.

11.3 “unus nauta”

ullo/a- ullus, ulla, ullum (ullius, ulli)

nullo/a- nullus, nulla, nullum (nullius, nulli)
uno/a- unus, una, unum (unius, uni)
solo/a- solus, sola, solum (solius, soli)
neutro/a- neuter, neutra, neutrum (neutrius, neutri)
altero/a- alter, altera, alterum (alterius, alteri)
utro/a- uter, utra, utrum (utrius, utri)
toto/a- totus, tota, totum (totius, toti)
alio/a- alius, alia, aliud (alterius, alteri—from alter)a
a
N.B. The expected genitive form alius sometimes occurs, especially in the phrase
alius modi.

With Singular Genitive Ending in -ius and Singular

Dative Ending in -i
Nine adjectives or pronominal adjectives with stems in o/a- have two un-
usual formations. The singular genitive ends in -ius and the singular dative
ends in -i. Note that three of these have stems in -ro. One of these three

53
11. O- AND A-STEM ADJECTIVES

has the -e in its stem. The mnemonic device unus nauta (“one sailor”) will
remind you of the first letters of these nine adjectives. They are presented
in Table 11.3.

54
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 11 Name____________________________________

What makes dōs, dotis and plēbs, plebis unique among the i-stem nouns on our word list?

Identify the noun by gender, number and case. Then give the form of the adjective that agrees with the noun. (There may
be more than one correct answer.)

Noun Identification Adjective

philosophiae masc/fem/neut sg/pl altus, alta, altum:
nom/gen
imbres masc/fem/neut sg/pl durus, dura, durum:
nom/gen
circulorum masc/fem/neut sg/pl rectus, recta, rectum:
nom/gen
spes masc/fem/neut sg/pl liber, libera, liberum:
nom/gen
nox masc/fem/neut sg/pl pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum:
nom/gen
reginarum masc/fem/neut sg/pl unus, una, unum:
nom/gen
spiritus masc/fem/neut sg/pl purus, pura, purum:
nom/gen
fidei masc/fem/neut sg/pl totus, tota, totum:
nom/gen
regum masc/fem/neut sg/pl bonus, bona, bonum:
nom/gen
femina masc/fem/neut sg/pl humanus, humana, humanum:
nom/gen
philosophi masc/fem/neut sg/pl verus, vera, verum:
nom/gen
floris masc/fem/neut sg/pl asper, aspera, asperum:
nom/gen
puer masc/fem/neut sg/pl miser, misera, miserum:
nom/gen
sanguis masc/fem/neut sg/pl sinister, sinistra, sinistrum:
nom/gen
sensuum masc/fem/neut sg/pl nullus, nulla, nullum:
nom/gen
nomen masc/fem/neut sg/pl alius, alia, aliud:
nom/gen

Explain peculiarities where they occur.

Dictionary Entry Stem Explanation

aroma, aromatis n. aromat-
rex, regis m. reg-
heres, heredis m./f. hered-
forceps, forcipis f./m. forcip-
sanguis, sanguinis m. sanguin-
consul, consulis m. consul-
 poema, poematis n. poemat-
iudex, iudicis m. iudic-
hiems, hiemis f. hiem-
orator, oratoris m. orator-
quantitas, quantitatis f. quantitat-
pater, patris m. patr-
natio, nationis f. nation-
lapis, lapidis m. lapid-
lux, lucis f. luc-
mulier, mulieris f. mulier-
panis, panis m. pan-
voluntas, voluntatis f. voluntat-

For the following drill, classify the i-stem nouns according to this chart.

PARISYLLABICS IMPARISYLLABICS
MASCULINE & FEMININE 1) Standard 4) Add –s, loss of –i, etc.
2) Plural for Singular
3) bri- & tri- stems
NEUTER 5) Bare stem, -i → -e 6) Bare stem, loss of –i

i-stem Noun Type i-stem Noun Type

hostis, hostis m. exemplar, exemplaris n.
frons, frontis f. arx, arcis f.
mare, maris n. sedes, sedis f.
imber, imbris m. turris, turris f.
pons, pontis m. mons, montis m.

Each of the following nouns have two stems. Give both stems. If appropriate, note when the second stem is used.

cor, cordis n.
domus, domus f.
iter, itineris n.
nix, nivis f.
senex, senis m.
vesper, vesperis m.
vis, vis f.

What sets the UNUS NAUTA adjectives apart from other o/a-stem adjectives?
12 i-Stem and Consonant Stem
Adjectives

i-Stem Adjectives
Many adjectives employ stems ending in -i. The morphology of these adjec-
tives, and their sub-declensions, is presented in LMP 9–11. The subdeclen-
sions of adjectives with the stem ending in -i are commonly distinguished as
adjectives “of three endings,” “of two endings,” and “of one ending.” This
means that some adjectives have distinct forms for the masculine, femi-
nine and neuter in the nominative singular. Others have one form that is
common to the masculine and feminine but a distinct form for the neuter.
Still others use one form for all genders. Regardless of whether there are
one, two or three forms for the nominative singular, there are always two
forms for the nominative plural (masculine and feminine on the one hand
and neuter on the other). The accusative case also has two forms, both
in the singular and plural. For the remaining cases—the genitive, dative
and ablative—there is only a one form in the singular and one form in the
plural. The adjectives that belong to these three groups may be seen in
MLWL 26. The paradigms for these adjectives may be found in LMP 9–11.

i-Stems of Three Endings

In Latin’s thirteen adjectives “of three endings,” the masculine, feminine,
and neuter each have distinct nominative singular forms. These three forms
are used for the dictionary entry. Twelve of these adjectives use stems
ending in -bri, -cri, or -tri ; the thirteenth stem is celeri-. The masculine

55
12. I-STEM AND CONSONANT STEM ADJECTIVES

nominative singular of these thirteen adjectives is formed like nouns with

such stems, e.g., linter. Three such adjectives are needed in this Primer,
and are presented in Table 12.1; learn their meanings now.

12.1 i-Stem Adjectives of Three Endings

Nominative Singulars Stem Nominative Plurals

ācer, ācris, ācre acri- acres (m./f.), acria
celer, celeris, celere celeri- celeres (m./f.), celeria
salūber, salūbris, salūbre salubri- salubres (m./f.), salubria

i-Stems of Two Endings

In i-stem adjectives “of two endings,” the neuter nominative singular is
distinct from the other nominative singular form which the masculine and
feminine singulars have in common. Hence there are only two nominative
singular forms, which forms constitute the dictionary entry. These adjec-
tives are presented in Table 12.2.

12.2 i-Stem Adjectives of Two Endings

Nominative Singulars Stem Nominative Plurals

brevis, breve brevi- breves, brevia
commūnis, commūne communi- commūnes, commūnia
difficilis, difficile difficili- difficiles, difficilia
facilis, facile facili- faciles, facilia
humilis, humile humili- humiles, humilia
immortālis, immortāle immortali- immortāles, immortālia
mortālis, mortāle mortali- mortāles, mortālia
omnis, omne omni- omnes, omnia
suāvis, suāve suavi- suāves, suāvia
ūtilis, ūtile utili- ūtiles, ūtilia

56
 12. I-STEM AND CONSONANT STEM ADJECTIVES

i-Stems of One Ending

Other i-stem adjectives show no distinction of gender in the nominative sin-
gular. The dictionary entry is therefore composed from the one nominative
singular form together with the genitive singular, as with nouns. There
is, however, a distinction of gender in the nominative plurals between the
common masculine and feminine and the neuter. These adjectives are pre-
sented in Table 12.3: in the first column the genitive singular is provided
in parentheses to make the dictionary entry clearer. Review the discussion
of i-stem imparisyllabics (cf. Chapters 8 and 10) to explain the formation
of the nominative singular.
12.3 i-Stem Adjectives of One Ending

Nomin. Sing. (Genitive) Stem Nominative Plurals

absēns, (absentis) absenti- absēntes, absentia
ēloquēns, (eloquentis) eloquenti- ēloquēntes, ēloquentia
fēlı̄x, (felı̄cis) fēlı̄ci- fēlı̄ces, fēlı̄cia
sapiēns, (sapientis) sapienti- sapiēntes, sapientia

12.4 Consonant Stem Adjectives

Nominative Singulars Stems Nominative Plurals

inferior, inferius inferior-, inferios- inferiores, inferiora
prior, prius prior-, prios- priores, priora
superior, superius superior-, superios- superiores, superiora
vetusa vetes- veteres, vetera
a
Dictionary Entry: vetus, veteris (genitive)

Consonant Stem Adjectives

A small number of adjectives have stems ending in consonants. These are
divided into adjectives of two endings, which are all comparative adjec-
tives, and those of one ending. Wherever there are two forms, the mas-
culine and feminine are common and distinguished from the neuter. Only

57
12. I-STEM AND CONSONANT STEM ADJECTIVES

four consonant stem adjectives must be learned; their nominative forms

and stems are presented in Table 12.4.

58
 12. I-STEM AND CONSONANT STEM ADJECTIVES

Vocabulary List 4

femina, feminae f. 6a
rēgı̄na, rēgı̄nae f. 6
agricola, agricolae m. 6
poeta, poetae m. 6
dominus, domini m. 7
puer, pueri (puero-) m. 7
ager, agri (agro-) m. 7
vir, virı̄ (viro-) m. 7
aedificium, aedificii n. 7
donum, doni n. 7
venter, ventris (ventri-) m. 8
nubes, nubis (nubi-) f. 8
virtus, virtūtis (virtut-) f. 10
custos, custōdis (custod-) m./f. 10
dux, ducis (duc-) m./f. 11
mel, mellis (mell-) n. 13
os, oris (os-) n. 15
os, ossis (oss-) n. 15
cor, cordis n. 21
iter, itineris (itiner-; iter-) n. 21
altus, alta, altum 23
bonus, bona, bonum 23
dexter, dextra, dextrum 24
sinister, sinistra, sinistrum (sinistro/a-) 24

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

59
12. I-STEM AND CONSONANT STEM ADJECTIVES

Notes on Vocabulary List 4 dominus is derived from domus: he was the master of
the house. cor has lost the final d (cord → cor ) because in Latin a final d is usually lost
after a long vowel or a consonant. In Chapter 17 we will see that the ablative singular
used to end in a long vowel and a final d, but the d was lost: animād → animā, animōd
→ animō. The final d was retained after a short vowel: sĕd. iter reflects that the parent
language of Latin was much more complex than Latin itself. For example, proto-Indo-
European had more declensions, which have been simplified and condensed into the five
Latin declensions. Iter belonged to a small subdeclension of neuter nouns that had an
r-stem in the nominative and an n-stem in the genitive: iter, itinis. Latin combined
these forms into the new genitive singular itineris, which makes the noun an r-stem
throughout but also reflects the old n-stem form. The English “sinister” has a negative
connotation, but sinister can mean both “lucky” and “unlucky.” In Roman augury,
the augur faced the south and his left side was associated with the East, which was
considered the favorable side. Greek augurs faced north, putting the unfavorable west
on their left side. Thus, the word took on opposite meanings. altus took on opposite
meanings: “high” and “deep.” Here the opposites are alike in being far removed from sea
level. A placid sea without waves had neither high crests nor deep troughs. os, ossis
loses the second s of its stem because it is impossible to pronounce a double consonant
at the end of a word.

60
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 12 Name____________________________________

Determine the stems of the following adjectives. Classify them as o/a-stems, ro/ra-stems, UNUS NAUTA o/a-stems, i-
stems, or consonant stems. For i-stems, indicate whether they are i-stems of one, two, or three endings.

Adjective Class Adjective Class

adultus, adulta, adultum o/a- inferior, inferius C
immortalis, immortale i-2 unus, una, unum UN
acer, acris, acre felix, felicis
nullus, nulla, nullum aequus, aequa, aequum
miser, misera, miserum alter, altera, alterum
diligens, diligentis tristis, triste
brevis, breve aptus, apta, aptum
summus, summa, summum totus, tota, totum
fortis, forte par, paris
celer, celeris, celere niger, nigra, nigrum
curvus, curva, curvum omnis, omne
fidelis, fidele saluber, salubris, salubre
ferox, ferocis neuter, neutra, neutrum
sinister, sinistra, sinistrum divinus, divina, divinum
solus, sola, solum audax, audacis

Identify the noun by gender, number, and case. Then give the form of the adjective that agrees with the noun.
(Remember, there may be more than one correct answer.)

Noun Identification Adjective Form

agricolae masc/fem/neut sg/pl altus, alta, altum:
nom/gen
corda masc/fem/neut sg/pl durus, dura, durum:
nom/gen
iter masc/fem/neut sg/pl prior, prius:
nom/gen
virtutis masc/fem/neut sg/pl liber, libera, liberum:
nom/gen
puerorum masc/fem/neut sg/pl facilis, facile:
nom/gen
dominus masc/fem/neut sg/pl unus, una, unum:
nom/gen
poeta masc/fem/neut sg/pl purus, pura, purum:
nom/gen
ora masc/fem/neut sg/pl totus, tota, totum:
nom/gen
ossis masc/fem/neut sg/pl bonus, bona, bonum:
nom/gen
doni masc/fem/neut sg/pl celer, celeris, celere:
nom/gen
reginae masc/fem/neut sg/pl mortalis, mortale:
nom/gen
 ager masc/fem/neut sg/pl asper, aspera, asperum:
nom/gen
aedificia masc/fem/neut sg/pl suavis, suave:
nom/gen
nubes masc/fem/neut sg/pl sinister, sinistra, sinistrum:
nom/gen
custodis masc/fem/neut sg/pl nullus, nulla, nullum:
nom/gen
mella masc/fem/neut sg/pl absens, absentis:
nom/gen
senes masc/fem/neut sg/pl alius, alia, aliud:
nom/gen

Which three consonant stem nouns look like parisyllabic i-stems?

What is unusual about mel, mellis and fel, fellis?

Give the correct forms of the following noun/adjective combinations.

Noun Adjective Number/Case Inflected Form

murus, muri m. omnis, omne nom. pl.
rex, regis m. bonus, bona, bonum gen. sg.
dubium, dubii n. difficilis, difficile gen. pl.
leo, leonis m. ferox, ferocis nom. sg.
nix, nivis f. altus, alta, altum gen. pl.
poeta, poetae m. prior, prius nom. pl.
effectus, effectus m. alius, alia, aliud gen. sg.
fides, fidei f. felix, felicis nom. pl.

Identify the following sentences/clauses as nominal or verbal. For nominal sentences, identify the principal part of the
predicate as a noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase.

(1) In the beginning was the Word, (2) and the Word was with God, (3) and the Word was God. (4)
He was in the beginning with God; (5) all things were made through him, (6) and without him was
not anything made (7) that was made. (8) In him was life, (9) and the life was the light of men.
(10) The light shines in the darkness, (11) and the darkness has not overcome it. (12) There was a
man sent from God, (13) whose name was John. (14) He came for testimony, to bear witness to the
light, (15) that all might believe through him.

1. 6. 11.
2. 7. 12.
3. 8. 13.
4. 9. 14.
5. 10. 15.
13 The Past, Present, and Future of
est and sunt

Read the following sentences out loud.

In princı́pio erat Verbum, et Verbum erat apud Deum, et Deus erat

Verbum, hoc erat in princı́pio apud Deum. (John 1:1–2)

Glória Patri et Fı́lio et Spirı́tui Sancto, sicut erat in princı́pio et

[est]nunc et [erit] semper in saécula saeculórum. Ámen.

Deus erat. Pater est Deus.

Deus est. Pater erat Deus.
Deus erit. Pater Deus est.
Deus erat, est, et erit.
Spı́ritus Sanctus Deus est.
Verbum est Deus. Spı́ritus Sanctus Deus erat.
Verbum erat Deus. Spı́ritus Sanctus est Deus.
Verbum Deus est.
Verbum Deus erat. Pater est Deus.
Deus erat Verbum. Fı́lius est Deus.
Pater non est Fı́lius.
Fı́lius est Deus. Fı́lius non est Pater.
Fı́lius Deus est.
Fı́lius erat Deus.
Fı́lius Deus erat.
Deus Fı́lius erat.

61
13. THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF EST AND SUNT

Pater et Fı́lius et Spı́ritus Sanctus sunt tres persónae.

Pater et Fı́lius et Spı́ritus Sanctus sunt persónae divı́nae.
Pater et Fı́lius et Spı́ritus Sanctus sunt unus Deus.

Pater et Fı́lius et Spı́ritus Sanctus erant in princı́pio.

In prı́ncipio erant Pater et Fı́lius et Spı́ritus Sanctus.
In prı́ncipio Pater erat et Fı́lius et Spı́ritus Sanctus.

Pater et Fı́lius et Spı́ritus Sanctus in aetérnum erunt.

Pater et Fı́lius et Spı́ritus Sanctus erunt in aetérnum.
Pater et Fı́lius et Spı́ritus Sanctus erant et sunt et erunt in aetérnum.

Order Within the Latin Verb

In English declarative statements our thoughts are usually presented in a
certain order: “I walk,” “I am walking,” “I was walking,” “I shall walk,” “I
shall be walking.” In all these sentences the subject comes first. A finite
verb or helping verb comes next and this verb, apart from other things,
indicates the time. Some of the sentences do not determine the content of
the predication until the third or fourth word of the sentence: “He is here,”
“He is not here,” “He may be here.”
In Latin (or perhaps the language from which Latin developed) the
original order for indicating these things was opposite ours. The kind of
action was expressed first, then some reference (if necessary) to time, and
finally the person. For example, the word ambulabam can be divided into
parts that contribute the meanings found in separate words of the English
sentence above: ambula- (“walking”), -ba (“was”), -m (“I”). At first these
were perhaps separate words that contracted into a single word. Attention
to this order will help in considering the past and future forms of est and
sunt. At the same time the common source of these two present forms can
be explained.

Roots, Stems, and Formants

First, one must distinguish, as far as possible, a root from a stem. A stem
is a sound that needs only its final suffix to become a determinate word.

62
 13. THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF EST AND SUNT

But a root is some sound to which a formant can be added to become a

stem. Each is common to many determinate forms of a word. But a stem
belongs to one word, a noun, for example, while a root may belong to many
parts of speech.
In English, the notion of “root” is a very useful one. We see the same
root leg- in “legal,” “legislate,” “legitimate,” even “privilege,” and many
other English words. But we have very little use for the notion of a stem.
In Latin both notions are very useful. Already some attention has been
paid to the stems of nouns: a-stems, o-stems, e-stems, and so on. Here an
important root will be pointed out. In this particular case, the various ver-
bal forms derived from this root seem chaotic if one does not pay attention
to how the various stems are formed from this root.

Analysis of Progressive Forms of est and

sunt
The verb est has for its root the sound es-. All the forms that have been
studied so far can be explained from this root. Thus, as is quite clear,
the form est, which is present progressive, is composed of the root es- and
the personal ending -t. (Here the root serves as the stem itself, without
requiring a formant.) This personal ending is third person—neither the
person speaking nor the person spoken to—and singular. The same ending
is found in the forms erat and erit. What is surprising is that these forms
have the same root.
The verb erat is composed of the “past progressive” stem era- and the
personal ending -t. The verb erit is composed of the “future progressive”
stem eri- and the personal ending -t. But these two stems, era- and eri-, are
both formed from the root es- and the past and future formants, respectively
-a and -i. Adding the past and future formants to this root produced esa-
and esi-. In ancient Latin (long before Latin was written), an s between
two vowels became an r. This is called, to use a very impressive term,
“rhotacism of intervocalic -s.”
You should now be able to explain the verb erant. It can be analyzed
into three parts: its root, its past (or temporal) formant, and its personal
ending. The verb erunt, however, has used a u instead of the i one would
expect. This is very common with the third person plural, though not

63
13. THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF EST AND SUNT

13.1 Past and Future Progressive

Past Future
erat erant erit erunt
es-a-t es-a-nt es-i-t es-i-nt
being-was-he/she/it being-were-they being-will be-he/she/it being-will be-they

invariable, in the Latin future. Although the future progressive stem is

eri-, the third person plural substitutes a -u for the future formant -i.
The verb sunt presents two difficulties. First, the e of the root es- has
been lost. (Such a form, here s-, is called a zero-grade root.) Second,
a vowel has been introduced between the root and the personal ending,
unlike in the verb est. This is not a temporal formant. It is called a theme
vowel.1 Practically speaking, the present progressive sometimes uses the
stem es- and sometimes uses the stem su-.

13.2 Present Progressive

est sunt
es-t e/s-o-nt
is-he/she/it are-they

These explanations for these forms may seem rather cumbersome. But
later many forms that would otherwise seem arbitrary will be perfectly
intelligible to those who pay attention to the points mentioned here. After
they have been repeated many times, such explanations will become very
familiar.

1
Theme vowels were used commonly in other Latin verbs in the present tense (and
sometimes in the future, as seen in erunt). This verb sunt seems to have imitated other
verbs by introducing an o between the s- (which is the zero-grade of the root es-) and
the personal ending -nt. As happened often in Latin, the -o corrupted into a u.

64
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 13 Name____________________________________

Divide (analyze) each of the following verbs into root, formant, and ending. (Do not put a theme vowel in the “formant”
column.)

Verb Root Formant [Theme Ending

Vowel]

erat es- a t

est

erunt

erant

erit

sunt

What is meant by “first person”, by “second person,” and by “third person”?

Identify each verb by person, number, and tense by circling the correct answer. (We will learn later that all these verbs
are active, progressive, and indicative.)

Verb Person Number Tense

erat 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
est 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
erunt 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
erant 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
erit 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
sunt 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future

What is the difference between the -o- in sunt and in erunt?

Here are some verbs other than est. Even though you have not studied these verbs, see if you can identify these verbs by
looking for the formant and ending.

Verb Person Number Tense

fert 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
vocabit 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
habebat 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
volunt 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
ibant 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
potest 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
dabunt 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
ferunt 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
ferebat 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
dabit 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
What is the fancy expression for -s- changing to -r- between two vowels?

What is a root? How does it differ from a stem?

To what class do the following adjectives belong: inferior, prior, superior, vetus?

Which consonants are dentals?___________________ Velars?_______________________

Liquids?_________________ Nasals?_______________________ Labials?___________________

For the following drill, classify the i-stem nouns according to this chart.

PARISYLLABICS IMPARISYLLABICS
MASCULINE & FEMININE 1) Standard 4) Add –s, loss of –i, etc.
2) Plural for Singular
3) bri- & tri- stems
NEUTER 5) Bare stem, -i → -e 6) Bare stem, loss of –i

i-stem Noun Type i-stem Noun Type

frons, frontis f. orbis, orbis m.
animal, animalis n. mare, maris n.
turris, turris f. imber, imbris m.
sedes, sedis f. plēbs, plebis f.
finis, finis m. clavis, clavis f.

Give the correct forms of the following noun/adjective combinations.

Noun Adjective Number/Case Inflected Form

geminus, gemini m. uter, utra, utrum nom. pl.
sedes, sedis f. altus, alta, altum gen. sg.
fatum, fati n. dulcis, dulce gen. pl.
clavis, clavis f. gravis, grave nom. pl.
actus, actus m. falsa, falsus, falsum gen. sg.

List the UNUS NAUTA adjectives.

U N
N A
U U
S T
A
14 The Progressive Indicative System
of sum, esse

This chapter looks at one of the “systems” that form part of the verb sum,
esse. The nature of the progressive “aspect” and the indicative “mood”
will be examined later.
Read the following sentences out loud. Pay attention to the verbs in
bold. Note the relation of the endings to the person and number.

Olim eram ego puer et tu eras puélla.

Nunc ego sum vir et tu es fémina.

Cras ego ero sponsus et tu eris sponsa.

Olim nos erámus in urbe sed vos erátis in villa.

Nunc nos in vico sumus et vos in urbe estis.

Cras nos in urbe érimus et vos étiam in urbe éritis.

olim long ago sponsus groom

puer boy sponsa bride
puélla girl urbe city
nunc now villa villa, village
vir man (male) vico village
fémina woman etiam also
cras tomorrow

65
14. THE PROGRESSIVE INDICATIVE SYSTEM OF SUM, ESSE

The sentences written above exhibit many forms of the verb est. They
present the first and second person forms in a progressive or “ongoing”
manner. Further, these forms are “indicative,” that is, they declare or
“indicate” in a straightforward way, that something is so.
The third person forms of the progressive indicative have already been
examined. Be sure you understand the following examples:

Fémina in urbe erat. Nunc est in vico. Cras ı́terum in urbe

femina- urb(i)-e es-a-t es-t vico- urb(i)-e
erit.
es-i-t

Púeri eius étiam in urbe erant. Sed nunc in villa non sunt.
puer(o)-i urb(i)-e es-a-nt villa- (e)s-u-nt
Cras in urbe erunt.
urb(i)-e es-u-nt

The second person forms can be easily explained from the same princi-
ples. The past and future forms can be readily recognized and distinguished
through the two stems: era- and eri-. You should be able to identify the
singular and plural endings for the second person: -s and -tis.
These are in fact the same endings used in the singular and plural forms
of the present tense. The second person plural is formed from the root es-
and the second person plural ending -tis. Since the second person singular
ending is -s, it contracts with the root when added immediately to it: es-
s→es.
The first person forms are perfectly clear in the past: era-m and era-
mus. These are the standard first person endings, -m for the singular and
-mus for the plural.
Of the future forms, the plural is normal, the first person plural ending
-mus added to the future indicative stem eri-: eri-mus. But the singular
has been infected with an -o ending.
This -o ending is very common in the present and future first person
singular. It is so common that most students of Latin believe the -o ending
to be the standard first person singular ending. The -m ending has never-
theless retained its place as the first person singular ending in much of the
Latin verb.
In the present, an irregularity occurs: the first person singular sum.
(This form is also used to name this verb.) Although the verb ends with

66
 14. THE PROGRESSIVE INDICATIVE SYSTEM OF SUM, ESSE

the characteristic -m, it is very likely that this form was developed so that
sum and sumus would sound like era-m and era-mus. Su-mus itself seems
to have resulted from esomus by the addition of the standard first person
plural ending, the introduction of a theme vowel -o, the loss of the initial
e-, and the corruption of the theme vowel (perhaps in imitation of sunt).
The forms of sum used above are all progressive forms, that is, they
represent what they signify as ongoing. This is called the verb’s aspect.
The progressive forms in English are quite obvious because they use the
active participle: “he was walking,” “I am talking.” This progressive sense,
however, is the original sense of these forms. They may be used otherwise
as you will later learn. Nonetheless, the form should always be identified
as progressive, even if its use is not progressive.
The progressive aspect is accurately described by other names: continu-
ous, durative, ongoing. The name “imperfect” is excellent insofar as it very
neatly distinguishes this aspect from the other aspect used in the Latin
verb, namely the perfect. But the name is in fact ambiguous because it has
become virtually synonymous with the “past progressive,” which is in fact
only one part of the “imperfect” system. The use of this term should there-
fore be studiously avoided until one clearly understands and distinguishes
its two meanings. It will not be used in any exercises in this book and will
not count as a correct answer, lest equivocation engender confusion.

14.1 The Progressive Indicative System of sum, esse

sum es est sumus estis sunt

e/s-o-m es-s es-t e/s-o-mus es-tis /e s-o-nt
eram eras erat eramus eratis erant
es-a-m es-a-s es-a-t es-a-mus es-a-tis es-a-nt
ero eris erit erimus eritis erunt
es-o es-i-s es-i-t es-i-mus es-i-tis es-o-nt

Two other terms are in fact wrongly used for this aspect, “repetitive”
and “frequentative.” These terms name a use of the progressive and not
its original manner of representing what it signifies. The frequentative or
repetitive use of the progressive is exemplified in the statement, “In those
days I was still buying my cigars from Havana.” (In English we often use

67
14. THE PROGRESSIVE INDICATIVE SYSTEM OF SUM, ESSE

the form that employs the auxiliary or helping verb “used”: “In those days
I used to buy my cigars from Havana.”)
The forms of sum, esse that have been introduced are the systems or
conjugations of the past progressive, the present progressive, and the future
progressive. You should therefore be able to identify any particular form
from these conjugations.
You should thoroughly memorize the standard personal endings. The
mnemonic device “m-o-s-t -mus-nt sit- backwards” may help you. The
first word, “most,” presents the singular endings: -m or -o, -s, -t. The
second word, “mus-nt” presents the first and third person plural endings:
-mus and -nt. The third word “sit” presents the second person plural ending
(but backwards): -tis.

68
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 14 Name____________________________________

Analyze each of the following verbs into root, formant, and ending. (Do not put a theme vowel in the “formant” column.)

Verb Root Formant [Theme Ending

Vowel]
erat es- a t

sum

estis
erit

eram
eritis

sunt
eramus

es

ero
sumus
eras
erunt

eris

Explain the underlined vowel in each of the following verbs.

Verb Explanation
sunt theme vowel: connects root to ending; -o corrupted to -u
ero
erunt
erant
sumus
erimus

Identify each verb by person, number, and tense by circling the correct answer.

Verb Person Number Tense

erimus 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
estis 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
ero 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
eris 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
sumus 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
sum 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
es 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
eramus 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
 eritis 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
eram 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future

What is unusual about the root in sumus? What is the name of this root?

Here are some verbs other than sum. Even though you have not studied these verbs, see if you can identify them by
looking for the formant and ending.

Verb Person Number Tense

fertis 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
dabitis 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
potero 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
volunt 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
fiebam 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
do 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
ibis 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
fers 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future

Fill out this chart of the personal endings.

Singular Plural
1st Person
2nd Person
3rd Person

Identify the following adjectives as o/a-stems, ro/ra-stems, UNUS NAUTA o/a-stems, i-stems, or consonant stems. For i-
stems indicate whether they are i-stems of one, two, or three endings.

Adjective Class Adjective Class

sanus, sana, sanum alter, altera, alterum
acer, acris, acre liber, libera, liberum
dexter, dextra, dextrum audax, audacis
eloquens, eloquentis ultimus, ultima, ultimum
fortis, forte tristis, triste
vetus, veteris ullus, ulla, ullum

Identify the noun by gender, number, and case. Then give the form of the adjective that agrees with the noun.

Noun Identification Adjective Form

numeri masc/fem/neut sg/pl decimus, decima, decimum:
nom/gen
vulgus masc/fem/neut sg/pl totus, tota, totum:
nom/gen
liber masc/fem/neut sg/pl niger, nigra, nigrum:
nom/gen
humorum masc/fem/neut sg/pl communis, commune:
nom/gen
angeli masc/fem/neut sg/pl immortalis, immortale:
nom/gen
15 Compounds from sum, esse;
*Reading: Descartes

In English we are familiar with many compound verbs: “to preexist,” “to
understand,” “to overlook,” “to declassify,” “to overreach,” and so on. The
verb sum has given rise through combination with prepositions to many
verbs with closely related but distinct meanings. Look up each of these ten
verbs in your dictionary:

absum, abesse postsum, postesse

adsum (assum), adesse praesum, praeesse
consum, conesse prosum, prodesse
desum, deesse subsum, subesse
obsum, obesse supersum, superesse

• The following trick may help you remember them: 1 starts with o-; 2
with s-; 3 with p-; 4 from a- through d-.

• The verb adsum (sometimes assum) has as its first meaning “to be
present.” The opposite of this is signified by the verb absum, from
which comes the English “absent”.

• Be careful to distinguish consum, conesse from consumo, consumere.

The first, from sum, esse, means “to be together,” while the other,
from sumo, sumere, means “to eat,” “to consume,” “to devour.”

• Desum means “to be away” and so “to be lacking.”

69
15. COMPOUNDS FROM SUM, ESSE ; *READING: DESCARTES

• The preposition ob has among its many senses that of being “before”
or “facing” something and thereby the sense of being “against” and
“in the way.” From it we get the words “obstacle” (from sto, stare “to
stand”) and “opposite” (from pono, ponere “to put”). Obsum means
“to be against, to hurt.”

• Postsum, postesse should be clear from the meaning of the English

prefix “post-.”

• Note that prosum introduces a -d- between the prefix and any stems
that begin with -e: prodes-; prodera-; proderi-.

• The Latin word used to describe the “now,” praesens, is derived from
the verb sum. This is more clear if we consider its other meaning, the
first in English: to be present to someone is to “be before” that person,
as the student announces “Present” in class. The “now” is named the
“present” from the fact that it is “before” us. In Latin the verb
praesum has this meaning, “to be before.” But its first meaning in
Latin is “to be in charge, to preside, to rule.” The adjective praesens,
praesentis has two principal meanings: “being before (someone),”
“existing now.”

• The meaning of supersum, superesse is not immediately clear from

the English prefix. Supersum means “to be left over, to remain, to
survive.”

Note that desum, praesum, and prosum have forms in which an intervo-
calic s does not become an r. Latin systematically changed an intervocalic
s to an r at a certain period that ended in the fourth century before Christ.
Thus, while “rhotacism of the intervocalic s” is generally the rule, some
Latin words are exceptions. They may be archaic words which survived
the period of rhotacism: pignosa. Or they may be words formed in Latin
or adopted from other languages (rosa) after the period of rhotacism. In
some cases, the s is a remnant of a double s: quaesso → quaeso. For these
compounds of sum, perhaps the uncompounded forms of the verb were felt
to be too fixed to undergo rhotacism.

70
 15. COMPOUNDS FROM SUM, ESSE ; *READING: DESCARTES

Exercise Study the verb analyses in Table 15.1. Verb analyisis identifies
the parts of a verb; in the case of these compounds from sum, four parts
are identified: prefix, root, formant, and personal ending.

15.1 Verb Analyses: sum, esse

Dictionary For- Theme Pers.

Verb Entry Prefix Root mant Vowel End.
supereris supersum, -esse super- es- -i- -s
deerat desum, -esse de- es- -a- -t
subsum subsum, -esse sub- e/s- — -o- -m
prodest prosum, -esse pro- es- — -t
praeeratis praesum, -esse prae- es- -a- -tis
posterunt postsum, -esse post- es- -u- -nt
conero consum, -esse con- es- — -o
superestis supersum, -esse super- es- — -tis
praesunt praesum, -esse prae- e/s- — -o- -nt
deeramus desum, -esse de- es- -a- -mus

71
15. COMPOUNDS FROM SUM, ESSE ; *READING: DESCARTES

Reading Read the following paraphrase of a passage from the second

meditation by Rene Descartes.

Est nihil certum? Ego sum. Ego exı́sto. Sed quid sum? Homo?
es-t certo-m e/s-u-m ex-(s)ist-o qui-d e/s-u-m homin-

Quid est homo? Ánimal rationále? Non.

qui-d es-t homin- animali- rationali-

Cogitátio est. Hábeo cogitatiónem. Ego sum, ego exı́sto; certum

cogitation- es-t habe-o cogitation-e-m e/s-u-m ex-(s)ist-o certo-m

est. Sum praecı́se res cógitans, id est, mens, vel intelléctus,

es-t e/s-u-m praeciso/a- re-s cogina-(nti)-s i-d es-t men(ti)-s intellectu-s

vel rátio. Sed quid sum? Res cógitans. Quid est hoc? Dúbitans,
ration- qui-d e/s-u-m re-s cogita-n(ti)-s qui-d es-t ho-c dubita-n(ti)-s

intélligens, affı́rmans, négans, vólens, nólens, imáginans, et

intellig-en(ti)-s af-firma-n(ti)-s nega-n(ti)-s vol-en(ti)-s nol-en(ti)-s imagina-n(ti)s

séntiens.
senti-en(ti)-s

affirmans affirming intellectus intellect

certum certain intelligens understanding
cogitans thinking mens mind
cogitatio thought negans denying
cogitationem thought nolens not willing
dubitans doubting praecise precisely
habeo I have quid? (interrog. pron.) what?
hoc (n. sing) this rationale rational
homo man res thing
id est that is (i.e.) sentiens sensing
imaginans imagining volens willing

72
15. COMPOUNDS FROM SUM, ESSE ; *READING: DESCARTES

Vocabulary List 5

murus, muri m. 7a
liber, libri (libro-) m. 7
nix, nivis (niv-; nom. sg: nig-) f. 16
senex, senis (nom: senec-; sen-) m. 21
vesper, vesperis (vesper-; vespero-) m. 21
vis, vis (sg: vi-; pl : viri-) f. 21
falsus, falsa, falsum 23
vērus, vēra, vērum 23
malus, mala, malum 23
longus, longa, longum 23
magnus, magna, magnum 23
asper, aspera, asperum (aspero/a-) 24
lı̄ber, lı̄bera, lı̄berum (libero/a-) 24
ācer, ācris, ācre (acri-) 26
celer, celeris, celere (celeri-) 26
salūber, salūbris, salūbre (salubri-) 26
brevis, breve 26
difficilis, difficile 26
facilis, facile 26
omnis, omne 26
ūtilis, ūtile 26
suāvis, suāve 26
prior, prius 27
vetus, veteris (vetes-) m./f./n. 27
sum, esse, fuı̄, [futūrum] [es-/s-] 31

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

73
15. COMPOUNDS FROM SUM, ESSE ; *READING: DESCARTES

Notes on Vocabulary List 5 nix cannot be explained simply from the stem niv -,
since nivs would not contract to nix. Proto-Indo-European had a sound g w or g w h, which
is like our q (= k w ) but voiced. The root from which nix derives is nig w h-. If the g is
lost, nig w h- becomes niv-, the normal stem of this noun; if the w is lost nig w h- becomes
nig-. Thus, nix derives from the other stem taken from the same root: nigs → nix.
senex has two stems as shown. Senectus (“old age”) derives from one of these; senatus
(“senate”) and senator derive from the other. vis reflects that proto-Indo-European had
two i-stem declensions, one in which the i was long and the other in which it was short.
Latin collapsed these two into its one i-stem declension (which it further compounded
with consonant stems), in which the i is short. Vis had a stem that ended in a long
i, so the accusative singular vim is regular; vem, which would be regular for a stem
ending in a short i, is not used. Rather than retaining its ı̄-stem forms in the plural, it
developed an s-stem, which by rhotacism becomes viri-. vetus is the one true consonant
stem adjective to be learned. The others are comparatives. The root from which vetus
is derived means “year.” Originally, senex was usually used to describe people and vetus
was used to describe horses, which were much more likely to live longer than other cattle,
since the Romans did not eat horses.

74
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 15 Name____________________________________

Analyze each of the following verbs into prefix, root, formant, and ending.

Verb Prefix Root Formant [Theme Ending

Vowel]
suberat sub- es- a t

aberimus

consum
deerat

aderit
posterunt

superes
praeestis

proeram

assumus
oberant
suberimus
abero

deeritis

Identify each verb by person, number, and tense by circling the correct answer.

Verb Person Number Tense

aberimus 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
consum 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
deerat 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
aderit 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
posterunt 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
superes 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
praeestis 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
proderam 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
assumus 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
oberant 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
suberimus 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
abero 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
deeritis 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future

What is the second person singular personal ending?

What is the third person plural personal ending?

What is a zero-grade root?

What are the consonant stem adjectives on our word list?

Give the correct forms of the following noun/adjective combinations.

Noun Adjective Number/Case Inflected Form

humus, humi f. durus, dura, durum nom. sg.
furor, furoris m. terribilis, terribile gen. pl.
mare, maris n. alius, alia, aliud gen. sg.
injuria, injuriae f. levis, leve nom. pl.
portus, portus m. inferior, inferius gen. pl.
facies, faciei f. clarus, clara, clarum nom. pl.

List the UNUS NAUTA adjectives.

U N
N A
U U
S T
A

Latin continuants are of three kinds: liquids (L), sibilants (S), and nasals (N). Identify them.

l _____ m _____ n _____ s _____ r _____

What is the Latin semi-vowel?

What ending(s) is(are) used for the nominative singular? What ending(s) is(are) used for the nominative plural?

Explain the nominative singular of the following nouns.

Stem Dictionary Entry Explanation

corpos- corpus, corporis n.
flumin- flumen, fluminis n.
fratr- frater, fratris m.
aes- aes, aeris n.
artific- artifex, artificis m.
fell- fel, fellis n.
diputation- disputatio, disputationis f.
oss- os, ossis n.
princip- princeps, principis m.
pan- panis, panis m.
color- color, coloris m.
aestat- aestas, aestatis f.
16 The Ablative Case

Read CLS 8, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3. The three general uses of the ablative are
the “original” sense, the instrumental sense, and the locative sense.
The original ablative signifies a noun as the source or origin of something:
“The smoke came from the fire.” In Latin, the noun “fire” would be in
the ablative. The instrumental use of the ablative signifies something as
an instrument or means: “He is building with a hammer.” The locative
ablative signifies something as the place where something is or happens:
“The cow is in the field.” There are several other uses of the ablative. Most
of them are categorized under one of these three primary senses because
they naturally arise from, and are conceptually related to, them. You will
learn these later.
In Latin, various prepositions (e.g. ex, ab, cum, in, sub) are used in
conjunction with a noun in the ablative case to convey one of these three
senses. When this is so, the particular preposition used serves to indicate
which sense of the ablative is intended. However, there are various uses of
the ablative associated with each of these three senses that do not require
a preposition.

Formation of the Ablative Singular

The ablative singular in nouns and adjectives uses, in general, the bare stem.
Once a -d was added, but this has been lost in all stems. Its presence is
implied, however, in the usual lengthening of the vowel that had preceded
it. Stems ending in -a, -e, -o, and -u simply use the bare stem with a
lengthened stem vowel. Here even the o-stem nouns and adjectives reveal

75
16. THE ABLATIVE CASE

their true stem ending. Consonant stems add an -e to form the ablative
singular.
Only in the i-stems will gender affect the formation of the ablative sin-
gular. In neuter i-stems, the ablative singular retains the bare stem ending
in -i. This is also true of all i-stem adjectives, of whatever gender. Mas-
culine/feminine i-stems, on the other hand, usually imitate the consonant
stems and present their stems ending in -e. Note, then, that a singular
masculine/feminine i-stem noun and an i-stem adjective modifying it will
almost always have different endings even though they are the same gender,
number, and stem: Venit in nave forti. “He came in a strong ship.”

16.1 Ablative Singular Endings

Noun/Adjective Stem Ablative Singular Form

-a, -e, -o, -u, -i (n./adj.) (lengthened) bare stem
-i (m./f.) -e
C stems -e

16.2 Masculine and Feminine Stems with Ablative Singular

Stem Ablative Sing. Stem Ending Stem Ablative Sing.

acie- acie -e re- re
sensu- sensu -u effectu- effectu
loco- loco -o servo- servo
puero- puero -ro quadro- quadro
luna- luna -a terra- terra
duc- duc-e -c, -g reg- reg-e
laud- laud-e -d, -t nepot- nepot-e
flos- flor-e -s
hiem- hiem-e -m, -n leon- leon-e
turri- turr-e, turri -i tussi- tussi
imbri- imbr-e -ri celeri- celeri

76
 16. THE ABLATIVE CASE

16.3 Neuter Stems with Ablatives

Stem Ablative Sing. Stem Ending Stem Ablative Sing.

cornu- cornu -u genu- genu
capit- capit-e -t poemat- poemat-e
mell- mell-e -l, -r cadaver- cadaver-e
vas- vas-e -s oss- oss-e
nomin- nomin-e -n carmin- carmin-e
sedili- sedili -i exemplari- exemplari
aedificio-aedificio -o sepulchro- sepulchro

Formation of the Ablative Plural

The ancient common ending for all ablative plurals was -bus. I-stems and
e-stems still take this ending. The consonant stems add an -i before this
ending (perhaps in imitation of the i-stems). U-stems imitate the consonant
stems here. They drop the stem ending and add an -i before the -bus ending.
Stems ending in -a and -o, however, have dropped their stem ending, -a or
-o, and take a plural ending from a lost case, the locative. This ending is
-is.
Note: A few a-stem nouns, usually with roots that have stems ending
in both -a and -o, have retained the ancient ending. This allows one to dis-
tinguish filiabus from filiis and animabus from animis. Two o-stem nouns
that are used in the dual rather than the plural, duo and ambo, retain the
ancient ablative plural ending: duo-bus and ambo-bus.

16.4 Ablative Plural Endings

Noun/Adjective Stem Ablative Plural Form

-i, -e -bus
C stems -i-bus
-u -u
/-ibus
-a, -o -is

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16. THE ABLATIVE CASE

16.5 Masculine and Feminine Stems with Ablative Plural

Stem Ablative Plur. Vowel Stem Ablative Plur.

acie- acie-bus -e re- re-bus
sensu- sens-i-bus -u effectu- effect-i-bus
loco- loc-is -o servo- serv-is
duo- duo-bus -o ambo- ambo-bus
puero- puer-is -ro quadro- quadr-is
luna- lun-is -a terra- terr-is
anima- anima-bus -a femina- femina-busa
duc- duc-i-bus -c, -g reg- reg-i-bus
laud- laud-i-bus -d, -t nepot- nepot-i-bus
flos- flor-i-bus -s
hiem- hiem-i-bus -m, -n leon- leon-i-bus
turri- turri-bus -i tussi- tussi-bus
imbri- imbri-bus -ri celeri- celeri-bus
a
This form appears only in late Latin.

16.6 Neuter Stems with Ablative (Dative) Plurals

Stem Ablative Plur. Vowel Stem Ablative Plur.

cornu- corn-i-bus -u-a genu- gen-i-bus
capit- capit-i-bus -t- poemat- poemat-i-bus
mell- mell-i-bus -l-, -r- cadaver- cadaver-i-bus
vas- vas-i-bus -s- oss- oss-i-bus
nomin- nomin-i-bus -n- carmin- carmin-i-bus
sedili- sedili-bus -i- exemplari- exemplari-bus
aedificio- aedifici-is -o- sepulchro- sepulchr-is
a
N.B. The stem tribu- maintains the ancient ablative ending for its dative-
ablative plural: tribu-bus.

78
 16. THE ABLATIVE CASE

The Preposition ab (or a or abs)1 + Ablative

Read CLS 8.11, 8.12. When a noun in the ablative is the object of the
preposition ab, this is a form of the “original” ablative. The first possible
meaning of this prepositional phrase would state the source or place “from
which” something originates: Venit ab agro. “He came from the field.”
Alternatively, the preposition ab can also signify separation from a source:
Discedite a me qui operamini iniquitatem. “Depart from me, you who work
iniquity.” Context will determine which meaning is appropriate in any given
sentence.
[There is another important “origin”-related use of the preposition ab
+ ablative that signifies agency (i.e., the source of an action): Lex a rege
datur. “The law is given by the king.” However, you do not need to learn
this use of the original ablative until you come to the passive voice in the
Latin verbal system.]

The Preposition in + Ablative

Read CLS 8.3, 8.31. When the preposition in takes a noun in the ab-
lative case, this is the primary locative sense signifying where something
is or occurs. Servus in urbe laborat. “The slave labors in the city.” Un-
surprisingly, the locative was not confined to the literal sense of place, but
extended to states or conditions, and even to metaphorical uses: in bello,
in amore.

The Ablative of Means

Read CLS 8.2 & 8.21 We see above that it was standard for the two
primary senses of the original and locative ablative to be preceded by certain
corresponding prepositions. This was not the case with the primary use of
the instrumental ablative, which is typically called the “ablative of means.”
This is a very common use of the ablative, but it can only be determined
by context within the sentence: Pugno arcu. “I am fighting with a bow.”

1
When the object of the proposition begins with a consonant (except “h”), the form
a is used. Before vowels and “h” (and sometimes consonants), the form ab is used.
Additionally, sometimes the form abs is used before “c,” “q,” and “t.”

79
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 16 Name____________________________________

What ending(s) is(are) used for the genitive singular? What ending(s) is(are) used for the genitive plural?

On which syllables may a Latin word be accented? (Ch. 1)

What is the gender of nouns whose stems end in -tor? (MLWL 14.11)

Supply the ablative singular forms of the following nouns.

Dictionary Entry Stem Abl. Sg. Dictionary Entry Stem Abl. Sg.
toga, togae f. toga- toga mare, maris n. mari-
insula, insulae f. insula- sedile, sedilis n. sedili-
porta, portae f. porta- poema, poematis n. poemat-
nauta, nautae m. nauta- sanitas, sanitatis f. sanitat-
filius, filii m. filio- pes, pedis m. ped-
nasus, nasi m. naso- rumor, rumoris m. rumor-
ventus, venti m. vento- sol, solis m. sol-
puer, pueri m. puero- cursus, cursus m. cursu-
dubium, dubii n. dubio- versus, versus m. versu-
forum, fori n. foro- cornu, cornus n. cornu-
civis, civis m./f. civi- dies, diei f./m. die-
orbis, orbis m. orbi- spes, spei f. spe-

Supply the ablative plural forms of the following nouns.

Dictionary Entry Stem Abl. Pl. Dictionary Entry Stem Abl. Pl.
toga, togae f. toga- togis mare, maris n. mari-
insula, insulae f. insula- sedile, sedilis n. sedili-
porta, portae f. porta- poema, poematis n. poemat-
nauta, nautae m. nauta- sanitas, sanitatis f. sanitat-
filius, filii m. filio- pes, pedis m. ped-
nasus, nasi m. naso- rumor, rumoris m. rumor-
ventus, venti m. vento- sol, solis m. sol-
puer, pueri m. puero- cursus, cursus m. cursu-
dubium, dubii n. dubio- versus, versus m. versu-
forum, fori n. foro- cornu, cornus n. cornu-
civis, civis m./f. civi- dies, diei f./m. die-
orbis, orbis m. orbi- spes, spei f. spe-
Give the correct forms of the following noun/adjective combinations.

Noun Adjective Number/Case Inflected Form

aurum, auri n. novus, nova, novum abl. sg.
radix, radicis f. sanus, sana, sanum abl. pl.
lapis, lapidis m. unus, una, unum abl. sg.
vultus, vultus m. acer, acris, acre abl. pl.
nox, noctis f. crudelis, crudele abl. pl.

Identify the following nouns by circling the correct gender, number, and case. (There may be more than one correct
answer.)

Noun Identification Noun Identification

turres masc/fem/neut sg/pl effectus masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/abl nom/gen/abl
fructu masc/fem/neut sg/pl caelibis masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/abl nom/gen/abl
mari masc/fem/neut sg/pl lineis masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/abl nom/gen/abl
sedibus masc/fem/neut sg/pl cornu masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/abl nom/gen/abl
genibus masc/fem/neut sg/pl flore masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/abl nom/gen/abl
quantitate masc/fem/neut sg/pl philosophi masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/abl nom/gen/abl

What is the second person singular ending? What is the second person plural ending?

Analyze each of the following verbs into prefix, root, formant, and ending.

Verb Prefix Root Formant [Theme Ending

Vowel]
poterant

praesumus
aderit

ero
estis

Identify the following adjectives as o/a-stems, ro/ra-stems, UNUS NAUTA o/a-stems, i-stems, or consonant stems. For i-
stems indicate whether they are i-stems of one, two, or three endings.

Adjective Class Adjective Class

saluber, salubris, salubre curvus, curva, curvum
dulcis, dulce par, paris
nullus, nulla, nullum gravis, grave
vetus, veteris solus, sola, solum
17 The Subjunctive Mood

In the following readings English verbs in the “subjunctive” mood are in

bold, and those in the “indicative” are underlined. How do the former verbs
differ from the latter? The former include the ancient English subjunctive
and modern “modal” subjunctives. This distinction will be discussed later.

English Texts Employing the Subjunctive

Compare the use of the indicative.

From Jane Austen’s juvenile History of England

Henry the 8th. It would be an affront to my Readers were I to suppose
that they were not as well acquainted with the particulars of this King’s
reign as I am myself. It will therefore be saving them the task of reading
again what they have read before, & myself the trouble of writing what
I do not perfectly recollect, by giving only a slight sketch of the principal
Events which marked his reign....The Crimes & Cruelties of this Prince were
too numerous to be mentioned. . . & nothing can be said in his vindication,
but that his abolishing Religious Houses & leaving them to the ruinous
depredations of time has been of infinite use to the landscape of England
in general, which probably was a principal motive for his doing it, since
otherwise why should a Man who was of no Religion himself be at so
much trouble to abolish one which had for Ages been established in the
Kingdom? His Majesty’s 5th wife was the Duke of Norfolk’s Niece who,
tho’ universally acquitted of the crimes for which she was beheaded, has
been by many people supposed to have led an abandoned Life before her

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17. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Marriage – of this, however, I have many doubts, since she was a relation
of that noble Duke of Norfolk who was so warm in the Queen of Scotland’s
cause, & who at last fell a victim to it. The king’s last wife contrived to
survive him, but with difficulty effected it. He was succeeded by his only
son Edward.

From Euclid’s Elements II

Proposition 2
If a straight line be cut at random, the rectangle contained by
the whole and both of the segments is equal to the square on
the whole.
For let the straight line AB be cut at random at the point
C ; I say that the rectangle contained by AB, BC together with
the rectangle contained by BA, AC is equal to the square on
AB.
For let the square ADEB be described on AB, and let CF
be drawn through C parallel to either AD or BE. Then AE
is equal to AF, CE. Now AE is the square on AB ; AF is the
rectangle contained by BA, AC, for it is contained by DA, AC,
and AD is equal to AB ; and CE is the rectangle AB, BC, for
BE is equal to AB.
Therefore the rectangle BA, AC together with the rectangle
AB, BC is equal to the square on AB.
Therefore etc. Q.E.D.

The opening of John Milton’s Paradise Lost

Of Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit
Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tast
Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat, 5
Sing Heav’nly Muse, that on the secret top
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
That Shepherd, who first taught the chosen Seed,
In the Beginning how the Heav’ns and Earth
Rose out of Chaos: Or if Sion Hill 10

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 17. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Delight thee more, and Siloa’s Brook that flow’d

Fast by the Oracle of God; I thence
Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song,
That with no middle flight intends to soar
Above th’ Aonian Mount, while it pursues 15
Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhime.
And chiefly Thou O Spirit, that dost prefer
Before all Temples th’ upright heart and pure,
Instruct me, for Thou know’st; Thou from the first
Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread 20
Dove-like satst brooding on the vast Abyss
And mad’st it pregnant: What in me is dark
Illumine, what is low raise and support;
That to the highth of this great Argument
I may assert th’ Eternal Providence, 25
And justifie the wayes of God to men.

The English Subjunctive

The English subjunctive has two “tenses”: past and present. The present
subjunctive is formed by removing the “to” from the infinitive: “to be” →
“be”, “to have” → “have”, etc. Apart from the verb “to be”, this subjunc-
tive can be recognized only in the third person singular: “It is necessary
that he be here,” “It is necessary that you be here,” “It is necessary that
he come here,” “It is necessary that you come here.”
The past subjunctive is generally identical with the standard past in-
dicative. For all persons and numbers, this form can be recognized only in
the verb “to be”: compare “If he was the murderer, he did it with an axe”
with “If he were the murderer, he would have done it with an axe.” But in
other verbs the subjunctive cannot be distinguished here: “If he murdered
the man, he did it with an axe,” and “If he murdered the man, he would
have done it with an axe.”
Although these subjunctives are called “past” and “present”, they do
not signify time so much as nearness and remoteness from reality. This
distinction should be clear from a comparison of these two sentences: “If
he be here, I cannot see him,” and “If he were here, I would see him.”

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17. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Most English subjunctives have been replaced with verbs using “modal
auxiliaries” such as “would”, “may” and so on. “May it rain!” “It may
rain.” “He might come.” “You would have been a doctor.” Some
grammarians consider these verbs to be true subjunctives and call them
“modal subjunctives”, but others do not.

84
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 17 Name____________________________________

What is the gender of nouns whose stems end in -tudin-? (MLWL 18.21)

What is the gender of nouns whose stems end in -mat-? (MLWL 10.1)

What are the dental consonants?_______________ What phonological principle concerning them have we learned? (LMP 1)

Which consonants reject a final -s? (LMP 1)

From the dictionary entry, identify the stem of the following nouns. If necessary, look them up.

Dictionary Entry Stem Dictionary Entry Stem

ornatus, ornatus m. panis, panis m.
facies, faciei f. saxum, saxi n.
agricola, agricolae m. merces, mercedis f.
aes, aeris n. portus, portus m.
vir, viri m. species, speciei f.
pons, pontis m. sapientia, sapientiae f.
sol, solis m. dux, ducis m.
nomen, nominis n. arx, arcis f.
humus, humi f. dogma, dogmatis n.
fel, fellis n. vulgus, vulgi n.
virgo, virginis f. legio, legionis f.
theologia, theologiae f. os, oris n.

Identify the following sentences/clauses as nominal or verbal. For nominal sentences, identify the principal part of the
predicate as a noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase.

That (1) which was from the beginning, (2) which we have heard, (3) which we have seen with our
eyes, (4) which we looked upon and have touched with our hands, concerning the word of life—(5)
the life was made manifest, (6) and we have seen it, (7) and testify to it (8) and proclaim to you the
eternal life, (9) which was with the Father (10) and was made manifest to us—(11) that which we
have seen and heard (12) we proclaim also to you, (13) so that you too may have fellowship with us.

1. 6. 11.
2. 7. 12.
3. 8. 13.
4. 9.
5. 10.
List the UNUS NAUTA adjectives.

U N
N A
U U
S T
A

Identify each verb by person, number, and tense by circling the correct answer.

Verb Person Number Tense

possunt 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
aberas 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
posterimus 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
estis 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
praeeram 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
erit 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future
aderam 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future

Translate the following phrases. Indicate which general use of the ablative is employed: original, instrumental, or locative.

Phrase Translation Use

in libro “in a book” locative
ab sene
donis
in corde
ab aedificio
in nocte
animalibus

What ending(s) is(are) used for the ablative singular? What ending(s) is(are) used for the ablative plural?

Indicate whether the following verbs are in the subjunctive (Y/N).

______ If I were a rich man . . .

______ I thought so.
______ May it always be sunny.
______ You should not do that.
______ He might be sick.
______ If I leave today . . .
______ I consider him to be friendly.
______ It is fitting that he apologize for what he said.
______ If he was not there, then no one saw him there.
18 The Subjunctive of sum, esse

The forms of the verb sum that have been examined so far are all indicative.
Such forms declare or indicate what is so, when they are used in declarative
sentences. As discussed earlier, these forms of sum are all based upon the
root es-, in its normal grade (es-) or in its zero grade (s-). Table 18.1 reviews
these forms. You should see immediately which use the normal grade and
which use the zero grade.

18.1 The Progressive Indicative System of sum, esse

sum es est sumus estis sunt

e/s-o-m es-s es-t e/s-u-mus es-tis e/s-o-nt
eram eras erat eramus eratis erant
es-a-m es-a-s es-a-t es-a-mus es-a-tis es-a-nt
ero eris erit erimus eritis erunt
es-o es-i-s es-i-t es-i-mus es-i-tis es-o-nt

By now, the reason for the normal grade’s mutation to er- should be
familiar: “rhotacism of intervocalic -s.” You should also recognize the
vowels used to form the past and future tenses: -a and -i, respectively.
The standard endings used should be well-known to you; remember the
mnemonic device “-m-o-s-t, -mus-nt, sit- backwards.”
Note carefully that the future tenses also include two “aberrant” forms:
ero and erunt. The present tense includes forms that use the normal grade
and those that use the zero grade. These “irregularities” can be recalled

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18. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF SUM, ESSE

easily by thoroughly learning the three stems and two other mnemonic
devices. The progressive indicative stems for sum, esse are:

Present: s-u- (N), es-

Past: er-a-
Future: er-i- (IOU)

One must recall here that in the present progressive indicative, su- is
used before any nasal ending (N), hence su-m, su-mus, and su-nt. IOU
stands for “four -i ’s, an -o at the beginning, a -u at the end.”

Active Subjunctive Forms of sum, esse

There are also subjunctive forms of sum based upon these roots es- and
s-. A system called the “present progressive subjunctive” is based upon the
zero grade of the root. Another called the “past progressive subjunctive”
is based upon the normal grade of the root. Here the names “present” and
“past” do not suggest time strictly speaking. Rather they denote something
closer or farther from reality, a characteristic not unlike time.
Just as the vowels -a and -i are added to the stem in the past and
future tenses of the progressive indicative, so also formants are used in
the subjunctives. The formant for the present progressive subjunctive is
also -i (the Latin i-subjunctive). It will not be confused with the future
because it uses the zero grade of the root (e.g., simus vs. erimus). The
past progressive subjunctive uses -se as its formant. For this reason, the
normal grade of the root is protected and does not “rhotacise.” All forms
use standard personal endings and are in every way regular.

18.2 The Active Subjunctive Forms of sum, esse

s-i-m s-i-s s-i-t s-i-mus s-i-tis s-i-nt

es-se-m es-se-s es-se-t es-se-mus es-se-tis es-se-nt

Here two more stems can be introduced: si- and esse-. These are suffi-
cient because they take the standard endings throughout each system. The
five progressive stems presented below will allow us to master the entire
progressive system of sum, as shown in Table 18.3.

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 18. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF SUM, ESSE

18.3 The Five Progressive Stems of sum, esse

Present Progressive Indicative s-u- (N), es-

Past Progressive Indicative er-a-
Future Progressive Indicative er-i- (IOU)
Present Progressive Subjunctive s-i-
Past Progressive Subjunctive es-se-

The compounds of sum already studied will likewise have five stems.
The prefix appropriate to each compound is merely added to each of the
stems expressed above. For example, the five stems of absum, abesse and
prosum, prodesse are shown in Table 18.4.

18.4 The Five Stems of absum and prosum

absum, abesse prosum, prodesse

ab-s-u- (N), ab-es- pro-su- (N), pro(d)-es-
ab-er-a- pro(d)-er-a-
ab-er-i- (IOU) pro(d)-er-i- (IOU)
ab-s-i- pro-s-i-
ab-es-se- pro(d)-es-se-

Classroom Drill 1. Form the five progressive stems for each of the ten
compounds from sum, esse: absum, adsum, consum, desum, obsum, post-
sum, praesum, prosum, subsum, supersum.

Classroom Drill 2. Form a complete system of finite verbs from any

single stem and the mnemonic device “-m-o-s-t -mus-nt sit- backwards.”
An example from the future progressive indicative stem of desum, deesse:
deeri- (IOU): deer-o, deeri-s, deeri-t, deeri-mus, deeri-tis, deeru-nt.

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18. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF SUM, ESSE

Vocabulary List 6

in (prep., acc. and abl.) 1a

super (prep., abl. and acc.) 1
ā, ab, abs (prep., abl. only) 3
dē (prep., abl. only) 3
ex, ē (prep., abl. only) 3
cum (prep., abl. only) 3
prae (prep., abl. only) 3
prō (prep., abl. only) 3
sine (prep., abl. only) 3
sub (prep., abl. and acc.) 3
ūllus, ūlla, ūllum (ullius) 25
nūllus, nūlla, nūllum (nullius) 25
ūnus, ūna, ūnum (unius) 25
sōlus, sōla, sōlum (solius) 25
neuter, neutra, neutrum (neutrius) 25
alter, altera, alterum (alterius) 25
uter, utra, utrum (utrius) (utro/a-) 25
tōtus, tōta, tōtum (totius) 25
alius, alia, aliud (alterius—from alter) 25
commūnis, commūne 26
humilis, humile 26
immortālis, immortāle 26
mortālis, mortāle 26
inferior, inferius 27
superior, superius 27

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

88
 18. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF SUM, ESSE

Notes on Vocabulary List 6 in, pro and other prepositions were originally adverbs
(“He went in.” “It has happened before.”), which came to be further specified by a noun
(“He went in the room.” “It happened before noon.”) Their adverbial force is also felt
when they are used as prefixes for verbs: prosum, ineo. humilis is derived from the
noun humus (“ground, soil”). Hummus is from Arabic, a non-Indo-European language,
and so not related. Humus does appear to be related to homo (“man,” i.e., “earthling”)
and humanus. Thus, the meaning of the proto-Indo-European root suggests that man is
made of earth: “Then the Lord God formed man from the dust of the ground” (Gen. 2:7).
mortalis and other adjectives show the suffix -alis which generally means “belonging
to, connected with, derived from.” Some suffixes like -alis make adjectives out of nouns
without any extra special meaning: -ius (patrius, “paternal”), -cus (bellicus, “of war”),
-nus (caninus, “canine”), -aris (popularis, “of the people”), etc. Other suffixes both add
a special meaning and form an adjective from a noun: -ax (having a tendency: tenax,
“tenacious, able to hold on”), -bilis (having a passive quality or ability: mobilis, “able
to be moved”), -osus (fullness: verbosus, “verbose, full of words”). communis comes
from cum (“with”) and munus (“function, task, duty”). Community arises from sharing
in the tasks and duties of others.

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Questions and Exercises for Chapter 18 Name____________________________________

What do “(N)” and “(IOU)” mean when given with the five stems of sum, esse?

What is the difference between the normal grade and the zero grade of root of sum, esse?

Analyze the following forms of sum, esse.

Verb Root Formant [Theme Ending

Vowel]
estis
erit

essem
sim

sumus

sint
sum
eras

ero
essetis

erunt
sunt

Indicate which root and which formant are used for each of the following tense/mood combinations of sum, esse.

Tense/Mood Root Formant

Present Indicative
Past Indicative
Future Indicative
Present Subjunctive
Past Subjunctive

Identify the indicated verbs from the passages below.

Carissimi, nunc filii Dei sumus et nondum apparuit quid erimus. Scimus quoniam cum apparuerit,
similes ei erimus, quoniam videbimus eum sicuti est.
Carissimi, nolite omni spiritui credere, sed probate spiritus si ex Deo sint.

Verb Person Number Tense Mood

sumus 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future indicative—subjunctive
erimus 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future indicative—subjunctive
 est 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future indicative—subjunctive
sint 1st—2nd—3rd singular—plural present—past—future indicative—subjunctive

Identify the gender, number, and case of the indicated nouns and adjectives in the following passage.

In principio creavit Deus caelum et terram. Terra autem erat inanis et vacua, et tenebrae super
faciem abyssi et spiritus Dei ferebatur super aquas. Dixitque Deus “fiat lux” et facta est lux.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

principio principio- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
Deus deo- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
terra terra- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
inanis inani- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
vacua vacuo/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
tenebrae tenebra- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
abyssi abysso- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
spiritus spiritu- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
Dei deo- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
lux luc- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
facta facto/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl

Give the stem of the following nouns, then give their ablative singular and ablative plural form.

Dictionary Entry Stem Ablative Singular Ablative Plural

ornatus, ornatus m.
facies, faciei f.
agricola, agricolae m.
aes, aeris n.
vir, viri m.
pons, pontis m.
sol, solis m.
nomen, nominis n.
humus, humi f.
fel, fellis n.
virgo, virginis f.
theologia, theologiae f.
panis, panis m.
saxum, saxi n.
merces, mercedis f.
portus, portus m.
species, speciei f.
sapientia, sapientiae f.
dux, ducis m.

What ending(s) is(are) used for the nominative singular? What ending(s) is(are) used for the nominative plural?
19 Independent Uses of the Indicative
and Subjunctive Moods; The
Infinitive

The Independent Uses of the Progressive

Forms of Sum
Read CLS 14.5, 14.6, 14.7. Both the indicative and subjunctive are
used in “independent” sentences (or clauses), those that do not depend
upon another. This seems odd if one considers how the Latins named the
subjunctive. Sub-iunctivum means “under a yoke.” This mood received
the name because the Latins had come to think of it as the mood of the
subordinate or dependent sentence (or “clause”). In fact, the Latin sub-
junctive had three distinct uses in independent sentences. Knowledge of
these independent uses is particularly useful in organizing the dependent or
subordinate uses of the subjunctive.

Indicative
Examples of the indicative in direct question and in simple statement follow:

Quid est homo? (quid what?; homo man)

Homo est ánimal rationále mortále.

Here in the indicative the present, past, and future progressive each have
their purest meaning. Each describes something as “ongoing” or “progress-

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19. INDEPENDENT USES OF MOODS; INFINITIVE

ing” in the time signified. One must note that the present and future
progressive are also used to signify an action simply—without attention
to whether it is still going on or already complete—in the present or the
future. But here the use of these tenses must be distinguished from the
original sense of the form. These three tenses all most distinctly signify
something as ongoing or in progress.

Subjunctive
The three independent uses of the Latin subjunctive can be distinguished as
follows: the potential subjunctive, the optative subjunctive, and the jussive
subjunctive.

Potential Subjunctive (CLS 14.71, 14.711–712)

Labor eius útilis sit. His work would be useful.
Labor eius útilis esset. His work would have been useful.

The potential subjunctive is denied by the adverb non:

Labor eius útilis non sit. His work would not be useful.

Questions asking whether something is possible or conceivable likewise

use the potential subjunctive.

Optative Subjunctive (CLS 14.72, 14.721–724)

Uti labor eius útilis sit. O that his work be useful.
Uti labor eius útlis esset. O that his work were useful.

The optative subjunctive is denied by the adverb ne:

Ne labor eius útilis sit. May his work not be useful.

Again, direct questions asking what someone wishes use the optative
subjunctive.

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 19. INDEPENDENT USES OF MOODS; INFINITIVE

Jussive Subjunctive (CLS 14.73, 14.731–733, 14.74, 14.75)

Labor eius útilis sit. Let his work be useful.
Labor eius útilis esset. His work should have been useful.

The jussive subjunctive is denied by the adverb ne:

Ne labor eius útilis sit. Let not his work be useful.

As with the other uses of the subjunctive, a direct question about a

command or exhortation uses the jussive subjunctive. Here the subjunctive
receives a new name, the “deliberative subjunctive.” This subjunctive is
important in the development of certain subordinate clauses, and it will be
discussed in detail later.
The subjunctive mood is also used in various kinds of subordinate
clauses. In a more simple use of language, two simple sentences could
express some thought, and the second of these sentences might employ the
subjunctive. For example:

Tam celeriter currit. Uti effugiat.

He is running (so) fast. He may somehow escape.

Either by a mere change of accentuation or by the insertion of a con-

junction, these two simple sentences could become one complex sentence:

He is running so fast he may somehow escape;

or
He is running so fast that he may somehow escape.1

In Latin this would look like the following:

Tam celeriter currit ut effugiat.

By a process such as this, the use of the subjunctive was extended to

subordinate clauses in such a way that the use of the subjunctive in a given
kind of subordinate clause can generally be traced to one of the three uses
of the subjunctive in an independent clause.
1
In Latin the adverb uti becomes the conjunction ut: Tam celeriter currit ut effugiat.

93
19. INDEPENDENT USES OF MOODS; INFINITIVE

While we often use the subjunctive mood in English where it would

also be used in Latin, this is not always so. For example, when the Latin
conjunction cum is used to mean “since,” the verb in Latin will be in the
subjunctive mood, but the corresponding verb in an English sentence would
be in the indicative mood:
Dolo erat pugnandum, cum par non esset armis.
It was necessary to fight by guile since he was not a match in
arms.
Most of the uses of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses will not be
studied until the second volume of the syntax manual. Until then, it will
not be necessary for you to provide a full account of every subjunctive verb
you encounter in the readings. You may find it helpful, however, to try to
discern whether each subjunctive verb retains something of the potential,
optative, or jussive force.
Examples of a result clause and a cum-clause have already been given.
Purpose clauses often look similar to result clauses as both may begin with
the conjunction ut:
Interrogate diligenter de puero et cum inveneritis, renuntiate
mihi ut et ego veniens adorem eum.
Inquire diligently about the child and when you have found him,
report back to me so that I may come and adore him as well.
Here are a couple other uses of the subjunctive in a subordinate clause,
all of which will be considered carefully later: in certain conditions (Si hoc
diceret, erraret. If he said this, he would be making a mistake); in indirect
questions (Quaeratur utrum Deus sit. It is asked whether God exists).
CLS suggests that purpose clauses derive from the jussive subjunctive.
Result clauses, conditions, and cum-clauses derive from the potential sub-
junctive. Indirect questions may derive from both the jussive and the po-
tential subjunctive.

The Infinitive
A verbal noun—the active progressive infinitive—is formed from a verb’s
root with the same suffix that is used for the past progressive active sub-
junctive. Thus, the active progressive infinitive of the verb sum is es-se.

94
 19. INDEPENDENT USES OF MOODS; INFINITIVE

Note that the fact that the root ends in an -s prevents rhotacism in this
infinitive, just as it did in the past progressive active subjunctive. Note
that this is uncommon: although the verbs compounded from sum have an
active progressive infinitive ending in -se, most verbs have stems that end
in vowels and therefore the infinitive characteristically ends in -re. In such
verbs the past progressive active subjunctive likewise ends in -re with the
addition of the appropriate personal ending.
Unfortunately, one other root preserves the -se ending in its active in-
finitive. This root is ed- from which we get our verb “to eat.” This root
has the same meaning in Latin. As seen in other cases, however, the dental
that ends the stem, -d, cannot stand before an -s. It therefore “assimilates”
to the -s, producing the infinitive ēsse. Since texts rarely include marks
of vowel length, this infinitive cannot generally be distinguished from esse
except by context. Fortunately for students, it is a rare verb. (A medieval
form of ēsse—edere—causes no confusion with esse, but does cause confu-
sion with yet another infinitive meaning “to publish.”)

Latin Phonology
1. An -s between two vowels becomes -r (rhotacism of intervocalic -s)
2. A dental (-d or -t) falls out before a final -s.
3. A dental (-d or -t) assimilates to a non-final -s.
4. An -o in a final syllable, when followed by a consonant, generally
corrupts to -u.

95
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 19 Name____________________________________

Identify the independent use of the subjunctive (P, O, J) employed in each of the following sentences.

______ Adveniat regnum tuum.

Thy kingdom come.
______ Eamus et nos ut moriamur cum eo.
Let us go too, so that we may die with him.
______ Numquam condemnassetis innocentes.
You would not have condemned the innocent.
______ Deus misereatur nostri.
May God have mercy on us.

Give the five progressive stems of sum, esse.

Tense Mood Stem

The formant -i- is used for both the future indicative and the present subjunctive. How can you tell these verb forms
apart?

Indicate whether the underlined verbs are indicative or subjunctive. (Latin subjunctives are rendered as English
subjunctives.)

Si non fuerit primum in causis efficientibus, non erit ultimum nec medium.
If there (1) will not be a first among efficient causes, there (2) will not be a last or intermediate.
(1) (2)

Si igitur omnia sunt possibília non esse, aliquándo nihil fuit in rebus.
If, therefore, all things (3) are able not to be, once there (4) was nothing in reality.
(3) (4)

Sed si hoc est verum, etiam nunc nihil esset.

But if this (5) is true, then there (6) would be nothing now.
(5) (6)

Non est inconveniens, si etiam secundum litteralem sensum in una littera Scripturae plures sint
sensus.
It (7) is not unfitting if even according to the literal sense there (8) be many meanings in one passage of
Sacred Scripture.
(7) (8)
Analyze and identify the following forms of the verb sum, which appear in the sentences above.

Verb Root Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Vowel]
erit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl
pres/past/fut indic/subj
sunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl
pres/past/fut indic/subj
est 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl
pres/past/fut indic/subj
esset 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl
pres/past/fut indic/subj
sint 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Indicate which endings are used for each case. Note where the neuter takes a different ending.

Singular Plural
Nom. Gen. Abl. Nom. Gen. Abl.
-a

-o

-e

-u

-i

Identify the underlined nouns, adjectives, and noun/adjective combinations.

Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum. Benedicta tu in mulieribus, et benedictus fructus ventris
tui, Iesus. Sancta Maria, Mater Dei, ora pro nobis peccatoribus, nunc, et in hora mortis nostrae.
Amen.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

plena pleno/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
Dominus masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
Benedicta benedicto/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
mulieribus mulier- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
benedictus benedicto/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
fructus masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
ventris ventr- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
Sancta sancto/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
Mater matr- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
Dei deo- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
peccatoribus peccator- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
hora hora- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
mortis mort- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
nostrae nostro/a-
20 Mixed Verbs and the Perfect
System of sum

Mixed Verbs
Both the Latin word sum and the English word “to be” are “mixed” verbs.
This means that various parts of the verb are formed from different roots.
A very simple example of a mixed verb is the English word “go.” Its origi-
nal past tense—“yode”—had the same root ghe-. Its current past tense—
“went”—originally belonged to the verb “wend.” After “went” replaced
“yode,” the verb “wend” developed a new past tense, “wended.”
The English verb “to be” is a much more complex case. Its various parts
are derived from four roots, each with a distinct original meaning. “Is” and
“am” come from the root es-. (The English word “sin” comes from the
zero grade of this root. It is derived from the confession, “it is (so).”) The
root es- seems always to have meant “to be.” “Are” and “art” are from
a root er- that first meant “to move” or “to set in motion.” “Was” and
“were” come from wes-, a root meaning “to dwell.” (Note the rhotacism in
“were.”) The infinitive and present subjunctive of the English verb—“to
be” and “be”—are from a root that first meant “to grow” and “to become”:
bheu@-.
The Latin word sum has been derived from two of the roots used for the
English verb “to be.” We have already seen the forms that are derived from
one of these roots—es-. These forms are active (in form) and progressive,
that is, they signify something as though ongoing.
Other forms of sum have arisen from the root bheu@-. This root shows

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20. MIXED VERBS AND THE PERFECT SYSTEM OF SUM

up in the formation of sum, esse as fu-. (Remember that “f” and “b” are
both labials.) All forms of sum, esse based on this root are perfect rather
than progressive. In origin, they represent what they signify as complete
(although certain uses may not).

The Perfect System of sum, esse

The Latin perfect has the same five tense-mood combinations that the pro-
gressive has: the present, past, and future indicative, and the present and
past subjunctive. Fortunately, the formation of the five perfect stems works,
with very few irregularities, the same way in every Latin verb. Table 20.1
shows the perfect stems for sum, esse and two of its compounds: supersum,
superesse and absum, abesse.

20.1 The Perfect Stems for sum, esse and Compounds

Present Perfect Indicative fu-i- super-fu-i- a-fu-i-

Past Perfect Indicative fu-era- super-fu-era- a-fu-era-
Future Perfect Indicative fu-eri- (IO) super-fu-eri- a-fu-eri-
Present Perfect Subjunctive fu-eri- (I) super-fu-eri- a-fu-eri-
Past Perfect Subjunctive fu-is-se- super-fu-is-se a-fu-is-se

Note the following:

1. The prefix ab- uses the form a-, its regular form, before a consonant
(except s).

2. Except for the present perfect indicative, the endings are regular.

3. Two mnemonic devices indicate whether the secondary first person

ending -o is introduced. This is of particular importance because the
future perfect indicative and the present perfect subjunctive have the
same stem: the (IO) signifies that -i is used everywhere but the first
person singular, while (I) signifies that -i is used everywhere. These
two systems are presented in Table 20.2 for comparison, with the
future perfect indicative above, and the present perfect subjunctive
below.

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 20. MIXED VERBS AND THE PERFECT SYSTEM OF SUM

20.2 Comparison of Future Indicative and Present Subjunctive

fuero fueris fuerit fuerimus fueritis fuerint

fu-er(i)-o fu-eri-s fu-eri-t fu-eri-mus fu-eri-tis fu-eri-nt
fuerim fueris fuerit fuerimus fueritis fuerint
fu-eri-m fu-eri-s fu-eri-t fu-eri-mus fu-eri-tis fu-eri-nt

The present perfect indicative has several deviations from the standard
personal endings, as shown in Table 20.3.

1. The first person singular adds no personal ending to the -i that

characterizes the system.

2. The second person singular not only adds -s to the stem, but an
additonal -ti.

3. The second person plural adds yet another -s to this, or (more

accurately) it introduces an -s before the standard -tis ending.

4. The third person plural introduces the -erunt ending.

20.3 Present Perfect Indicative

fui fuisti fuit fuimus fuistis fuerunt

fu-i fu-isti fu-it fu-imus fu-istis fu-erunt

Since the first person singular is one of the principal parts by which the
verb sum is named—i.e., sum, esse, fui —it is not difficult to remember.
But the other deviations must be remembered. If one writes (-ti-s; u) or
perhaps (-sti-s, -eru) after this stem, these deviations should not be difficult
to remember.
The perfect active infinitive of sum, esse is formed by adding -isse to
the perfect root: fu-isse. As in the progressive system, the past subjunctive
stem and the active infinitive are accidentally identical.

The Sense of the Perfect

The sense of the perfect is clearly paralleled by the English perfect, although
the subjunctives in English are not as distinct as they are in Latin.

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20. MIXED VERBS AND THE PERFECT SYSTEM OF SUM

20.4 Senses in the English Perfect System

Present Perfect Indicative I have been (also replaces “I was”)

Past Perfect Indicative I had been
Future Perfect Indicative I shall have been
Present Perfect Subjunctive I may have been
Past Perfect Subjunctive I might have been, . . . I had been . . .

The Ten Stems of sum, esse, fui

With the ten stems of the verb sum, esse shown in Table 20.5, all the finite
forms other than the imperative can be formed. Learn them well now.
(LMP 32.1)

20.5 The Ten Stems of sum, esse

es-, su- (N=nasal) fu-i- (-sti-s; -eru-)

er-a- fu-era-
er-i- (IOU) fu-eri- (IO)
s-i- fu-eri- (I)
es-se- fu-isse-

Appendix: On the Origin of the Perfect

Active System
The Latin verb exhibits distinction of the progressive and the perfect, but
nothing corresponding to our simple tenses in English. But once, Latin
seems to have had such a simple or “aorist” (from the Greek “undeter-
mined”) system. However, this system has become entirely confused with
the perfect system. In fact, most of the Latin perfect system seems to have
been “aorist” in origin.
This is clear in the past perfect active subjunctive. The aorist suffix
-is is added to the stem: fu-is-. Then the past subjunctive formant -se-:
fu-is-se-. The perfect active infinitive also adds the aorist suffix and a -se
formant: fu-is-se.

100
 20. MIXED VERBS AND THE PERFECT SYSTEM OF SUM

In the past and future perfect active indicative, the aorist suffix was
added, but then the past and future temporal formants were added: fu-is-
a- and fu-is-i-. This demanded rhotacism: fu-ir-a- and fu-ir-i. But -i often
corrupts to -e before an -r : fu-is-a- → fu-ir-a- → fuera-; fu-is-i- → fu-ir-i-
→ fueri-. Hence, these stems are fuera- and fueri-.
The present perfect active subjunctive also exhibits the aorist suffix
with rhotacism and degeneration of the -i to -e. But here the old optative
formant -i serves again as a subjunctive formant, as it did in sim, sis, sit.
Hence, the stem is fueri-.1
Three forms of the present perfect active indicative are actually aorist
in origin. These are the three that exhibit some “irregularity.” The second
person singular and plural both show the aorist suffix -is. The plural uses
the regular personal ending, but the singular uses an alternate personal
ending found in other languages in the family, viz., -ti : fu-is-ti and fu-is-tis.
The third person plural shows the aorist suffix with rhotacism, degeneration
of the -i to -e, and the addition of the theme vowel before the personal
ending: fu-is-o-nt → fu-ir-o-nt → fu-er-u-nt.

20.6 The Perfect Active System of sum, esse with the Aorist Suffix -is

fui fuisti fuit fuimus fuistis fuerunt

fui fu-is-ti fui-t fui-mus fu-is-tis fu-is-o-nt
fueram fueras fuerat fueramus fueratis fuerant
fu-is-a-m fu-is-a-s fu-is-a-t fu-is-a-mus fu-is-a-tis fu-is-a-nt
fuero fueris fuerit fuerimus fueritis fuerint
fu-is-o fu-is-i-s fu-is-i-t fu-is-i-mus fu-is-i-tis fu-is-i-nt
fuerim fueris fuerit fuerimus fueritis fuerint
fu-is-i-m fu-is-i-s fu-is-i-t fu-is-i-mus fu-is-i-tis fu-is-i-nt
fuissem fuisses fuisset fuissemus fuissetis fuissent
fu-is-se-mfu-is-se-s fu-is-se-t fu-is-se-mus fu-is-se-tis fu-is-se-nt

1
N.B. The use of the -is formant and the tense-mood formants of sum, esse cause
many to imagine that the progressive forms of sum, esse are added to the perfect root.

101
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 20 Name____________________________________

Analyze and identify the following forms of the verb sum, esse.

Verb Root Formant [Theme Personal Identification

Vowel] Ending
fuisset 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
fuisti 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
fuissetis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
fuero 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
fui 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
fueras 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
fuerunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
fueratis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Render sum, esse into the proper form as indicated.

Verb Properties Root Formant [Theme Ending INFLECTED

Vowel] FORM
1st pl. progr. past indic. es- -a- ------ -mus eramus

1st sg. perf. pres. subj.

3rd sg. progr. past subj.

2nd sg. perf. pres. indic.

Change the following verbs from progressive to perfect or perfect to progressive without changing the person, number,
tense, or mood.

sim essent
fuerunt fuimus
fuerint es
sunt fuerat
eratis fuisset

Complete the chart of verb endings.

Personal Endings Perfect Endings

Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st Person
2nd Person
3rd Person
Indicate whether the underlined verbs are indicative or subjunctive. (Latin subjunctives are translated as English
subjunctives.)

Nec lingua valet dícere, No tongue can tell, __________________

nec littera exprímere: No letter express;
expertus potest crédere, He who has experience of it can believe __________________
quid sit Jesum dilígere. What it be to love Jesus. __________________

Sis, Jesu, nostrum gaúdium, O Jesus, may you be our joy, __________________
qui es futurus praémium: You who are our future reward. __________________
sit nostra in te glória, May our glory be in you __________________
per cuncta semper saécula. Throughout all eternity.

Analyze and identify the following forms of the verb sum, esse, which appear in the passage above.

Verb Prefix Root Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Vowel]
potest 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl
pres/past/fut indic/subj
sit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl
pres/past/fut indic/subj
sis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl
pres/past/fut indic/subj
es 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Identify the underlined nouns and noun/adjective combinations.

Pater noster, qui es in caelis, sanctificetur nomen tuum. Adveniat regnum tuum. Fiat voluntas tua,
sicut in caelo et in terra. Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie, et dimitte nobis debita
nostra sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris. Et ne nos inducas in tentationem, sed libera nos
a malo. Amen.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

caelis caelo- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
nomen nomin- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
tuum tuo-
regnum regno- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
tuum tuo-
voluntas voluntat- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
tua tua-
caelo masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
terra masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
debitoribus masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
nostris
malo masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl

What is a mixed verb?

21 Overview of the Latin Verbal
System

This chapter provides an overview of the Latin verbal system. Characteris-

tics of the Latin verb that are introduced here will be considered in detail
in subsequent chapters.

An Overview of Verbs
Just like nouns and adjectives, verbs are formed from roots by the addition
of various prefixes, infixes (or formants), and endings. The basic meaning
of the verb comes from the root and any prefixes added to it. For example,
ago means “drive” and cogo (cum + ago) means “drive together.”1 The
grammatical properties of a verb, on the other hand, are signified by the
formants and endings added to the root. For example, the verbs amat (he
loves) and amamus (we love) both come from amare (to love), which shares
a root (am-) with the noun amor (love). Amat is third person singular,
while amamus is first person plural.
Verbs have six grammatical properties: person, number, tense, mood,
voice, and aspect. Person, discussed in chapter 15, may be first, second,
or third. This depends on the relation of the speaker to the subject of the
sentence. Number may be singular or plural. A verb agrees in number with
1
Occasionally an infix will add to the meaning of a word. For example, ago means
“to drive” while agito means “to drive onward, impel.” The -it- infix is iterative, i.e., it
conveys that the action is carried on repeatedly.

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21. OVERVIEW OF THE LATIN VERBAL SYSTEM

its subject (CLS 14.1). Tense may be present, past, or future (CLS 14.2).2
Mood may be indicative, imperative, or subjunctive. The indicative mood
is used for direct statements and questions. The imperative mood conveys
commands. The subjunctive mood is used in various ways which were first
presented in chapter 19. (See also CLS 24-27.) Voice may be active, passive
or middle. The passive and middle voices will be discussed in chapters 27 to
29. Aspect may be simple, progressive, or perfect. Aspect will be discussed
below.3

The various forms of verbs for the most part uniquely correspond to
these properties, but there are exceptions. Just as for nouns and adjectives,
a single form may be ambiguous: angelis might be either dative plural or
ablative plural; fuerit might be future indicative perfect or present subjunc-
tive perfect.4 Additionally, Latin lacks forms for certain of the grammatical
properties mentioned above. For example, there are no unique forms for
the simple aspect or middle voice. The result is first that a single form
may signify more than one property. For example, laudas is progressive
in form but may convey either progressive or simple aspect, and it may
be translated, therefore, as “you praise” or “you are praising.” A second
result is that we may distinguish between the form of a verb and its use
in a given sentence. Laudas would always be identified as progressive in
form, but it might be used to signify simple aspect in a particular sentence.
Morphological drills will be concerned only with the form, but reading and
translating Latin will involve consideration of the use as well.

2
The standard method of teaching Latin gives six tenses, but these combine tense
and aspect: the “present tense” is really the present progressive; the “imperfect tense”
is the past progressive, etc. Here we will use the term “tense” more precisely, i.e. it will
indicate time and not aspect.
3
Finite verbs—“finite” here has the sense of “determinate”—are determined in all
six of these properties, including person and number. Other forms of the verb display
only some of them: Verbal nouns such as the infinitive and the gerund lack person
and number. Participles, which are verbal adjectives, are also not finite forms of the
verb.
4
English examples include nouns (sheep, deer) and pronouns (you) that use the same
form for singular and plural, and verbs (beat, set) that use the same forms for present
and past.

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 21. OVERVIEW OF THE LATIN VERBAL SYSTEM

Verb Stems
There is an order in which formants are added to the root to convey the
grammatical properties of a verb. First of all, aspect stems are formed
by the addition of formants to the root.5 This reflects that aspect is the
most fundamental verbal distinction in the family of languages that includes
Latin. Thus, the progressive stem ama- and the perfect stem amav-
are formed from the root am-. There is no stem for the simple aspect, as
the simple aspect in Latin is signified sometimes by a progressive form and
sometimes by a perfect form, as we will see later.

21.1 Aspect Stems

Root Progressive Stem Perfect Stem

laud- lauda- laudav-
mon- mone- monu-
aud- audi - audiv-
reg- regĕ- rex-
s-, es-/fu- s-, es- fu-

Formants that convey both tense and mood are then added to the aspect
stems. There are five progressive and five perfect tense-mood stems. We
have seen the ten tense-mood stems of sum, esse in Chapter 20. Table 21.2
presents the ten stems6 for amo, amare.
Note that in a manner analogous to nouns, the stem ending will some-
times be lost or modified due to the addition of a formant or personal
ending. Thus, the present subjunctive progressive stem of amare will be
ame-. Note that no formant is added to the progressive stem for present
indicative: the present indicative progressive stem is the same as the com-
mon progressive stem. Note also that the formants used for amare are not
altogether the same as those used for esse. Which formants are used to
make the tense-mood stems varies for the five classes of verbs. Mastery of
Latin verb morphology will consist in large part in learning which formants
5
This occurs according to rules studied in Chapters 33 and 34.
6
Aspect stems will always be called the “progressive stem” or the “perfect stem” or
will be referred to together as “aspect stems.” If a verb stem is spoken of without further
specification, a tense-mood stem is intended.

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21. OVERVIEW OF THE LATIN VERBAL SYSTEM

21.2 Tense-Mood Stems

Progressive Perfect
Present Indicative ama- amav-
Past Indicative ama-ba- amav-era-
Future Indicative ama-bi- amav-eri-
Present Subjunctive ama/-e- amav-eri-
Past Subjunctivea ama-re- amav-isse-
a
There are no future subjunctive forms.

are used with which classes of verbs. An overview of this is contained in

the chart at the end of this chapter.7

21.3 Additional Tense-Mood Stems

moneo, monere audio, audire

mone- monu- audi- audiv-
mone-ba- monu-era- audi-eba- audiv-era-
mone-bi- monu-eri- audi-e- audiv-eri-
mone-a- monu-eri- audi-a- audiv-eri-
mone-re- monu-isse- audi-re- audiv-isse-

rego, regere sum, esse

regĕ- rex- s-u- (N), es- fu-
regĕ/-eba- rex-era- er-a- fu-era-
regĕ/-e- rex-eri- er-i- fu-eri-
regĕ/-a- rex-eri- s-i- fu-eri-
regĕ-re- rex-isse- es-se- fu-isse-

Regere is a thematic primitive verb, the progressive forms of which in-

clude a theme vowel often but not always. This variation will be studied in
Chapter 34.8
7
Fortunately, the same five formants are used to make the five perfect tense-mood
stems for all classes of verbs. Variation is found only in the progressive system.
8
The progressive stem of a thematic primitive verb will always be given with a theme

106
 21. OVERVIEW OF THE LATIN VERBAL SYSTEM

Finite verbs are made by adding a personal ending to one of the ten
tense-mood stems. Both active and passive endings may be added to the
five progressive stems. Only active endings are added to the five perfect
stems. Verbs that are both passive and perfect are formed using the perfect
participle.

Classes of Verbs
Latin verbs can be divided into five classes, traditionally called conjuga-
tions, according to the ending of the progressive stem. For example, amare
is an a-stem verb; traditionally such verbs are referred to as first conjuga-
tion verbs.9 Verbs may be first divided into two groups, primitive verbs and
denominative verbs. Although roots may be shared by verbs and nouns,
every root was originally a verb root or a noun root. Those verbs formed
from roots that were originally verb roots are called primitive verbs. Those
verbs formed from roots that were originally noun roots are called denom-
inative verbs (de from + nomen noun). Primitive verbs are of two kinds:
sometimes the root is used as the progressive stem without modification,
but at other times a theme vowel is added to the root to make the pro-
gressive stem. The former are called root verbs; the latter may be called
thematic primitive verbs or ĕ-stem (“short e-stem”) verbs. Sum, esse
is a root verb, of which there are ten in Latin. These will be treated first
in the coming chapters. Denominative verbs form the progressive stem
from the root by the addition of a long vowel: ā, ē, or ī. Thus, there are
a-stem, ē-stem (“long e-stem”), and i-stem verbs.10

vowel, but the theme vowel will be struck through where it does not appear. It is more
accurate to think of the theme vowel as not having been added, rather than having been
added and subsequently lost as our practice might imply. The reason for always listing
the theme vowel is to clearly represent the difference between thematic primitive verbs,
which will also be called short e-stem verbs, and root verbs.
9
Latin verbs are customarily presented as belonging to one of four classes of regular
verbs (the first, second, third, and fourth conjugations) or as being irregular. As will be
seen, those verbs called “irregular” are called “root verbs” in the stem method and they
are quite regular.
10
For simplicity a macron is not written in the terms “a-stem” and “i-stem,” although
these vowels are long. It is necessary to include a macron or breve for ē-stem or ĕ-stem
verbs, respectively.

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21. OVERVIEW OF THE LATIN VERBAL SYSTEM

21.4 Classes of Latin Verbs

Primitive Verbs Denominative Verbs

Root Verbs a-Stem Verbs
Thematic Primitive (ĕ-Stem Verbs) ē-Stem Verbs
i-Stem Verbs

Aspect
It may seem surprising that aspect is the most fundamental property of
Latin verbs, as many Latin textbooks do not even mention aspect.11 Con-
sider the following three English phrases: “they praise,” “they are prais-
ing,” “they have praised.” The verbs in these phrases do not differ except
in aspect. An English grammarian would identify them as simple present,
present progressive, and present perfect.12 Each is present, active, third
person, plural, and indicative. Aspect indicates that the action of the verb
is signified as ongoing (progressive), or complete (perfect), or as something
whole, neither ongoing nor complete (simple or aorist). (See CLS 14.3 and
its subsections.) See Table 21.5 for examples of tense and aspect in English;
all these verbs are third person, singular, active, and indicative.

21.5 Examples of English Tense and Aspect

Simple Progressive Perfect

Present he calls he is calling he has called
Past he called he was calling he had called
Future he will call he will be calling he will have called

The language from which Latin developed had distinct forms for each
of these three aspects, but Latin retains only two: the progressive and
perfect. Thus, the form of any verb will be identified as progressive or
perfect, but in reading or translating Latin it is necessary to discern whether
that verb form is being used by the author as progressive, perfect or simple
11
Their use of the term “tense” compounds the notions of time and aspect.
12
In English there may even be a combination of aspects (“they have been calling”),
but this does not occur in Latin.

108
 21. OVERVIEW OF THE LATIN VERBAL SYSTEM

aspect. The progressive form will never convey perfect aspect and vice
versa. But all progressive forms may convey the progressive aspect and some
may also convey simple aspect. For example, vocant may be translated as
“they are calling” or “they call.” The perfect forms may always convey the
perfect aspect and may sometimes convey simple aspect: vocaverunt may
be translated as “they have called” or “they called.” The details of this will
be studied later.

The Dictionary Entry for Verbs

The progressive and perfect stems are necessary for producing all of the
finite forms of a verb as well as some participles and infinitives. Addition-
ally, there is a participial stem for each verb used to make certain other
participles and infinitives. When Latin verbs are given in a dictionary, four
different forms are given from which one may discern the two aspect stems
and the participial stem of that verb.13 These forms are called the princi-
pal parts of the verb.14 In addition to these principal parts, stem method
materials will provide the root in parentheses. Thus, the entry for the Latin
verb meaning “to love” will look like this:

amo, amare, amavi, amatum (am-)

These four principal parts are 1) the first person singular present pro-
gressive active indicative, 2) the progressive active infinitive, 3) the first
person singular present perfect active indicative, 4) the perfect participle.
The first two principal parts may be used to discern the progressive
stem. The perfect stem may be gleaned from the third principal part, and
the participial stem can be known from the fourth principal part. The
root is provided since it serves as the basis of both the progressive and the
perfect stems. How to use the principal parts to discern these stems will
13
As we will see in Chapter 36, the progressive stem is also used for some participles,
but the participle stem is unlike the aspect stems in that it is not used for any finite
verb forms. Instead, it is used only for participles and a rare form called the supine. For
example, the participles amans and amandus are based on the progressive stem ama-;
the participles amatum and amaturus use the participle stem amato-/a-.
14
English verbs have three principal parts: kick, kicked, kicked; begin, began, begun;
choose, chose, chosen; etc.

109
21. OVERVIEW OF THE LATIN VERBAL SYSTEM

be explained as each of the classes of verbs is presented. It is necessary to

memorize all the principal parts of a verb as well as the root.
Begin now to memorize the principal parts of the root verbs, presented
in Table 21.6. A dash indicates when a form is lacking in a given verb.
When, however, the perfect participle is lacking, the future active participle
is given in square brackets if there is one. For fero the ancient form of the
fourth principal part began with a t. It is included in brackets to show that
the third and fourth principal parts are formed from the same root.

21.6 Principal Parts of the Root Verbs

sum, esse, fui, [futurum] volo, velle, volui, —

possum, posse, potui, — nolo, nolle, nolui, —
malo, malle, malui, —
eo, ire, ii (ivi), [itum]
fio, fieri, —, —
do, dare, dedi, datum
edo, ēsse (edere), edi, esum
fero, ferre, tuli, [t]latum

Tables
The following tables present two overviews of the Latin verbal system. The
first presents a schematic division of the various finite and non-finite forms
of a verb. The second table presents the formants used with different verbs
as well as verb endings. At the top, one may see all the formants used to
make tense-mood stems in Latin. Then the formants used with each of the
ten root verbs are presented. Since the formants are the same for all verbs
belonging to a single class, except root verbs, the formants for the other
four classes are presented next. Finally, the sets of personal endings that
may be added to a tense-mood stem are given.

110
 21.7 The Latin Verbal System

Progressive Perfect
Active Passive Active Passive

Finite Verbs
indicative subjunctive imperative indicative subjunctive imperative indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive

Past Past — Past Past — Past Past Past Past

Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present
Future — Future Future — Future Future — Future —

Infinitives
Progressive Active “Present” Passive Perfect Active Perfect Passive
Future Active Future Passive — —
Gerund — — —
Supine — — —

Participles
Present Active — Perfect
Future Active Future Passive (Gerundive) — —
 21.8 Latin Verbs: Common Formants
Progressive System Perfect System
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Present Past Future Present Past Present Past Future Present Past
— -a-/-ba-/-eba- -i-/-bi-/-e- -i-/-e-/-a- -se- — -era- -eri- (IO) -eri- (I) -isse-
Verbs Formants by Root Verb
sum, esse su-/es- er-a- er-i- s-i- es-se- fu-i- fu-era- fu-eri- fu-eri- fu-isse-
possum, posse possu-/potes- poter-a- poter-i- poss-i- pos-se- potu-i- potu-era- potu-eri- potu-eri- potu-isse-
volo, velle volu-/vul- vol-eba- vol-e- vel-i- vel-(se→)le- volu-i- volu-era- volu-eri- volu-eri- volu-isse-
nolo, nolle nol(u)- nol-eba- nol-e- nol-i- nol-(se→)le- nolu-i- nolu-era- nolu-eri- nolu-eri- nolu-isse-
malo, malle mal(u)- mal-eba- mal-e- mal-i- mal-(se→)le- malu-i- malu-era- malu-eri- malu-eri- malu-isse-
do, dare da- da-ba- da-bi- da/-e- da-(se→)re ded-i- ded-era- ded-eri- ded-eri- ded-isse-
edo, esse ed- ed-eba- ed-e- ed+ a-/i- e(d→)s-se- ed-i- ed-era- ed-eri- ed-eri- ed-isse-
eo, ire e-/i- i-ba- i-bi- e-a- i-(se→)re- i(v)-i- i(v)-era- i(v)-eri- i(v)-eri- i(v)-isse-
fero, ferre fer- fer-eba- fer-e- fer-a- fer-(se→)re- tul-i- tul-era- tul-eri- tul-eri- tul-isse-
fio, fieri fi- fi-eba- fi-e- fi-a- fi-e-(se→)re-
Stems Formants by Stem Ending
-ĕ ĕ- ĕ/-eba- ĕ/-e- ĕ/-a- ĕ-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri- -isse-
-a a- a-ba- a-bi- a
/-e- a-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri- -isse-
-e e- e-ba- e-bi- e-a- e-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri- -isse-
-i i- i-eba- i-e- i-a- i-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri -isse-
rego, regere, rexi, rectum capio, capĕre, cepi, captum laudo, -are, -avi, -atum moneo, -ēre, -ui, -itum audio, -ire, -ivi, -itum
regĕ- (IOU) rex-i- capi- (IOU) cep-i- lauda- (O) laudav-i- mone- (O) monu-i- audi- (IOU) audiv-i-
regĕ/-eba- rex-era- capi-eba- cep-era- lauda-ba laudav-era- mone-ba- monu-era- audi-eba- audiv-era-
regĕ/-e- (-am) rex-eri- (IO) capi-e- (-am) cep-eri- (IO) lauda-bi laudav-eri- (IO) mone-bi- monu-eri- (IO) audi-e- (-am) audiv-eri- (IO)
regĕ/-a- rex-eri- (I) capi-a- cep-eri- (I) lauda
/-e laudav-eri- (I) mone-a- monu-eri- (I) audi-a- audiv-eri- (I)
regĕ-re- rex-isse- capĕ-re- cep-isse- lauda-re laudav-isse- mone-re- monu-isse- audi-re- audiv-isse-
Personal Endings “R Passive” Present Perfect Active Imperative Passive Imperative
-m/-o -mus -(o)r -mur -i -imus — — — —
-s -tis -re/-ris -mini -isti -istis —/-to -te/-tote -re/-tor -mini
-t -nt -tur -ntur -it -erunt -to -nto -tor -ntor
 21. OVERVIEW OF THE LATIN VERBAL SYSTEM

Vocabulary List 7

anima, animae f. 6a
luna, lunae f. 6
locus, loci m. (n. pl. loca and loci) 7
sedile, sedilis (sedili-) n. 8
laus, laudis (laud-; laudi-) f. 10
iudex, iudicis (iudic-) m./f. 11
sol, solis (sol-) m. 13
honor, honoris (honos- → honor-) m. 14
cinis, cineris (cines-) m. 15
vas, vasis (vas-) n. 15
bos, bovis (bov-) m./f. 16
hiems, hiemis f. 17
imāgō, imāginis (imagin-) f. 18
antı̄quus, antı̄qua, antı̄quum 23
dūrus, dūra, dūrum 23
hūmānus, hūmāna, hūmānum 23
novus, nova, novum 23
perfectus, perfecta, perfectum 23
pūrus, pūra, pūrum 23
stultus, stulta, stultum 23
ultimus, ultima, ultimum 23
vı̄vus, vı̄va, vı̄vum 23
miser, misera, miserum (misero/a-) 24
niger, nigra, nigrum (nigro/a-) 24
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum (pulchro/a-) 24

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

113
21. OVERVIEW OF THE LATIN VERBAL SYSTEM

Notes on Vocabulary List 7 sedile and sedes are nearly equivalent. Sedes was
formed directly from the verbal root of sedeo. sedile added the adjectival suffix -ile,
which was then used substantively (“a thing which may be sat on”) and eventually
became a noun. bos shows two stems (bo- and bov-): (sing.) bo-s, bov-is, bov-i, bov-em,
bov-e; (pl.) bov-es, bov-um, bo-bus, bov-es, bo-bus. One also sees bu-bus and bov-ibus for
bobus. All these come from the same root, which we may represent as bou-. The stem bo-
reflects a loss of the second vowel; the stem bov- reflects the change of the vowel u into
the semi-vowel v. Bu- of bubus apparently comes from losing the o of bou- instead of the
u. hiems is the only m-stem we learn. The English “hibernate” comes from the Latin
hibernus, which itself comes from hiemrinus. Note that m and b are pronounced with
the mouth in the same position; they differ only in whether the breath passes through
the nose or exits the mouth at the parting of the lips. This makes a transition from m
to b easy. cinis comes from a root related to a verb meaning “to burn.” This root can
be seen in words like “incense” and “incendiary.” antiquus is just a different spelling of
anticus, an adjective formed from the adverb antea (“before, in front of”). Something
is old or ancient because it comes before us in time. stultus may derive from a verb
meaning “to place,” so a fool is someone whose mind is unmoving or stuck in place.

114
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 21 Name____________________________________

Give the ten stems of sum, esse.

Progressive Perfect
Tense Mood Stem Tense Mood Stem

Analyze and identify the forms of compounds of sum, esse that appear in the following sentences.

Post praedicta superest cognoscere de ordinibus Angelorum quid Scriptura tradat.

After these things, it remains to know what Scripture hands down about the choirs of angels.

Quia si uni deesset quod alter haberet, neuter perfectus esset.

For if what one had were lacking to the other, neither would be perfect.

Etenim si nihil prosumus his pro quibus flemus, . . .

Even if we are no better off than those for whom we weep, . . .

. . . est ut nulli prosit et obsit alicui; . . . est quod prodest uni ita ut alteri obsit.
[One kind of lie] is such that it benefit no one and harm some one; [another] is what benefits one such that
it harm another.

Verb Prefix Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
superest 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
deesset 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
esset 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
prosumus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
prosit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
obsit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
prodest 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

What are the three moods in Latin?

What is a finite verb?

What is the difference between the form and use of a word?

What is the difference between a primitive verb and a denominative verb?

List the UNUS NAUTA adjectives.

U N
N A
U U
S T
A

Give the stem of the following nouns and form the genitive singular and plural.

Dictionary Entry Stem Genitive Singular Genitive Plural

plebs, plebis f. plebi-
ferrum, ferri n.
grex, gregis m.
turba, turbae f.
ius, iuris n.
cervus, cervi m.
facultas, facultatis f.
casus, casus m.
magister, magistri m.

Give the stem of the following nouns and form the ablative singular and plural.

Dictionary Entry Stem Ablative Singular Ablative Plural

insula, insulae f.
homo, hominis m.
dos, dotis f. doti-
error, erroris m.
nuntius, nuntii m.
facies, faciei f.
odium, odii n.
laus, laudis f.

Compare the verbs fuero and fuerim.

22 The Common Progressive
Temporal Formants

We have already seen how -a and -i are formants used to produce the past
and future tenses of the progressive indicative system. As can be seen in
table 21.8, however, there are other formants that are used to the same
effect, including -ba and -bi, which are augmentations of the formants -a
and -i. Which formant is used depends on which class a verb belongs to, as
can also be seen in Table 21.8. Here we will consider the origin of the -b in
-ba and -bi.
The English verbs “go” and “wend” have already been mentioned as ex-
amples of mixed verbs. Once, each possessed a complete and independent
verbal system. The original past tense of “go” included the forms “yede”
and “yode.” (The “y” is close in sound to “g.”) These forms have com-
pletely disappeared from English. The original past tense of “wend” was
“went,” which came to be used as the past tense of “go.”
Likewise the Latin system based upon the root bheu@- (from which comes
the Latin fu-) was once complete with progressive and perfect forms. For
our purposes, this stem can be conceived merely as bhu-. Thus, there were
past progressive forms and future progressive forms that meant something
very close to the past progressive forms and future progressive forms based
upon the root es-. Eram and bhuam therefore meant more or less the same
thing. Table 22.1 presents a simplified formation of these verbs.
The meanings of these forms of bhu- were similar to the forms based
upon the root es-. But neither the original formation nor the independent
use of these forms is of concern to us. Rather, we must look at a simplified
form of these verbs. This simplified form, in the future progressive, will

115
22. THE COMMON PROGRESSIVE TEMPORAL FORMANTS

22.1 Past and Future Progressive Forms from es- and bheu@-

er-a-m er-a-s er-a-t er-a-mus er-a-tis er-a-nt

bhu-a-m bhu-a-s bhu-a-t bhu-a-mus bhu-a-tis bhu-a-nt
er-o er-i-s er-i-t er-i-mus er-i-tis er-u-nt
bhu-o bhu-i-s bhu-i-t bhu-i-mus bhu-i-tis bhu-u-nt

appear as a suffix in many other Latin verbs. In the past progressive, it

will appear as a suffix in almost every other Latin verb. (The exceptions
are precisely the verbs that are compounds of sum.)
The simplified forms based on bhu- are compared with the past and
future progressive forms of sum in Table 22.2. Remember that these forms
will never be used independently but will be found as suffixes used to form
the past and future progressive of many Latin verbs.

22.2 Comparison of sum, esse with Simplified Forms from bhu-

eram eras erat eramus eratis erant

-bam -bas -bat -bamus -batis -bant
ero eris erit erimus eritis erunt
-bo -bis -bit -bimus -bitis -bunt

These three comments sum up all there is to consider in these suffixes:

1. Note that in origin the “b” in these forms was the verbal root with
a verbal signification. This meaning will be irrelevant in its use as a
suffix.

2. Note that the personal endings are normal. “O” is not the only first
person singular ending, but it is common in the present and the future.

3. In these forms, the vowel “a” signified past time in the progressive as-
pect. As a suffix, “ba” will signify the past progressive. Likewise, the
vowel “i” signified future time in the progressive, with two exceptions
(IOU) that we have already seen. Be sure that you can identify and
express these exceptions.

116
 22. THE COMMON PROGRESSIVE TEMPORAL FORMANTS

Using the Past and Future Progressive Suffixes

Let us apply these suffixes to a new root, written i-/e-, because it shifts
between e- and i-. This root bears the meaning “to go.” Although it
fluctuates between e- and i-, the root is usually i-. In the past and future
progressive, it is always i-. Thus, we can compare the past and future
progressive forms of this verb with those of sum as shown in Table 22.3.

22.3 Comparison with Forms from i-/e-

er-a-m er-a-s er-a-t er-a-mus er-a-tis er-a-nt

i-ba-m i-ba-s i-ba-t i-ba-mus i-ba-tis i-ba-nt
er-o er-i-s er-i-t er-i-mus er-i-tis er-u-nt
i-bo i-bi-s i-bi-t i-bi-mus i-bi-tis i-bu-nt

Although the conjugation of this verb will not be considered until the
next chapter, you have already learned its dictionary entry (its four principal
parts). Note that in the second principal part, when the infinitive formant
-se is added to the root i-, the “s” rhotacizes, becoming an “r.” Hence the
infinitive is i-se → ire, and, in its compounds, ab-ire, circum-ire, and so on.

117
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 22 Name____________________________________

Give the ten stems of sum, esse.

Progressive Perfect
Tense Mood Stem Tense Mood Stem

In the following passage, six nouns or noun/adjective combinations have been taken out. Supply the missing words
(“inflected form”) according to the information given.

Deus, qui nobis sub (1) (2) memoriam reliquisti; tribue, quaesumus, ita nos (3) et (4) sacra mysteria
venerari, ut (5) fructum in nobis iugiter sentiamus: Qui vivis et regnas in saecula (6). Amen.

Noun Meaning Gender Adjective Inflected Form

Stem Stem
1 sacramento- n. mirabili- abl. sg.:

2 passion- f. tuo/a- gen. sg.:

3 corpos- n. gen. sg.:

4 sanguin- m. tuo/a- gen. sg.:

5 redemption- f. tuo/a- gen. sg.:

6 saeculo- n. gen. pl.:

Which gender is the Latin suffix -sion- (e.g., missio, missionis)? (MLWL 18.24)

Which a-stem nouns are masculine?

Which e-stem noun can be both masculine and feminine?

Does the present indicative ever use a formant? (Table 21.8)

What makes dōs, dotis and plēbs, plebis unique among the i-stem nouns on our word list?
For the following drill, classify the i-stem nouns according to this chart.

PARISYLLABICS IMPARISYLLABICS
MASCULINE & FEMININE 1) Standard 4) Add –s, loss of –i, etc.
2) Plural for Singular
3) bri- & tri- stems
NEUTER 5) Bare stem, -i → -e 6) Bare stem, loss of –i

i-stem Noun Type i-stem Noun Type

mensis, mensis m. animal, animalis n.
mens, mentis f. nox, noctis f.
sedile, sedilis n. piscis, piscis m.
nubes, nubis f. moenia, moenium n. (pl. only)
gens, gentis f. urbs, urbis f.

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
essent 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
erant 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
ibunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
sint 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
ibant 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
erunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Identify the underlined nouns and noun/adjective combinations in the following passage (Acts, ch. 2).

Et cum conplerentur dies pentecostes erant omnes pariter in eodem loco. Et factus est repente de
caelo sonus tamquam advenientis spiritus vehementis et replevit totam domum ubi erant sedentes.
Et apparuerunt illis dispertitae linguae tamquam ignis seditque supra singulos eorum.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

dies masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
loco masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
caelo masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
sonus masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
spiritus masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
vehementis
dispertitae masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
linguae
ignis igni- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
23 eo, ire, ii (ivi), itum

The Progressive System

The verb eo, ire is formed from a root that shifts between i- and e-. (These
are not two roots, but a shift—ablaut—from one grade to another.) A quick
look at the progressive active forms in Table 23.1 makes clear that the root
shifts to e- before the vowels o, u, and a. You should see very clearly that
the second and third lines are the past and future progressive indicative.
The other forms are not difficult to explain.

23.1 The Progressive System of eo, ire

eo is it imus itis eunt

ibam ibas ibat ibamus ibatis ibant
ibo ibis ibit ibimus ibitis ibunt
eam eas eat eamus eatis eant
irem ires iret iremus iretis irent

The first line in this table presents the present progressive indicative
forms of eo, ire. Here the stem is e-/i- (IOU). (The use of the IOU mnemonic
device is ambiguous here, since the i is part of the stem and not a formant,
but it works.)
Commit to memory the fact that the root shifts to e- before the vowels
o, u, and a. An alternative is to conceive the root as shifting to e- before
any vowel in the progressive system. There is no shift in the perfect system.

119
23. EO, IRE, II (IVI), ITUM

The last line is even easier to explain. The past progressive subjunctive
takes the suffix -se- plus the personal endings. The root i- remains, but the
intervocalic -s- “rhotacizes.” The personal endings are all standard. The
stem is ire-.
The fourth line demands some explanation. This is the present progres-
sive subjunctive. This root does not use the ancient Indo-European optative
form -i-. Rather, like most Latin verbs, it uses a subjunctive form peculiar
to Latin: the -a- subjunctive. In the -a- subjunctive, the root adds the
suffix -a- to form the subjunctive stem, to which the personal endings are
added. Since this root is unstable, it shifts to e- in the subjunctive stem:
ea-. The standard personal endings are added to this stem.

The Perfect System

The perfect system of eo, ire uses the same formants and personal endings
studied in the perfect system of sum, esse. The root is formed in the manner
most common in Latin: the addition of -v- (or -u-): iv-. Perhaps the w
sound of this semi-vowel in the classical period led to a usual reduction of
the root to a mere i-. Table 23.2 shows both forms in the present perfect
indicative, but the full form can occur anywhere in the perfect system.
Compare the formation of the perfect in the same table. Note that
sometimes in the present perfect indicative, a double i is contracted to one:
i-i- → i-. For example: i-i-sti → isti. Such contraction occurs throughout
the past perfect subjunctive: i-isse-m → issem, etc. Likewise the perfect
active infinitive is isse.

The Progressive Active Infinitive

We have seen that the second principal part of a verb is the progressive
active infinitive. A verb is often named from just this part (esse, dare, ire),
sometimes from the first two parts together (sum, esse; do, dare; eo, ire).
The infinitive is not a finite verb form at all, however, but a verbal noun.
For now, it is enough to know that the Latin infinitive is often used in a
way that is equivalent to an English infinitive (“to be,” “to give,” “to go”).
The infinitive will be considered in more detail later.

120
 23. EO, IRE, II (IVI), ITUM

The progressive active infinitive is formed by adding the noun suffix -se
to the progressive stem of a verb. Although different in origin, the noun
suffix looks the same as the past progressive subjunctive formant, and it
undergoes rhoticism just as often. In effect, then, the past progressive
subjunctive stem and the progressive active infinitive are identical in all
verbs except one: see fieri in chapter 32.

23.2 The Perfect System of eo, ire

ii isti iit iimus istis ierunt

(ivi) (ivisti) (ivit) (ivimus) (ivistis) (iverunt)
i-i i-isti i-it i-imus i-istis i-erunt
(iv-i) (iv-isti) (iv-it) (iv-imus) (iv-istis) (iv-erunt)
ieram ieras ierat ieramus ieratis ierant
i-era-m i-era-s i-era-t i-era-mus i-era-tis i-era-nt
iero ieris ierit ierimus ieritis ierint
i-er-o i-eri-s i-eri-t i-eri-mus i-eri-tis i-eri-nt
ierim ieris ierit ierimus ieritis ierint
i-eri-m i-eri-s i-eri-t i-eri-mus i-eri-tis i-eri-nt
issem isses isset issemus issetis issent
i-isse-m i-isse-s i-isse-t i-isse-mus i-isse-tis i-isse-nt

23.3 The Ten Stems of eo, ire

e-/i- (IOU) i; ı̄v- (-sti-s; -eru-)

i-bā- i-era-; ı̄v-era-
i-bi- (IOU) i-eri-; ı̄v-eri- (IO)
e-a- i-eri-; ı̄v-eri- (I)
i-re- isse-; ı̄v-isse-

121
23. EO, IRE, II (IVI), ITUM

Comparison of Verb Formations

Take a moment to compare the principles used in forming the progressive
active system of eo, ire with those of sum, esse. Compare the infinitives:
esse and ire.

23.4 Comparison of Verb Formations: sum, esse and eo, ire

sum es est sumus estis sunt

eo is it imus itis eunt
eram eras erat eramus eratis erant
ibam ibas ibat ibamus ibatis ibant
ero eris erit erimus eritis erunt
ibo ibis ibit ibimus ibitis ibunt
sim sis sit simus sitis sint
eam eas eat eamus eatis eant
essem esses esset essemus essetis essent
irem ires iret iremus iretis irent

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Questions and Exercises for Chapter 23 Name____________________________________

Give the ten stems of eo, ire, ii (ivi), [itum].

Progressive Perfect
Tense Mood Stem Tense Mood Stem

Analyze and identify the following forms of the verb eo, ire.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
ierint 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
imus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
eas 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
iretis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
isti 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
eunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
ibunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
iveramus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
isses 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Supply the requested forms.

Stem Nom. Sg. Gen. Sg. Abl. Sg.

insula- f.
viro- m.
regno- n.
plebi- f.
phantasmat- n.
reg- m.
fratr- m.
ambition- f.
gradu- m.
re- f.
Supply the requested forms.

Stem Nom. Pl. Gen. Pl. Abl. Pl.

insula- f.
viro- m.
regno- n.
plebi- f.
phantasmat- n.
reg- m.
fratr- m.
ambition- f.
gradu- m.
re- f.

Which three feminine u-stem nouns are on our list?

Which two neuter u-stem nouns are on our list?

For which two verbs does the infinitive formant -se- not change into -re-?

Identify the underlined nouns and noun/adjective combinations of the following verses of Psalm 1.

Beátus vir, qui non ábiit in consílio impiórum, et in via peccatórum non stetit, et in cathédra
pestiléntiae non sedit; sed in lege Dómini volúntas eius, et in lege eius meditábitur die ac nocte.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

Beatus beato/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
vir viro-
consilio masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
impiorum impio/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
via masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
peccatorum peccator- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
cathedra cathedra- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
pestilentiae pestilentia- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
lege masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
Domini masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
voluntas voluntat- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
die masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl
nocte nocti- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–abl

Using your knowledge and your dictionary, translate this line from Psalm 1:“Iter impiorum peribit.”
24 The Accusative Case

Case
A thing or substance can be related to action in many ways. A thing does
something or it is that to which something is done. Again, a thing, especially
a person, may be given or told something or may possess something. These
differences give rise to the grammatical property called case. Nouns and
pronouns have this property and adjectives have the property in a secondary
way, i.e., by agreement with nouns.
Etymologically, the word “case” refers to a “falling away” from the form
of the noun that would serve principally as a subject, the nominative, which
merely “names” the thing. (The Latin word for “noun” and “name” are
the same: nomen.) Yet the word “case” was eventually extended to include
the nominative case, even in Latin, and the notion of falling away was
introduced again, by distinguishing the nominative as the casus rectus or
“upright case” from the various casus obliqui, the “oblique” or “declining”
cases. These cases represent something as an object to the action of a verb
or as some condition to that action or even as the object of the act of
speaking: “I hit Jim,” “I began counting with Jim,” “Jim, watch out!”
Case has almost vanished from the English language. English pronouns
still have case: he, (perhaps) his, him; she, her ; and they, their, them.
The distinction in the form of these words is for the purpose of expressing
the word’s role in a sentence. Here we have some words in the “subject”
case (nominative): he, she, they. Also, some words in the “object” case
(accusative): him, her, them. Again, the one form that maintains a dis-
tinct form in English for nouns as well as pronouns is the possessive case
(genitive): his, her, their ; but also Bill’s, the book’s, James’.

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24. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

While in English distinct forms for the cases of nouns have been lost
except in the possessive case, word order makes clear the case of a noun:
“The dog bit the man.” In this sentence there is no doubt about who bit
and who was bitten.

Formation of Accusatives
Masculine and Feminine Singular
The accusative singular ending is -m. Masculine and feminine nouns and
adjectives with stems ending in -a, -e, -u add this case ending unproblem-
atically. The -o of the o-stems corrupts to -u in the singular: angelo-m →
angelum. Consonant stem nouns add an -e before the -m ending: milit-e-m.
In the accusative case masculine and feminine i-stem nouns and adjectives
imitate the consonant stem nouns on the whole and the -i of the stem is
replaced by -e. But a few -i stem nouns maintain the stem ending before
the accusative ending -m. Compare these accusative formations with their
stems in Table 24.1.

Neuter Singular
Neuter nouns use the same form for the nominative and the accusative
singular. The u-stem and C stem neuters take the bare stem in these singu-
lars. In the C stems this often involves ablaut or loss of the t-stem’s ending:
capit- → caput, but poemat- → poema; nomin- → nomen. I-stem neuters
also take the bare stem but with the -i weakened to -e or lost altogether:
mari- → mare, animali- → animal. But the o-stem neuters seem to have
begun their life in the accusative, for the singular form for nominative and
accusative is the corrupted o-stem with the accusative ending -m. There are
no neuter nouns with stems ending in -e or -a. Compare these accusative
formations with their stems in Table 24.2.

124
24. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 125

24.1 Masculine and Feminine Stems with Accusative Singular

Stem Accusative Sing. Stem Ending Stem Accusative Sing.

acie- acie-m -e re- re-m
sensu- sensu-m -u effectu- effectu-m
loco- locu-m -o servo- servu-m
puero- pueru-m -ro quadro- quadru-m
luna- luna-m -a terra- terra-m
duc- duc-e-m -c, -g reg- reg-e-m
laud- laud-e-m -d, -t nepot- nepot-e-m
caelib- caelib-e-m -b, -p op- op-e-m
sol- sol-e-m -l, -r amor- amor-e-m
flos- flor-e-m -s
bov- bov-e-m -v gru(u)- gru-e-m
hiem- hiem-e-m -m, -n leon- leon-e-m
turri- turr-e-m -i tussi- tussi-m
denti- dent-e-m
imbri- imbr-e-m -ri celeri- celer-e-m

24.2 Neuter Stems with Accusatives

Stem Accusative Sing. Stem Ending Stem Accusative Sing.

cornu- cornu -u genu- genu
capit- caput -t poemat- poema-
mell- mel -l, -r cadaver- cadaver
vas- vas -s oss- os
nomin- nomen -n carmin- carmen
sedili- sedile -i exemplari- exemplar
aedificio-aedificiu-m -o sepulchro- sepulchru-m
24. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

Masculine and Feminine Plural

The accusative plural originally used the ending -ns for masculine and femi-
nine nouns. This has reduced to -s with a lengthened stem vowel in a-stems,
o-stems, u-stems, and e-stems. C stems add an -e between the stem and this
-s ending. Hence, the nominative and accusative plural look the same for
masculine and feminine C stems. The i-stems imitate the C stems. These
are presented in Table 24.3.

24.3 Masculine and Feminine Stems with Accusative Plural

Stem Accus. Plur. Stem Ending Stem Accus. Plur.

acie- acie-s -e re- re-s
sensu- sensu-s -u effectu- effectu-s
loco- loco-s -o servo- servo-s
puero- puero-s -ro quadro- quadro-s
luna- luna-s -a terra- terra-s
duc- duc-e-s -c, -g reg- reg-e-s
laud- laud-e-s -d, -t nepot- nepot-e-s
caelib- caelibes -b, -p op- op-e-s
sol- sol-e-s -l, -r amor- amor-e-s
flos- flor-e-s -s
bo(v)- bov-e-s -v gru(u)- gru-e-s
hiem- hiem-e-s -m, -n leon- leon-e-s
turri- turr-e-s -i tussi- tuss-e-s
denti- dent-e-s
imbri- imbr-e-s -ri celeri- celer-e-s

Neuter Plural

The neuter uses the same form in the nominative and accusative plural.
The -a ending is added to the stem ending, with a loss of the stem ending
in o-stems. These are presented in Table 24.4.

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 24. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

24.4 Neuter Stems with Accusative Plurals

Stem Accusative Plur. Stem Ending Stem Accusative Plur.

cornu- cornu-a -u genu- genu-a
capit- capit-a -t poemat- poemat-a
mell- mell-a -l, -r cadaver- cadaver-a
vas- vas-a -s oss- oss-a
nomin- nomin-a -n carmin- carmin-a
sedili- sedili-a -i exemplari- exemplari-a
aedificio-aedifici-a -o sepulchro- sepulchr-a

Direct Object
A sentence “says something of something,” and in its most vivid form an ac-
tion is “said of” some subject. While the action may not be represented as
passing into or affecting another (“Socrates talks.” “Dogs bark.”), some-
times it is represented this way (“Achilles killed Hector.” “Socrates ad-
dressed Meno.”) Just as the nominative case is used to show that a noun is
the agent, the subject of the sentence, the accusative case is used to show
that the noun is receiving the action of the verb: it is the direct object of
the sentence. This is the most characteristic use of the accusative case. See
CLS 7.1, 7.11, 7.12.

Donum tibi do. I am giving you a gift.

Alexander multa animalia Aristotili donabat. Alexander used
to give many animals to Aristotle.
Longam orationem dedisti. You have given a long speech.

The Preposition in + The Accusative

The Latin preposition in governs the ablative case when it means “in” or
“on.” But, when this preposition governs the accusative, as it often does
with the verb eo, ire and its compounds, it describes where this motion
comes to its end: eo in domum; eamus in stadium. The English prepositions
“into,” “onto,” “up to” and the like are used in a similar manner.

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24. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

Other Prepositions Governing the Accusative

Sections 1 and 2 of the MLWL include the other prepositions governing the
accusative that you are required to know. Begin to learn the meanings of
these prepositions now. Take special care to understand the force of the
prepositions used in your syntax drill.

128
 24. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

Vocabulary List 8

ad (prep., acc. only) 2a

per (prep., acc. only) 2
post (prep., acc. only) 2
propter (prep., acc. only) 2
trāns (prep., acc. only) 2
tussis, tussis (tussi-) f. 8
dōs, dōtis (dōti-) f. 8
linter, lintris (lintri-) f. 8
uter, utris (utri-) m. 8
femur, femoris (femor-) n. 14
corpus, corporis (corpos-) n. 15
grus, gruis (gru(v)-) f. 16
sus, suis (su(v)-) m./f. 16
eō, ı̄re, iı̄ (ı̄vı̄), itum [eo] 31
adeō, adı̄re, adiı̄, aditum [eo] 31
obeō, obı̄re, obiı̄ (obı̄vı̄), obitum [eo] 31
redeō, -ı̄re, rediı̄ (redı̄vı̄), reditum [eo] 31
trānseō, -ı̄re, transiı̄ (-ı̄vı̄), -situm [eo] 31
regō, regere, rēxı̄, rēctum [reg-] 32
amō, amāre, amāvı̄, amātum [am-] 34
laudō, -āre, laudāvı̄, laudātum [laus] 34
dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuı̄, dēbitum [habeo] 35
moneō, -ēre, monuı̄, monitum [man-] 35
audiō, audı̄re, audı̄vı̄, audı̄tum [au-2 ] 36
sciō, scı̄re, scı̄vı̄, scı̄tum [sec-1 ] 36

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

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24. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

Notes on Vocabulary List 8 propter is derived from prope (“nearby, at hand”).

Since a reason or cause is near its effect in a figurative sense, propter came to mean
“on account of, for the sake of.” uter gave rise to the name for the organ, “uterus,”
for obvious reasons. It is not related to uter, utra, utrum, which dropped the opening
consonant of its original stem quoter- or cuter-. Thus, uter, utra, utrum is a compound
with the same stem quo/a- found in cum and many pronouns, such as qui, quae, quod.
grus and sus are listed as having the stems gru(v)- and su(v)-. This does not mean that
they are sometimes u-stems and sometimes consonant stems. The forms of sus are (sing.)
sus, suis, sui, suim/suem, sui/sue; (pl.) se, suium, suibus, suis/sues, suibus. Note that
the stem never ends in -uv. Grus is the same. Rather, the v in su(v)- and gru(v)- means
that these nouns must be thought of as ending in a consonant rather than a vowel. Thus,
these nouns are consonant stems rather than u-stems. Proto-Indo-European had both a
short-u and a long-u declension, which were collapsed into the one u-stem declension in
Latin. Grus and sus were ū-stems that did not follow the normal pattern of becoming
ŭ-stems but were drawn into the consonant stem declension, because the endings of
the proto-Indo-European ū-stems were more like the endings of consonant stems than
the endings of ŭ-stems. adeo, adire and the other verbs on this list are followed by
information in brackets. This indicates either the other Latin word or the pre-Latin root
from which these words derive: rego, regere comes from the root reg-. Adeo, adire is a
compound of eo, ire. Laudo, laudare derives from the Latin noun laus, laudis. Audio is
said to come from the root au-2 , because there is another root, au-1 , which is spelled the
same but unrelated. The numbers do not indicate an order between them, just that they
are distinct. Thus, one can see that audeo [au-1 ] is not related to audio [au-2 ]. Likewise,
scio, scire [sec-1 ] is not related to sequor, sequi [sec-2 ]. De + habeo → debeo. De- has
a negating force: you lack what you do not have; you are in debt or you owe when you
lack what you must pay back.

130
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 24 Name____________________________________

Supply the requested forms.

Stem Acc. Sing. Acc. Plural Stem Acc. Sing. Acc. Plural
cena- f. bello- n.
lacrima- f. vulgo- n.
codic- m. puero- m.
voc- f. viro- m.
equit- m. amor- m.
auri- f. decor- m.
arti- f. cines- m.
sedi- f. sceles- n.
mari- n. portu- m.
sol- m. actu- m.
bov- m./f. ornatu- m.
cupidin- f. cornu- n.
carmin- n. acie- f.
amico- m. re- f.
modo- m. spe- f.

What is the origin of the formants -ba- and -bi-? (ch. 22)

What sets the UNUS NAUTA adjectives apart from other o/a-stem adjectives?

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
eamus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
simus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
fuimus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
ierimus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
sumus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
fueramus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
iremus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
issemus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
Identify the underlined nouns and noun/adjective combinations in the following passage from St. Thomas Aquinas.

Quinta via sumitur ex gubernatione rerum. Videmus enim quod aliqua quae cognitione carent,
scilicet corpora naturalia, operantur propter finem, quod apparet ex hoc quod semper aut
frequentius eodem modo operantur, ut consequantur id quod est optimum; unde patet quod non a
casu, sed ex intentione perveniunt ad finem. Ea autem quae non habent cognitionem, non tendunt
in finem nisi directa ab aliquo cognoscente et intelligente, sicut sagitta a sagittante. Ergo est
aliquid intelligens, a quo omnes res naturales ordinantur ad finem, et hoc dicimus deum.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

Quinta masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
via
gubernatione masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
rerum masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
cognitione masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
corpora masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
naturalia
finem masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
modo masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
optimum masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
casu masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
intentione masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
cognitionem masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
cognoscente cognoscenti- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
sagitta masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
sagittante sagittanti- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
intelligens intelligenti- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
res masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
naturales
deum masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl

Give the ten tense-mood stems of sum, esse and of eo, ire.

sum, esse eo, ire

25 *Readings: Sir Isaac Newton and
Saint Augustine

Sir Isaac Newton

Natúra simplex est. Córpora ómnia extensiónem habent. Córpora
natura- simplici-s es-t corpos-a omni-a extension-e-m habe-nt corpos-a
ómnia impenetrabı́lia sunt. Córpora ómnia mobı́lia sunt. Hoc est
omni-a im-penetrabili-a s-o-nt corpos-a omni-a mobili-a s-o-nt ho-c es-t
fundaméntum philosóphiae.
fundamento-m philosophia-e

corpora bodies impenetrabilia impenetrable

extensionem extension mobilia mobile, movable
fundamentum foundation philosophiae of philosophy
habent have simplex simple

Córpora ómnia in circúitu terrae habent gravitátem. Luna habet

corpos-a omni-a circuitu- terra-e habe-nt gravitat-e-m luna- habe-t
gravitátem. Planétae habent gravitátem. Cométae habent
gravitatat-e-m planeta-e habe-nt gravitat-e-m cometa-e habe-nt
gravitátem in solem. Arguméntum de gravitáte universáli erit per
gravitat-e-m sol-e-m argumento-m gravitat-e universali- es-i-t
experiméntum. Arguméntum de gravitáte universáli erit ex
experimento-m argumento-m gravitat-e universali- es-i-t

131
25. *READINGS: NEWTON AND ST. AUGUSTINE

phaenómenis. Non affı́rmo gravitátem essentiálem esse

phaenomeno-is
corpóribus.
corpos-i-bus

affirmo I affirm, I am affirming luna moon

circuitu compass, bounds phaenomenis phenomena
cometae comets planetae planets
experimentum experience, ex- solem sun
periment universali universal
gravitatem heaviness

Saint Augustine
Read the introductions to the simple, compound and complex
sentences in CLS. The following paraphrase of an argument from Saint
Augustine’s De immortalitate animae is presented in two parts and each
in two forms. First the matter of Augustine’s argument is presented in a
series of simple and slightly complex sentences. Then a version of each part
of the argument is given in a complex sentence much closer to the original.
Read the following sentences to prepare for the first passage from Saint
Augustine:

Disciplı́na est alı́cubi. Disciplı́na est solum in eo quod uiuit.

disciplina- es-t aliud-ubi disciplina- es-t solo-m eo- quo-d viv-i-t
Disciplı́na est semper. Id quod est semper solum est in eo quod
disciplina- es-t i-d quo-d es-t solo-m es-t eo- quo-d
est semper. Semper uiuit id in quo est disciplı́na.
es-t viv-i-t i-d quo- es-t disciplina-

alicubi somewhere si if
disciplina learning, discipline semper always, forever
eo it, that solum only
id it, that uiuit = vivit lives
quo, quod which, that

132
 25. *READINGS: NEWTON AND ST. AUGUSTINE

First Passage:

Si alı́cubi est disciplı́na, et disciplı́na est solum in eo quod uiuit,

aliud-ubi es-t disciplina- disciplina- es-t solo-m eo- quo-d viv-i-t
et si disciplı́na semper est, et id quod est semper solum est in eo
disciplina- es-t i-d quo-d es-t solo-m es-t eo-
quod est semper; semper uiuit id in quo est disciplı́na.
quo-d es-t viv-i-t i-d quo- es-t disciplina-

Read the following sentences to prepare for the second passage from Saint
Augustine:

Nos sumus ánimus noster. Cogitátio recta non est sine

no-s s-o-mus animo-s nostr- cogitation- recto/a- es-t
disciplı́na. Sine disciplı́na ánimus noster non potest uı́uere.
disciplina- disciplina- animo-s nostr- potis-es-t viv-e-se
Disciplı́na est in ánimo hóminis. Ánimus noster semper uiuit.
disciplina- es-t animo- homin-is animo-s nostr- viv-i-t

cogitatio thinking potest can, to be able

ergo therefore recta right
hominis of man, man’s sine without (takes instrumen-
nec nor tal abl.)
noster our uiuere = vivere to live

Second Passage:

Si nos sumus ánimus noster, nec est cogitátio recta sine

no-s s-o-mus animo-s nostr- es-t cogitation- recto/a-
disciplı́na, nec sine disciplı́na uı́uere potest ánimus noster; est in
disciplina- disciplina- viv-e-se potis-es-t animo-s nostr- es-t
hóminis ánimo disciplı́na. Semper uiuit ergo ánimus noster.
homin-is animo- disciplina- viv-i-t animo-s nostr-

133
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 25 Name____________________________________

Identify the underlined nouns, adjectives, and noun/adjective combinations in the following passage from the Mass.

Hanc igitur oblatiónem servitútis nostræ, sed et cunctæ famíliæ tuæ, quaésumus, Dómine, ut
placátus accípias: diésque nostros in tua pace dispónas, atque ab aetérna damnatióne nos éripi, et
in electórum tuórum iúbeas grege numerári. Quam oblatiónem tu, Deus, in ómnibus, quaésumus,
benedíctam, adscríptam, ratam, rationábilem, acceptabilémque fácere dignéris: ut nobis Corpus et
Sanguis fiat dilectíssimi Fílii tui, Dómini nostri Iesu Christi.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

Hanc masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
oblationem
servitútis masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
nostræ
cunctæ nom–gen–acc–abl
famíliæ masc–fem–neut sg–pl
tuæ
placátus placato/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
dies masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
nostros
tua masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
pace
aetérna masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
damnatióne
electórum electo/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
tuórum tuo-
grege greg- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
oblatiónem masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
ratam rato/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
Corpus masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
Sanguis masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
Fílii masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–acc–abl
tui

Give the present progressive indicative and present perfect indicative forms of sum, esse, fui, [futurum].

Singular Plural Singular Plural

1st
2nd
3rd

Give the present progressive indicative and present perfect indicative forms of eo, ire, ii (ivi), itum.

Singular Plural Singular Plural

1st
2nd
3rd
Analyze and identify the verbs in the following passage.

Osténsum est deum esse ómnino perféctum, cui nulla perféctio desit. Si ígitur sunt plures dii,
opórtet esse plura huiúsmodi perfecta. Hoc autem est impossíbile: nam si nulli eórum deest áliqua
perféctio, nec áliqua imperféctio admiscétur, quod requíritur ad hoc quod áliquid sit simplíciter
perféctum, non erit in quo ad ínvicem distinguántur. Impossíbile est ígitur plures deos pónere.

Verb [Prefix] Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
esse 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
desit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
sunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
est 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
deest 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
sit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
erit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Identify each sentence as simple, compound, or complex. If the sentence is compound, indicate where it can be divided
into two or more independent clauses. If it is complex, underline the subordinate clause(s).

(1) The old woman and her daughter were sitting on their porch when Mr. Shiftlet came up their
road for the first time. (2) The old woman slid to the edge of her chair and leaned forward, shading
her eyes from the piercing sunset with her hand. (3) The daughter could not see far in front of her
and continued to play with her fingers. (4) Although the woman lived in this desolate spot with only
her daughter and she had never seen Mr. Shiftlet before, she could tell, even from a distance, that
he was a tramp and no one to be afraid of. (5) His left coat sleeve was folded up to show there was
only half an arm in it, and his gaunt figure listed slightly to the side as if the breeze were pushing
him. (6) He had on a black town suit and a brown felt hat that was turned up in the front and down
in the back and he carried a tin toolbox by a handle.

(1) (4)

(2) (5)

(3) (6)

What is St. Augustine’s definition of a sign? [p. xviii]

Explain how the noun corpus is a sign.

26 do, dare, dedi, datum and the
Dative Case

A common Latin verb, do, dare, (“to give”1 ) is sometimes included among
“irregular” verbs and sometimes among verbs whose stems end in -ā. This
happens because the root of this verb shifts between dā- and da-. For this
reason, its long and short vowels do not everywhere agree with those of
verbs with a stem ending in -ā. Otherwise the conjugation of this verb does
not differ from that of verbs ending in -ā. It is included here because it is a
root verb that illustrates one of the ways of forming the present progressive
subjunctive.

The Progressive System of do, dare

The progressive system of do, dare is presented in Table 26.1. The formation
of four of these five progressive systems should be quite familiar. Remember
that the -se- used as a formant for the past progressive active subjunctive
suffers “rhotacism,” since the root to which it is added ends in a vowel: da-
se- → dare-. (This will be the norm.) Thus the stem for the past progressive
active subjunctive is dare-.
Note that the past progressive active subjunctive stem is identical to
the (progressive active) infinitive dare. Thus, the commonly proposed rule:
“form the past progressive active subjunctive (usually called the ‘imperfect
1
George M. Lane, A Latin Grammar, n. 754: “There are two verbs dō, one meaning
give, and one meaning put. The dō meaning put is oftenest used in compounds: the
simple verb has been crowded out by pōnō.”

135
26. DO, DARE, DEDI, DATUM AND THE DATIVE CASE

26.1 The Progressive System of do, dare

dō dā-s da-t da-mus da-tis da-nt

da-ba-m da-bā-s da-ba-t da-bā-mus da-bā-tis da-ba-nt
da-b-o da-bi-s da-bi-t da-bi-mus da-bi-tis da-bu-nt
d-e-m d-ē-s d-e-t d-ē-mus d-ē-tis d-e-nt
da-re-m da-rē-s da-re-t da-rē-mus da-rē-tis da-re-nt

subjunctive’) by adding the personal endings to the infinitive.” (This rule

has exceptions.)

The stems for the past and future progressive active indicative systems
are also easily recognized: daba- and dabi- (IOU). Remember that in the
future the first person singular and the third person plural have been “in-
fected;” they introduce the -o and -u often found in these personal endings:
dabo and dabunt.

Note also that the present progressive active indicative, using the bare
root as a stem, suffers this “infection” in the first person singular but (unlike
the verb eo, ire) not in the third person plural. The stem will be listed as
da- (O).

The new method of forming the present progressive active subjunctive

can be called the “e-subjunctive,” since the vowel used as the subjunctive
formant here is -e.

This method of forming the subjunctive was the common method in the
parent language, Indo-European. Here, the -e formant merely replaces the
-a vowel with which the root ends. (In Latin the e-subjunctive remains
only as replacing the -a of a-stem verbs.)

Thus, there are three methods of forming the present progressive active
subjunctive in Latin: the i-subjunctive, originally the Indo-European op-
tative, as seen in sum, esse; the e-subjunctive, which is the common
Indo-European subjunctive, as seen in do, dare; and the a-subjunctive,
proper to Latin, as seen in eo, ire. Later, it will be clear why Latin needed
this new a-subjunctive.

136
 26. DO, DARE, DEDI, DATUM AND THE DATIVE CASE

The Perfect System of do, dare

The perfect stem of do, dare is ded-. It is formed by an important morpho-
logical process called “reduplication.” This term describes the “doubling”
of the consonant that opens a root, together with some vowel between the
two consonants, as a prefix. Here, the consonant with which the verbal root
da- begins is “duplicated” and used, together with an -e, as a prefix: de-d-.
When reduplication occurs in the Latin perfect system, the vowel -e was
used to form the prefix. In this verb, the vowel -a of the root has been lost.
The formation of the perfect system is, as always, perfectly regular.

26.2 The Perfect System of do, dare

dedi dedisti dedit dedimus dedistis dederunt

ded-i ded-isti ded-it ded-imus ded-istis ded-erunt
dederam dederas dederat dederamus dederatis dederant
ded-era-m ded-era-s ded-era-t ded-era-mus ded-era-tis ded-era-nt
dedero dederis dederit dederimus dederitis dederint
ded-er-o ded-eri-s ded-eri-t ded-eri-mus ded-eri-tis ded-eri-nt
dederim dederis dederit dederimus dederitis dederint
ded-eri-m ded-eri-s ded-eri-t ded-eri-mus ded-eri-tis ded-eri-nt
dedissem dedisses dedisset dedissemus dedissetis dedissent
ded-isse-m ded-isse-s ded-isse-t ded-isse-mus ded-isse-tis ded-isse-nt

26.3 The Ten Stems of do, dare

da- (O) ded- (-ti-s; -eru-)

da-bā- ded-era-
da-bi- (IOU) ded-eri- (IO)
da/-e- ded-eri- (I)
da-re- ded-isse-

When we give the ten stems of a verb, we list the progressive stems
in one column and the perfect stems in the other. The five rows are the
present, past and future indicative, and the present and past subjunctive.
The progressive and perfect aspect stems are followed by hyphens and the
tense-mood formants. Mnemonic devices are given in parentheses: “(O)”

137
26. DO, DARE, DEDI, DATUM AND THE DATIVE CASE

means that the personal ending -o is used instead of -m: do rather than
dam. “(IOU)” means that the -i of -bi- is lost before -o and -u in the first
person singular and the third person plural: dabo, dabunt. “(IO)” means
the same except that the -i is kept and -u is not added in the third person
plural: dederint. “(I)” means that the -i is kept throughout: dederim, etc.

26.4 Verb Formation Compared: Progressive Systems of sum, eo, do

Present Progressive Active Indicative

es/su- (N) sum es est sumus estis sunt
i/e- (IOU) eo is it imus itis eunt
da- (O) do das dat damus datis dant

Past Progressive Active Indicative

-a formant eram eras erat eramus eratis erant
ibam ibas ibat ibamus ibatis ibant
-ba formant
dabam dabas dabat dabamus dabatis dabant

Future Progressive Active Indicative (IOU)

-i formant ero eris erit erimus eritis erunt
ibo ibis ibit ibimus ibitis ibunt
-bi formant
dabo dabis dabit dabimus dabitis dabunt

Present Progressive Active Subjunctive

-i formant sim sis sit simus sitis sint
-a formant eam eas eat eamus eatis eant
-e formant dem des det demus detis dent

Past Progressive Active Subjunctive

-se formant essem esses esset essemus essetis essent
(usually irem ires iret iremus iretis irent
rhotacised) darem dares daret daremus daretis darent

138
 26. DO, DARE, DEDI, DATUM AND THE DATIVE CASE

The Dative Case

Tables 26.5 and 26.6 provide examples of how the dative case is formed for
the various stems.

Formation of the Dative Singular

The following are some general rules for formation of the dative singular:

In the singular the dative case takes an -i ending, regardless of gender.

In a-stems this is written as an -e (so that it is not distinguishable

from the genitive singular or nominative plural).

In o-stems the -i ending is “swallowed” by the stem ending -o. In the

tables below, the ending is presented as struck through (thus: -i/) to
indicate that it would have been added but was lost.

In i-stems the ending contracts with the stem ending.

In neuter u-stems the -i ending is rejected, but it is usually retained

in masculine and feminine u-stems.

Formation of the Dative Plural

Before the time of extant Latin inscriptions and texts, the dative and ab-
lative had fused completely in the plural. Hence the dative plural for any
noun is exactly the same as its ablative plural.

Indirect Object
The dative case generally indicates the person to whose advantage some
action is done. Often this happens when there is no direct object of the verb:
cedere alicui (to yield to someone), servire alicui (to be a servant to someone
→ to serve someone). When the verb takes a direct object, the person to
whose advantage the action occurs is called the indirect object. The action
passes over into that person indirectly: Dat mihi librum (He gives me a
book, or He gives a book to me), Mitto tibi epistulam (I am sending you

139
26. DO, DARE, DEDI, DATUM AND THE DATIVE CASE

26.5 Masculine and Feminine Stems with Dative Singular

Stem Dative Sing. Stem Ending Stem Dative Sing.

acie- acie-i -e re- re-i
sensu- sensu-i -u effectu- effectu-i
loco- loco-i/ -o servo- servo-i/
puero- puero-i/ -ro quadro- quadro-i/
luna- luna-e -a terra- terra-e
duc- duc-i -c, -g reg- reg-i
laud- laud-i -d, -t nepot- nepot-i
caelib- caelib-i -b, -p op- op-i
sol- sol-i -l, -r amor- amor-i
flos- flor-i -s
bov- bov-i -v gru(u)- gru-i
hiem- hiem-i -m, -n leon- leon-i
turri- turri/-i -i tussi- tussi/-i
denti- denti/-i
imbri- imbri/-i -ri celeri- celeri/-i

26.6 Neuter Stems with Dative Singular

Stem Dative Sing. Vowel Stem Dative Sing.

cornu- cornu-i/ -u genu- genu-i/
capit- capit-i -t poemat- poemat-i
mell- mell-i -l, -r cadaver- cadaver-i
vas- vas-i -s oss- oss-i
nomin- nomin-i -n carmin- carmin-i
sedili- sedili/-i -i exemplari- exemplari/-i
aedificio- aedificio-i/ -o sepulchro- sepulchro-i/

a letter). It is possible that the advantage may be for some thing instead
of for some person: Dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti
(You will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath).
Other uses of the dative case are related to the notion of advantage.
For example, one specific kind of advantage is found in ownership, so that
the dative may signify possession: Est mihi magna domus (I have a big

140
 26. DO, DARE, DEDI, DATUM AND THE DATIVE CASE

house). One may also use the dative case to represent the person to whose
disadvantage some action occurs: repugnare alicui (to fight with someone).
These other uses of the dative case will be studied later.

141
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 26 Name____________________________________

Give the ten tense-mood stems of eo, ire, ii (ivi), itum and do, dare, dedi, datum.

eo, ire do, dare

What are the three ways of forming the present progressive subjunctive in Latin?

What is reduplication?

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
dant 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
dares 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
demus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
dedit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
dabitis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
dedissem 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
dabat 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
dederis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
damus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
dederant 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Which cases are the “oblique cases”?

What endings are used for the accusative singular? What endings are used for the accusative plural?

What endings are used for the dative singular? What endings are used for the dative plural?
Supply the requested forms.

Stem Dat. Sing. Dat. Plural Stem Dat. Sing. Dat. Plural
insula- f. bello- n.
terra- f. odio- n.
codic- m. nuntio- m.
reg- m. viro- m.
equit- m. error- m.
auri- f. decor- m.
arti- f. cines- m.
doti- f. sceles- n.
animali- n. sensu- m.
sol- m. actu- m.
bov- m./f. ornatu- m.
homin- m. cornu- n.
carmin- n. facie- f.
amico- m. re- f.
modo- m. die- m./f.

Identify the underlined nouns, adjectives, and noun/adjective combinations in the following prayers.

In nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti. Amen.

Gloria Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto, sicut erat in principio, et nunc et semper, et in saecula
saeculorum. Amen.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

nomine masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Patris masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Filii masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Spiritus masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Sancti
Gloria masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Patri masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Filio masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Spiritui masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Sancto
principio masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
saecula masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
saeculorum masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
27 fero, ferre, tuli, (t)latum

The very important Latin verb fero, ferre (together with the many com-
pounds formed from it) is from the Indo-European root bher-. (Recall that b
and f are both labials.) The English word “bear” is from the same root, and
these verbs share an important cluster of meanings. Further, many words
have come into English directly from the Latin verb. Many English verbs
of this sort are obvious from the -fer ending: “offer,” “suffer,” “proffer,”
“defer,” “prefer,” “differ,” and so on.
Though usually considered an “irregular” verb, fero, ferre is almost
perfectly regular, if a few fundamental principles are attended to. Since it
is a mixed verb, fero, ferre has more than one root. Like sum, esse, the
progressive system is formed from one root and the perfect system is taken
from another—tul-, the root of the verb tollo, tollere.
This verb has a great abundance of compounds. These compounds
are very important and should be learned very early. Knowledge of them
is likewise helpful toward better understanding the many English verbs
derived from them. A list of compounds to be learned is supplied. (MLWL
31)
Note that the active infinitive ending -se has suffered a change when
added to the root fer-. This cannot, however, result from rhotacism of
intervocalic -s. Rather, this is a process called assimilation. The com-
bination -rs is unstable in Latin words and rarely survives.1 Here the -s
assimilates to the -r. It thus produces an infinitive with a double -r. With
other roots, assimilation may occur with other letters.
The ten stems of fero, ferre are shown in Table 27.1 and discussed below.
1
Kent, Sounds 164.3.

143
27. FERO, FERRE, TULI, (T)LATUM

27.1 The Ten Stems of fero, ferre

fer- tul-i (-sti-s; -eru-)

fer-ēba- tul-era-
fer-e- (-am) tul-eri- (IO)
fer-a- tul-eri- (I)
fer-re- tul-isse-

Formation of the Progressive System of fero,

ferre
The basic formation of the present progressive active indicative involves
addition of personal endings to the root fer-, with the first person singular
taking -o. The second person ending is added immediately to the root
without any change: fer-s. The third person plural has introduced an -o
(theme vowel) which has corrupted to -u. The one unusual formation is
the introduction of the theme vowel -i between the root and the personal
ending in the first person plural.
The formation of the past progressive active indicative has one “irreg-
ularity,” an -e introduced in each part between the root and the past pro-
gressive formant.2 This will be the third (and last) way to form the past
progressive indicative: the -eba formant.
In the future progressive active indicative of fero, ferre a third manner
of forming the future progressive indicative is found. What occurs here is
not the introduction of an entirely new formant, however, but a borrow-
ing of two present progressive subjunctive formants—the e-subjunctive and
the a-subjunctive—on the principle that the present subjunctive regularly
takes on a future signification. In fero, ferre, the e-subjunctive developed
such a meaning, becoming the future progressive formant (fer-e-s, fer-e-t),
although the a-subjunctive is employed for the first person singular (fer-a-
m). (This peculiarity is indicated in the list of stems by writing -am after
the future progressive stem.)
Note two things carefully: (1) all verbs (except volo, velle and its com-
pounds) that use the ancient e-subjunctive to form the future progressive
2
Most likely this is evidence that this verb was once formed from a root lengthened
to fere-. (Kent 370.6, 381.1; but Palmer 266, 269.)

144
 27. FERO, FERRE, TULI, (T)LATUM

(with 1s a-subjunctive) also use the a-subjunctive to form the present sub-
junctive (but not the converse); and (2) an ambiguity arises in the first
person singular, since the first person future progressive active indicative
and the first person present progressive active subjunctive have the same
form (as will their passive counterparts). Only context can make clear which
verb is being used.
In the present progressive active subjunctive, the a-subjunctive is used.
In the past progressive active subjunctive, the formation is perfectly
regular. The past subjunctive formant -se is added to the root before the
personal endings, and the formant suffers assimilation. Again, one sees that
the infinitive can be conceived as the stem of this system.

27.2 The Progressive System of fero, ferre

fer-o fer-s fer-t fer-i -mus fer-tis fer-u-nt

fer-eba-m fer-eba-s fer-eba-t fer-eba-mus fer-eba-tis fer-eba-nt
fer-a-m fer-e-s fer-e-t fer-e-mus fer-e-tis fer-e-nt
fer-a-m fer-a-s fer-a-t fer-a-mus fer-a-tis fer-a-nt
fer-re-m fer-re-s fer-re-t fer-re-mus fer-re-tis fer-re-nt

Summary of Progressive Temporal Formants

With fero, ferre, then, we come to the third and final way of forming the
past progressive indicative. The first way is the -a formant (used by sum,
esse and its compounds), from which develops the second way—the -ba
formant—and the third way—the -eba formant.
With fero, ferre, we also are met with the third and final way of form-
ing the future progressive indicative. So, there is the -i formant, the -bi
formant, and the e-subjunctive (with 1s a-subjunctive).
The entire progressive system of fero, ferre is presented in Table 27.2.

Compounds of fero, ferre

Thirteen compounds of fero, ferre follow. Look up each in your dictionary
and see how the prefix adds to the basic meaning of this verb.

affero, afferre (ad +fero)

145
27. FERO, FERRE, TULI, (T)LATUM

aufero, auferre (ab+fero)

confero, conferre
defero, deferre
differo, differre (dis+fero)
effero, efferre (ex +fero)
infero, inferre
offero, offerre (ob+fero)
praefero, praeferre
profero, proferre
refero, referre
suffero, sufferre (sub+fero)
transfero, transferre

146
 27. FERO, FERRE, TULI, (T)LATUM

Vocabulary List 9

enim 4a
neque, nec 4
sı̄ (conj.) 4
dō, dare, dedı̄, datum [d-] 31
condō, condere, condidı̄, -ditum [dare] 32
crēdō, crēdere, crēdidı̄, crēditum [dare] 32
vendō, vendere, vendidı̄, -ditum [venum + dare] 32
ferō, ferre, tulı̄, (t)lātum [fer-] 31
adferō, adferre, attulı̄, allātum [fero] 31
auferō, auferre, abstulı̄, ablātum [fero] 31
cōnferō, -ferre, cōntulı̄, collātum [fero] 31
efferō, efferre, extulı̄, ēlātum [fero] 31
ı̄nferō, ı̄nferre, intulı̄, illātum [fero] 31
offerō, offerre, obtulı̄, oblātum [fero] 31
perferō, perferre, pertulı̄, perlātum [fero] 31
praeferō, -ferre, -tulı̄, praelātum [fero] 31
prōferō, prōferre, prōtulı̄, prōlātum [fero] 31
referō, referre, retulı̄, relātum [fero] 31
transferō, -ferre, transtulı̄, -lātum [fero] 31
ergō 37
nunc 37
semper 37
numquam 38
ōlim 38
sōlum 39

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word List
(MLWL).

147
27. FERO, FERRE, TULI, (T)LATUM

Notes on Vocabulary List 9 credo, credere combines the root of cor, cordis and
do, dare: “to put in the heart” → “to believe.” Many of the compounds of fero, ferre,
have prefixes that may stand alone as adverbs or prepositions; others may not. The
prefix ob-, as in offerre, means “towards, in front of, against.” It is found in many other
words, such as “obstacle” (from ob + stare, “what is standing in the way”), “obedience”
(from ob + audire, “to listen to”), “object” (from ob + iacere, “to throw against”),
“obligation” (from ob + ligare, “what is tied onto”), and so on. The principal parts of
offere also reveal the connection between the words “offering” and “oblation.” semper
has the root sa-, which is also written as sem- and sim- and means “ together, like.”
Related words are semel (“once”), simul (“together, at the same time”), similis (“like,
similar”), and simplex (“having a single layer, simple”).

148
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 27 Name____________________________________

Give the aspect stems for the following root verbs.

Principal Parts Progressive Stem Perfect Stem

sum, esse, fui, [futurum]
eo, ire, ii (ivi), itum
do, dare, dedi, datum
fero, ferre, tuli, [t]latum

Give the ten tense-mood stems of do, dare and fero, ferre.

do, dare fero, ferre

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
ferebatis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
feremus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
tulit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
ferrem 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
tulisses 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
feram 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
tuleris 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
ferunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

What are the three past progressive formants and how are they related?

Is the -e- future indicative formant of ferre the same as or different than the -e- present subjunctive formant of dare?
Explain.

fer-se → ferre. Explain.

Identify and translate the underlined nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the following passages. (You do not need to translate
them as they are used in context; translate the form.)

Si fieri posset, oculos vestros eruissetis et dedissetis mihi. (Gal. 4:15)

Noun/Adj. Stem Identification Translation

oculos masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
Verb Stem Identification Translation
dedissetis 1 /2 /3
st nd rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Mundamini qui fertis vasa Domini. (Is. 52:11)

Verb Stem Identification Translation

fertis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Neque egerunt paenitentiam ut darent illi gloriam. (Rev. 16:9)

Noun/Adj. Stem Identification Translation

paenitentiam masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
gloriam masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
Verb Stem Identification Translation
darent 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Misitque iuvenes de filiis Israel et obtulerunt holocausta. (Ex. 24:5)

Noun/Adj. Stem Identification Translation

iuvenes masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
filiis masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
holocausta holocausto- masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
Verb Stem Identification Translation
obtulerunt 1 /2 /3
st nd rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj

Terram autem dedit filiis hominum. (Ps. 113:24)

Noun/Adj. Stem Identification Translation

terram masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
filiis masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
hominum masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
Verb Stem Identification Translation
dedit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl prog/perf
pres/past/fut indic/subj
28 Voice, Progressive Passive System

Voice
Read CLS 14.4, 14.41, 14.42. In English, many (if not most) verbs
have two “voices”: active and passive. For example, in “the boy broke the
window,” the verb “break” is in the active voice, whereas, in “the window
was broken,” it is in the passive voice.1
In its fullest form, the active voice represents the action signified by
the verb as “coming forth” from the verb’s subject and terminating in
some object. The passive voice represents the action as in some way
“happening” in the verb’s subject in virtue of another. This difference
in voice obviously corresponds in some way to the categories of action and
passion, and these two voices take their names from those categories without
any immediate confusion.

The Progressive Passive System – R Passive

Latin uses a different set of personal endings to signify the passive voice
for progressive verbs. (The passive voice of perfect verbs will be considered
in the next chapter.) Most of the passive endings are modifications of the
active personal endings, caused by the introduction of the letter r. Hence,
this method of forming the passive voice is called the “R-passive.”

1
Clearly the English passive form was an “afterthought,” composed from other parts
of the English verb, namely the past participle—“broken”—and some form of the verb
“to be”—“was,” “has been,” “shall have been,” and so on.

149
28. VOICE, PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE SYSTEM

The passive endings are as follows.

-(o)r -re/-ris -tur -mur -mini -ntur

Note the following:

• Adding r requires the introduction of u in both third person endings.

• The first person singular ending is either -m or -o. The r replaces the
-m ending but it is added to -o: -o + r → -or.

• There are two second person singular endings. One of them, -ris, was
made by adding by adding r, but the vowel i was inserted instead of
u. Note that r was added before the active ending, whereas it was
added after the active ending elsewhere. The -re ending was formed
by a different process but still looks passive because of the presence
of an r.

• In the first person plural, r replaces the -s of the active ending: -mus
+ r → -mur.

• The second person plural ending also developed by a different process.

In fact, it is an old participle ending that was turned into a personal
ending. Thus, it neither is nor looks like an instance of the R-passive.

Table 28.1 shows, as a model, the passive forms of fero, ferre.2

Conversion of Active Voice into Passive

Voice
The active voice is found in its most pure form in “transitive” verbs, in which
the action is represented as coming forth from the subject and passing into
an object, i.e., into the direct object: “He threw the ball.” Such transitive
verbs usually have a passive voice as well. The passive voice has as its
2
Note that not all verbs perfectly follow the paradigm of fero, ferre. In many verbs
(root verbs or otherwise) ablaut occasionally occurs when adding the second person sin-
gular passive formants to certain tense-mood formants. For example, do, dare undergoes
ablaut in the future indicative (as do all ā-stem verbs): rather than da-bi-re and da-bi-ris
the form is da-be-ris and da-be-re. See LMP 33.1.

150
 28. VOICE, PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE SYSTEM

28.1 The Passive of fero, ferre

feror ferre fertur ferimur ferimini feruntur

ferris
ferebar ferebare ferebatur ferebamur ferebamini ferebantur
ferebaris
ferar ferere feretur feremur feremini ferentur
fereris
ferar ferare feratur feramur feramini ferantur
feraris
ferrer ferrere ferretur ferremur ferremini ferrentur
ferreris

subject what would have been the object of the active voice: “The ball was
thrown.” If the agent which performed the act is named in a sentence of
the passive voice, it will be part of a prepositional phrase. In English, the
preposition is usually “by”: “The ball was thrown by him.”
The following pairs of sentences are examples of converting active voice
verbs into passive voice verbs. Consider the difference between the meaning
of the initial sentence and that of the “converted” sentence:

Senatus dat nobis magnum exercitum. (nobis – to us)

Exercitus magnus nobis a senatu datur. (a senatu – by the senate)

Magister libros puero dabat. (puero – to the boy)

Libri puero a magistro dabantur. (a magistro – by the teacher)

Princeps diem festivum tribui dabit. (tribui – to the/his tribe)

Dies festivus tribui a principe dabitur. (a principe – by the prince)

Senatus det nobis duas naves.

A senatu duae naves nobis dentur. (a senatu – by the senate)

Sol nobis lucem et calorem daret.

Lux et calor nobis darentur a sole. (a sole – by the sun)

151
28. VOICE, PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE SYSTEM

Comparison of the Active and Passive

Constructions of Do, Dare
The sentences given above also exemplify the following rules for active and
passive construction with the verb do, dare:

1. Only the thing given can be the subject of the passive form of do,
dare. The one to whom something is given cannot be the subject of
such a verb, although this is possible in English: “I was given this
book recently.”

2. The thing given is the direct object of the active forms of the verb do,
dare and is therefore in the accusative case. When it is the subject
of a passive verb, it must be put into the nominative case. (The verb
must agree with the new nominative!)

3. The giver is the subject of the active forms of this verb. In passive
constructions, the giver, if mentioned, must be introduced in a prepo-
sitional phrase. The preposition ab (a, abs) with the ablative case
indicates the giver. This is called the “ablative of agent.” See CLS
8.13.

4. The one to whom something is given, the indirect object, is found in

the dative case in Latin. (The case is named from this verb.) This
will be true with both the active and the passive construction. See
CLS 9.12.

152
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 28 Name____________________________________

Supply the requested verb endings.

Personal Perfect Passive

1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Sg.
Pl.

Give the passive progressive forms of do, dare and fero, ferre.

do, dare, dedi, datum fero, ferre, tuli, [t]latum

Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl.

Present
Indicative

Past
Indicative

Future
Indicative

Present
Subjunctive

Past
Subjunctive

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
damur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
daretur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
ferar 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
demini 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
daberis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
ferrentur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
How does the active voice represent an action?

How does the passive voice represent an action?

Convert the sentences with active voice verbs into sentences with passive voice verbs.

Hic fert fructum multum. (Jn. 15:5) [the ablative form of “hic” is “hoc”]

Ferant confestim confusionem suam. (Ps. 39:6) [“confestim” is an adverb]

Dabimus vobis donationes. (I Macc. 10:28) [the implied subject is “nos”; its ablative is “nobis”]

Identify and translate the underlined verbs in the following passages. (You do not need to translate them as they are used
in context; translate the form.)

Septuplum ultio dabitur de Cain; de Lamech vero septuagies septies. (Gen. 4:24)

Verb Stem Identification Translation

dabitur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Cumque arrepta esset navis, et non posset conari in ventum, data nave flatibus, ferebamur. (Acts
27:15)
Verb Stem Identification Translation
ferebamur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Dixitque Adam : Mulier, quam dedisti mihi sociam, dedit mihi de ligno, et comedi. (Gen. 3:12)
Verb Stem Identification Translation
dedisti 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Ivimus ad castra Syriae et nullum ibidem repperimus hominum. (2 Kings 7:10)

Verb Stem Identification Translation

Ivimus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Hostiae impiorum abominabiles, quia offeruntur ex scelere. (Prov. 21:27)

Verb Stem Identification Translation
offeruntur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
29 The Middle Voice and Deponent
Verbs, Perfect Passive System

The Middle Voice and Deponent Verbs

Read CLS 14.43, 14.44. The passive form of a Latin verb is subject to
two uses: it can signify the true passive sense, or it can signify a very distinct
middle sense (Latin having no distinct formant to signify the middle voice).
This is very clear, for example, in the verb fero, ferre, whose passive forms
can be used to signify either the passive sense “is carried” (or “is borne”) or
the middle sense “goes.” Compare “Gladii a servis feruntur ” (“The swords
are being carried by the slaves”) with “Astra in circulo feruntur ” (“The
stars go in a circle”).
There is a relatively small group of verbs in Latin that signifies the mid-
dle voice in a particularly noteworthy way. The verbs of this group are
called “deponent verbs.” Deponent verbs use passive forms to signify
(generally) middle voice, and they lack active forms altogether. Because
deponent verbs employ only passive forms, their dictionary entries are no-
ticeably different from those of all other Latin verbs. They have only three
principal parts: 1) the first person singular present progressive passive in-
dicative, 2) the progressive passive infinitive, and 3) the first person singular
present perfect passive indicative. For example:

conor, conari, conatus sum

fateor, fateri, fassus sum
loquor, loqui, locutus sum

153
29. MIDDLE VOICE AND DEPONENTS, PERFECT PASSIVE

patior, pati, passus sum

orior, oriri, ortus sum

You have seen how to form the first of these principal parts in Chap-
ter 28. The formation of the second and third of these principal parts—the
progressive passive infinitive and the perfect passive system—is given in the
sections that follow.

The Progressive Passive Infinitive

The formation of the progressive passive infinitive is simple. The formant
-ri is added to the progressive stem,1 as in fer-ri.2 The sense is “to be
carried” (or, in the middle voice, “to go”).
The passive infinitives of other verbs you have learned are dari and, for
some compounds of eo, ire, -iri. So dari means “to be given,” while transiri
means “to be passed over.”
Consider the progressive passive infinitive in the following passages taken
from Saint Thomas Aquinas and Saint Augustine:

In creatione mundi spiritus domini [dicitur] primo super aquas

ferri.
In the creation of the world, the spirit of the Lord is said first
to be borne [or, “to move”] over the waters.
Infinitum non potest transiri nec a finito, nec ab infinito.
The infinite cannot be passed over, neither by something finite
nor by something infinite.
Propter memoriam, quae infida custos est excogitatorum, referri
in litteras uolui, quod inter nos saepe pertractauimus.
Because of memory, which is an unfaithful guard of things thought
out, I wanted what we often treated between us to be referred
to writing.
1
This is true of most classes of Latin verbs, but not of all. See LMP 40.
2
Its development, however, is complex. In some verbs, the -e of the active infinitive
is at some point replaced by an -i ending (thus, ferri ). In other verbs, an -s- was added
to the stem to produce a verbal noun and an -i was added to this noun to produce the
infinitive. With rhotacism, these infinitives also end in -ri. (Kent 413)

154
 29. MIDDLE VOICE AND DEPONENTS, PERFECT PASSIVE

Passiones quaedam sunt materiales transmutationes et ideo non

possunt transferri in deum, nisi per similitudinem, sicut ira.
Some passions are material transmutations and so they cannot
be transferred to God, except through a likeness, as anger.

The Perfect Passive System

The perfect passive system is formed in one way for all Latin verbs: it is a
compound of the perfect participle and the appropriate progressive form of
sum, esse.
The perfect participle is an o-/a-stem adjective, and thus as a part of the
perfect passive form it must be inflected (i.e., given case endings) to agree
with the subject in gender, number, and case. (Note that when the subject
includes both men and women the participle is formed in the masculine.)
Table 29.1 shows, as a model, the perfect passive system of do, dare.3

29.1 The Perfect Passive System of do, dare

Singular
dato-/a- sum dato-/a- es dato-/a- est
dato-/a- eram dato-/a- eras dato-/a- erat
dato-/a- ero dato-/a- eris dato-/a- erit
dato-/a- sim dato-/a- sis dato-/a- sit
dato-/a- essem dato-/a- esses dato-/a- esset
Plural
dato-/a- sumus dato-/a- estis dato-/a- sunt
dato-/a- eramus dato-/a- eratis dato-/a- erant
dato-/a- erimus dato-/a- eritis dato-/a- erunt
dato-/a- simus dato-/a- sitis dato-/a- sint
dato-/a- essemus dato-/a- essetis dato-/a- essent

The person, number, tense and mood of the perfect passive verb are all
determined by the corresponding attributes of the form of sum, esse. So,
the present perfect passive indicative is formed with the present progressive
3
For the perfect passive forms of root verbs, see LMP 33.2.

155
29. MIDDLE VOICE AND DEPONENTS, PERFECT PASSIVE

indicative of sum, esse: e.g., datum est, data sunt (“it has been given,”
“they have been given”); the past perfect passive indicative is formed with
the past progressive indicative of sum, esse: e.g., datum erat, data erant
(“it had been given,” “they had been given”); and so on for the rest of the
tense-mood forms.
Do, dare and fero, ferre each have complete passive systems in the
perfect. Eo, ire does not use a complete passive system, because of its
meaning, but some of its compounds have a complete passive system.4 The
third person passive of eo, ire is sometimes used in a manner to be examined
later.

4
Whence LMP 33.2 introduces these forms with a hyphen.

156
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 29 Name____________________________________

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
ferebatur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
dabar 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
feremini 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
demur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
daremini 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
feraris 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
dantur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
ferimur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Identify the following verb forms.

Verb Dictionary Entry Stem Identification

dati erunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
data eras 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
latae sitis 1 /2 /3
st nd rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
datum est 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
lata sunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
lati essemus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
datus ero 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
datae simus 1 /2 /3
st nd rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

How does the middle voice represent an action?

What is a deponent verb?

How is the progressive active infinitive formed?

How is the progressive passive infinitive formed?

In the following passage, twelve nouns or noun/adjective combinations have been taken out. Supply the missing words
according to the information given.

Te (1) laudamus: te (2) confitemur. Te (3) (4) veneratur. Tibi (5); tibi (6) et (7); Tibi Cherubim et
Seraphim (8) proclamant: “Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus, Dominus Deus Sabaoth.” (9b) sunt (9a) et
(10) (11) (12).

Noun Meaning Gender Adjective Inflected Form

Stem Stem
1 deo- acc. sg.:
2 domino- acc. sg.:
3 patr- aeterno/a- acc. sg.:
4 terra- omni- nom. sg.:
5 angelo- omni- nom. pl.:
6 caelo- m. nom. pl:
7 potestat- power universo/a- nom. pl.
8 voc- incessabili- abl. sg.:
9 caelo- m. pleno/a- nom. pl.:
10 terra- nom. sg.:
11 maiestat- majesty gen. sg.:
12 gloria- tuo/a- gen. sg.:

Identify the underlined verbs below as having passive (P) or middle (M) force.

Et terror vester ac tremor sit super cuncta animalia terrae et super omnes volucres caeli cum
universis quae moventur in terra. (Gen. 9:2)
The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth and upon every bird of the
heavens, upon everything that [P: is moved / M: creeps] on the ground.

Et nuntiaverunt domui David dicentes, “Requievit Syria super Ephraim,” et commotum est cor
eius et cor populi eius, sicut moventur ligna silvarum a facie venti. (Is. 7:2)
When the house of David was told, “Syria is in league with Ephraim,” the heart of Ahaz and the heart of his
people [P: was shaken / M: shook] as the trees of the forest [P: are shaken / M: shake]
[by / before] the wind.

Quidquid movetur ab alio movetur.

Whatever [P: is moved / M: moves] [P: is moved / M: moves] by another.

St. Augustine defines a sign as “a thing which, over and above the impression it makes on the senses, causes something
else to come into the mind as a consequence of itself.” The Latin verb “ferret” makes the same impression on our sense of
sight as the English noun “ferret”. What else does the Latin word cause to come into the mind?
30 possum, posse, potui ;
Complementary Infinitive

By far the most important compound formed from the verb sum, esse is
possum, posse. The prefix used in this verb is (by a slight simplification)1
the indeclinable neuter adjective pote. This adjective means “able” and so
the compound verb means “is able” or “can.” Note that throughout the
conjugation of this verb, elision—the loss of a vowel sound—occurs.

The Progressive System

In the progressive system the adjective is added to the progressive forms
of sum, esse. Thus pote es → potes and pote est → potest. Sometimes
elision brings about assimilation: pote sum → potsum → possum. Further,
the infinitive has a complex formation: pote esse → potesse → posse.
Four of the five progressive systems need little explanation. These are
the three indicative tenses and the present subjunctive. In every case the ad-
jective pote was joined to the finite forms of sum, esse. Elision—dropping
some letter as two words or syllables come together—makes this equivalent
to adding the prefix pot-. Assimilation occurs whenever the finite form of
sum, esse begins with the letter s, since the dental t is unstable before s.
1
In fact, the verb arose from the use of both the masculine/feminine form potis and
the neuter form pote. The form used depended upon the gender of the subject. The
contraction from potis often involves an additional step: potis sum → potisum → potsum
→ possum; potis sim → potisim → potsim → possim. Most likely some forms distinct
in gender existed together until the forms became completely regular.

157
30. POSSUM, POSSE, POTUI ; COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE

The past progressive active subjunctive, like the infinitive, has a similar,
but more complex, formation. Here the adjective was joined to forms such
as essem. This resulted by elision in a compound such as potessem, but
this suffered further elision and thus assimilation: possem.

30.1 The Progressive System of possum, posse

possum potes potest possumus potestis possunt

poteram poteras poterat poteramus poteratis poterant
potero poteris poterit poterimus poteritis poterunt
possim possis possit possimus possitis possint
possem posses posset possemus possetis possent

The Perfect System

In the perfect system the adjective is joined to the perfect forms of sum,
esse. The -e of the adjective elides and the f- of the verbal root of sum,
esse is lost: pote fui → potfui → potui. Since the perfect stems of sum, esse
all begin with f-, the contraction is everywhere uniform. This is clear from
the stems listed below. The perfect infinitive is potuisse.

30.2 The Ten Stems of possum, posse

pos-s-u- (N) / pot-es- potu- (-sti-s; -eru-)

pot-er-a- potu-era-
pot-er-i- (IOU) potu-eri- (IO)
pos-s-i- potu-eri- (I)
pos-e/s/-se- potu-isse-

Possum with a Complementary Infinitive

Read CLS 15, 15.1, 15.12. Sometimes the verb possum, posse is used
absolutely, without a complement, to signify is able to do or is powerful.

Plus potest qui plus valet. He who is stronger is more able.

158
 30. POSSUM, POSSE, POTUI ; COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE

But far more often this verb is completed with an infinitive. Such an
infinitive is called a “complementary infinitive” or again a “prolative infini-
tive.”2 In contemporary English, the verb “can” is never used without a
complementary infinitive, explicit or implicit. The adjective “able” may be
used in this manner: “He is certainly able.”

Possum ire. I can go.

Potest ferri. (ferri is the passive infinitive of fero.) It can move,
It can be moved.3
Possim bovem ferre. I might be able to carry the ox.
Potuı́sses bovem mihi dare? Could you have given me an ox?
Bos ire póterit in agrum. The ox will be able to go into the
field.
Ánimal pótuit esse bos. The animal could have been an ox.

2
“Prolative,” like “complementary,” refers to the act of completing the predication.
3
Further complements are possible: an accusative object, a dative indirect object, a
prepositional phrase, or even a predicate nominative or adjective.

159
30. POSSUM, POSSE, POTUI ; COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE

Vocabulary List 10

inquam, inquit (def. verb) 30a

possum, posse, potuı̄, — [sum] 31
volō, velle, voluı̄, — [vel-, vol-] 31
nōlō, nōlle, nōluı̄ [volo] 31
mālō, mālle, māluı̄, — [volo] 31
fiō, fierı̄, factus sum [fi-] 31
pellō, pellere, pepulı̄, pulsum [pel-] 32
tendō, tendere, tetendı̄, tentum/tensum [ta-] 32
stō, stāre, stētı̄, statum [st-] 34
cōnstō, -stāre, cōnstitı̄, (-stātūm) [sto] 34
praestō, -āre, praestitı̄, praestitum [sto] 34
sistō, sistere, stitı̄, statum [sto] 32
cōnsistō, -sistere, cōnstitı̄, — [sto] 32
capiō, capere, cēpı̄, captum [cap-] 33
dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvı̄, dēlētum [li-] 35
iubeō, iubēre, iussı̄, iussum [iub-] 35
maneō, -ēre, mānsı̄, mānsum [man-] 35
remaneō, -ēre, -mānsı̄, -mānsum [maneo] 35
persuādeō, -ēre, persuāsı̄, -sum [suad-] 35
rideō, ridēre, rı̄sı̄, rı̄sum 35
subrideō, -ēre, subrı̄sı̄, subrı̄sum [rideo] 35
sentiō, sentı̄re, sēnsı̄, sēnsum [sent-] 36
reperiō, -ı̄re, repperı̄, repertum [pario] 36

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word List
(MLWL).

160
 30. POSSUM, POSSE, POTUI ; COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE

Notes on Vocabulary List 10 The root of volo is vol-, vel-, or ver-, which means “to
perceive, watch out for.” English cognates include “wary,” “aware,” “lord,” “steward,”
“warden,” “award,” “reward,” “guard” and “panorama.” pello comes from the root
pel-, which is also found in the forms pal-, pul- and even spar-. Related words are pollen
(“fine flour”), pulvis (“dust”), populus (“army, people”) and parcere (“to use moderately,
spare”). Some English cognates are “spare,” “spear,” “spur” and “spurn.” tendo has
the root ta- or ten-, which means “to stretch.” Related words are tabula (“table”), teneo
(“to hold”), tenuis (“thin”), contendo, tempto (“to feel, test”), ostendo (“to stretch
forth, show”), and even tempus (“a stretch of time, time”). deleo comes from the root
li-, which means “to pour, smear.” Other Latin words that share the same root are linea,
littera, and litus. The English word “lime” is a cognate.

161
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 30 Name____________________________________

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
poteramus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
poteris 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
potuit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
possunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
possent 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
potuerim 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
possim 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
poterunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
potuerunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
possemus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
possimus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

What is elision and in which stem of posse is the root lost by elision?

Complete the chart. The verbs in each row should be the same in person, number, tense, and mood.

Progressive Perfect
Active Passive Active Passive
fers
tulerat
feremur
latus sit
ferrem

The underlined verb in the following sentence is passive in form but is not translated by a passive verb in English. Does it
have a middle force? Explain.

Occurrit illi vir quidam qui habebat daemonium iam temporibus multis, et vestimento non
induebatur, neque in domo manebat sed in monumentis. (Lk. 8:27)
There met him a man from the city who had demons. For a long time he had worn no clothes, and he had
not lived in a house but among the tombs.
Identify the underlined nouns, adjectives, and noun/adjective combinations.

Glória in excélsis Deo/ et in terra pax homínibus bonae voluntátis./ Laudámus te,/ benedícimus
te,/ adorámus te,/ glorificámus te,/ grátias ágimus tibi propter magnam glóriam tuam.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

Gloria masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
excelsis excelso/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Deo masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
terra masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
pax masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
hominibus masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
bonae masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
voluntatis
magnam
gloriam masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
tuam

Identify and translate the underlined verbs in the following passages. (Translate the form.)

Ita ut nihil vobis desit in ulla gratia expectantibus revelationem Domini nostri Iesu Christi. (I Cor.
1:7)

Verb Stem Identification Translation

desit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Desertus est locus hic et iam hora praeterivit. (Mk. 6:35)

Verb Stem Identification Translation
praeterivit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Venit autem Deus ad Abimelech per somnium noctis et ait ei: “En, morieris propter mulierem
quam tulisti: habet enim virum.” (Gen. 20:3)
Verb Stem Identification Translation
tulisti 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Memento quoniam nisi per illos non fuisses, et retribue illis quomodo et illi tibi. (Sir. 7:30)

Verb Stem Identification Translation

fuisses 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Et factum est dum benediceret illis, recessit ab eis et ferebatur in caelum. (Lk. 24:51)

Verb Stem Identification Translation

ferebatur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
31 volo, nolo, malo;
Accusative-Infinitive Construction

Three Latin verbs related to the English verb “to will” must now be exam-
ined. The first is the verb volo, velle, and the other two are compounds of
volo, velle. Note that these verbs do not have any passive systems.

31.1 The Ten Stems of volo; nolo; malo

volo, velle, volui nolo, nolle, nolui malo, malle, malui

vol-u- (N) /vul- (vis) nol-u- (N) (non vis) mal-u- (N) (ma-vis)
vol-ēbā- nol-ēbā- mal-ēbā-
vol-ē- (-am) nol-ē- (-am) mal-ē- (-am)
vel-i- nol-i- mal-i-
vel-le- nol-le- mal-le-
volu-i- (-sti-s; -eru-) nolu-i- (-sti-s; -eru-) malu-i- (-sti-s; -eru-)
volu-era- nolu-era- malu-era-
volu-eri- (IO) nolu-eri- (IO) malu-eri- (IO)
volu-eri- (I) nolu-eri- (I) malu-eri- (I)
volu-isse- nolu-isse- malu-isse-

volo, velle, volui

Table 31.2 makes clear that in the progressive system the stem shifts be-
tween the normal grade of the root (vel-) and the full or O-grade (vol-).

163
31. VOLO, NOLO, MALO

(The O-grade is not the zero grade, but the grade that “raises” the root
to an “o” or “u” sound.) The subjunctive forms use the normal grade, the
indicative forms use the O-grade.
A true anomaly in this verb is the second person singular present pro-
gressive active indicative: vis.1 This form is derived from another root, vi-,
related to the Latin noun vis, vis and thus to the English words “vim” and
“violence.”

31.2 The Progressive System of volo, velle, volui

vol-o vi -s vul-t vol-umus vul-tis/vol-tis vol-unt

vol-eba-m vol-eba-s vol-eba-t vol-eba-mus vol-eba-tis vol-eba-nt
vol-a-m vol-e-s vol-e-t vol-e-mus vol-e-tis vol-e-nt
vel-i-m vel-i-s vel-i-t vel-i-mus vel-i-tis vel-i-nt
vel-le-m vel-le-s vel-le-t vel-le-mus vel-le-tis vel-le-nt

The formation of these systems should be familiar. Note that in the

present progressive active indicative the -o corrupts to -u in several
cases. In addition, the nasal endings -mus and -nt demand the -o
theme vowel, which corrupts to -u.

The past progressive active indicative takes the -eba formant, just as
fero, ferre did.

The future progressive active indicative uses the e-subjunctive, but

the a-subjunctive in the first person singular.

The present progressive active subjunctive is an i-subjunctive, like

sum, esse and its compounds. Only sum, esse and volo, velle (with
their compounds) use the i-subjunctive.

The past progressive active subjunctive (and the progressive active

infinitive) takes the -se formant with assimilation.
1
Palmer, The Latin Language, 269.

164
 31. VOLO, NOLO, MALO

volo, velle with Complementary Infinitive

Read CLS 15.12. Two constructions with volo, velle are particularly
common. The first of these is the use of the progressive infinitive, active or
passive, as its complement.

Exire ex urbe . . . volo. I want to go out of the city. (Plautus)

Vos liberi esse vultis. You want to be free.

volo, velle with Accusative-Infinitive Construction

Read CLS 7.23, 7.24, 7.25. The second construction is more complex.
Here the complement of the finite verb has two parts: an accusative and
an infinitive. This construction is the object of the verb “as a whole”; the
subject of the finite verb wishes that what is represented by the accusative
do or have done to him what is represented by the infinitive. For example:

Hoc volo scire te. I want you to know this. (Plautus)

Me vı́vere vis. You wish me to live. (Horace)
Iúdicem esse me, non doctórem, volo.
I want (myself) to be a judge, not a teacher. (Cicero)

nolo, nolle, nolui

An important compound from volo, velle is nolo, nolle. In this compound
the adverb non has contracted with volo. This is much like our contractions:
“do not” → “don’t”; “will not” → “won’t.” But in Latin the negative
adverb occurs before the verb and there is no apostrophe mark of the missing
letters. The English verb “nill,” used in the phrase “willy-nilly,” is derived
from this Latin verb through French. Note that in three forms of the present
progressive active indicative the contraction did not occur.

nolo, nolle with Complementary Infinitive

Exı́re ex urbe . . . volo. Esse in urbe nolo.
I want to go out of the city. I do not want to be in the city.

165
31. VOLO, NOLO, MALO

31.3 The Progressive System of nolo, nolle, nolui

non vult non vultis

nol-o non vis nol-umus nol-unt
non volt non voltis
nol-eba-m nol-eba-s nol-eba-t nol-eba-mus nol-eba-tis nol-eba-nt
nol-a-m nol-e-s nol-e-t nol-e-mus nol-e-tis nol-e-nt
nol-i-m nol-i-s nol-i-t nol-i-mus nol-i-tis nol-i-nt
nol-le-m nol-le-s nol-le-t nol-le-mus nol-le-tis nol-le-nt

Vos lı́beri esse vultis. Servi esse non vultis.

You want to be free. You do not want to be slaves.

nolo, nolle with Accusative-Infinitive Construction

Me vı́vere vis. Me vı́vere nolunt.
You want me to live. They do not want me to live.
Iúdicem esse me volo. Doctórem esse me nolo.
I want (myself) to be a judge. I do not want (myself) to be a
teacher.

nolo, nolle with Negations

Note how the introduction of a negative adverb affects nolo, nolle. In the
first sentence below, the double negative has a positive force; in the second,
the act of will and the object willed are each negated.

Non nolunt. They are not unwilling. → They do not object.

Eum non vivere nolo. I do not wish him not to live.

malo, malle, malui

The compound malo, malle is a contraction of the adverb magis, (“more,”)
with volo, velle. It means to “like better,” “prefer,” “choose rather.” Here
all forms exhibit contraction. But the three forms that do not exhibit
contraction in nolo, nolle exhibit less contraction here. In these three forms,
there is some loss to the adverb but not to the verb: mavis, mavult (mavolt),
mavultis (mavoltis).

166
 31. VOLO, NOLO, MALO

31.4 The Progressive System of malo, malle, malui

mavul-t mavul-tis
mal-o mavi-s mal-umus mal-unt
mavol-t mavol-tis
mal-eba-m mal-eba-s mal-eba-t mal-eba-mus mal-eba-tis mal-eba-nt
mal-a-m mal-e-s mal-e-t mal-e-mus mal-e-tis mal-e-nt
mal-i-m mal-i-s mal-i-t mal-i-mus mal-i-tis mal-i-nt
mal-le-m mal-le-s mal-le-t mal-le-mus mal-le-tis mal-le-nt

malo, malle with Complementary Infinitive

The two infinitive constructions so common with volo, velle are used with
malo, malle as well.

Vivere malim. I would rather live.

malo, malle with Accusative-Infinitive Construction

Te vivere malo. I prefer that you live.

malo, malle with Accusative

More common is the simple use of an accusative as the complement.

Bonos et senátum malet. He will prefer good men and the sen-
ate. (Cicero)

malo, malle with quam

The common form of representing what is less desired is the use of the
adverb quam. In this case what is desired less takes the same construction
as what is preferred.

Bonos malet quam malos.

He will like the good men better than he likes the bad ones.
Malébat hómines peccáre quam deos.
He used to prefer that men sin rather than the gods. (Cicero)
He was willing that men should sin rather than that gods should
sin.

167
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 31 Name____________________________________

Provide the ten stems of volo, nolo, and malo (LMP 32.2).

volo, velle, volui, —— nolo, nolle, nolui, —— malo, malle, malui, ——

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
volumus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
volent 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
vellem 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
volo 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
velit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
vult 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
nolebas 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
mavis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
malitis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
mavoltis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
volunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

What are the endings for the dative case? Note where the neuter differs from the masculine and feminine.

UNIVERSAL a-stem o-stem e-stem u-stem C stem i-stem

Sing.
Pl.

Put each of the following nouns into the dative case.

terra- angelo- die- fructu- leon- civi-

Sing.
Pl.
Analyze and identify the verbs that appear in the following sentences.

Et dixit ad socerum: “Quid est quod facere voluisti?” (Gen. 29:25)

He said to his daughter-in-law, “What is it you wished to do?”

Innuebant autem patri eius quem vellet vocari eum. (Lk. 1:62)
They asked the father what he wished him to be called.

Sed quocumque pergere voluissent, manus Domini erat super eos. (Judg. 2:15)
But wherever they wished to go, the hand of the Lord was over them.

Ioseph autem vir eius cum esset iustus et nollet eam traducere voluit occulte dimittere eam. (Mt.
1:19)
But because he was a just man and did not wish to betray her, Joseph wished to send her away secretly.

Sed dico vobis quia et Helias venit et fecerunt illi quaecumque voluerunt. (Mk. 9:12)
But I say to you that Elijah has come and they did to him whatever they wished.

Et misit servos suos vocare invitatos ad nuptias et nolebant venire. (Mt. 22:3)
And he sent his servants to call those invited to the wedding feast, and they did not wish to come.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
voluisti 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
vellet 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
voluissent 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
nollet 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
voluit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
voluerunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
nolebant 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Circle the complementary infinitives—both in English and Latin—used with velle or nolle in the sentences above.

Identify whether the underlined subordinate clauses are acting as nouns (N), adjectives (ADJ), or adverbs (ADV).

______ They asked the father what he wished him to be called. (Lk. 1:62)
______ But because he was a just man and did not wish to betray her, Joseph wished to send her
away secretly. (Mt. 1:19)
______ And he sent his servants to call those who were invited to the wedding feast, and they did
not wish to come. (Mt. 22:3)

What is reduplication?
32 Remaining Root Verbs

fio, fieri
The verb fio, fieri has the root fi-, which serves as the stem for the present
progressive active indicative. It means “to become” and “to be made.”
Several peculiarities demand attention.

1. The verb is from the same root from which the -ba- and -bi- formants
were derived, a root that also shows up in the perfect forms of sum,
esse: e.g., fuit, fuerunt. Whereas fui uses the O-grade of the root,
fio, fieri uses the normal grade of the root, which is fi-. This verb
preserves the original sense of the root and thus represents the act of
“becoming” or “being made.”

2. Apparently the verb’s meaning suggested that its second principal

part, fieri, should be a passive infinitive in form, although the finite
forms of the verb are all active.

3. The verb fio, fieri has no passive system, despite the passive form of
the infinitive.

4. Furthermore, it has no perfect system of its own. Rather, its perfect

system is replaced by the perfect passive system of the verb facio,
facere (“to make”).

5. In keeping with this, fio, fieri replaces the progressive passive system
of facio, facere.

169
32. REMAINING ROOT VERBS

32.1 The Progressive System of fio, fieri

fi-o fi-s fi-t fi-mus fi-tis fi-unt

fi-eba-m fi-eba-s fi-eba-t fi-eba-mus fi-eba-tis fi-eba-nt
fi-a-m fi-e-s fi-e-t fi-e-mus fi-e-tis fi-e-nt
fi-a-m fi-a-s fi-a-t fi-a-mus fi-a-tis fi-a-nt
fi-ere-m fi-ere-s fi-ere-t fi-ere-mus fi-ere-tis fi-ere-nt

The conjugation of fio, fieri displays formations that are already familiar
(with one small exception).
The entire indicative system uses familiar patterns. In the past pro-
gressive indicative the stem takes the -eba formant. The future progressive
indicative uses the e-subjunctive (with the a-subjunctive in the first person
singular).
In the subjunctive system, the present progressive is an ordinary a-
subjunctive, but the past progressive takes an -e before the rhotacised -se
subjunctive formant. (This system shows that the “rule” that the infinitive
is the past progressive subjunctive stem results from an accidental likeness.)
Note that fio, fieri can be a linking verb or copula. It can therefore be
completed by a predicate nominative or predicate adjective: Petrus iratus
fiat. A passive form—fitur —is sometimes used: “becoming has occurred.”1

inquam
The following forms are almost all that remain of a verb that means “to
say.” Most common are inquam and inquit. These are used parenthetically,
and so they do not disturb the syntax of the sentence. Sometimes inquam
(“I say”) is used to emphasize a particular word. Inquiunt is sometimes
used with an indefinite subject: “They say.”

Aqua simplex, inquit, et eleméntum est.

Water, he says, is simple and is an element.
Aqua, inquam, partes habet et eleméntum non est.
Water, I say, has parts and is not an element.

1
Woodcock 60.

170
 32. REMAINING ROOT VERBS

32.2 Personal Endings with inquam

inquam inquis inquit inquimus inquitis inquiunt

edo, ēsse (edere), ēdi, esum

The root of this verb, ed-, is related to the English “eat” and has the same
meaning. The “zero-grade” of this root, d-, is found in the noun d-ens,
d-entis, which originated as a participle (“eating”). The verb has many
peculiarities.
This verb does not possess a complete passive system. Only two pas-
sive forms exist: es-tur (third person singular, present progressive, passive
indicative) and ēssētur (third person singular, past progressive, passive sub-
junctive).
The first principal part adds a standard first person singular ending to
the root.
When the second principal part adds the progressive active infinitive
formant -se, the root ending -d assimilates to the -s of the formant: ēsse.2
This produces a form that is usually indistinguishable from the progressive
active infinitive of sum, esse, for they differ only by the length of the e- in
the root, unmarked in most texts. Context should make the verb clear.
In the present progressive active indicative, the -d of the root often
becomes an -s. Some forms preserve the root.3

32.3 The Progressive System of edo, ēsse (edere)

edo ēs ēst edi mus ēstis edunt

edebam edebas edebat edebamus edebatis edebant
edam edes edet edemus edetis edent
edam edās edat edāmus edātis edant
ēssem ēsses ēsset ēssemus ēssetis ēssent

The past and future progressive indicative are medieval in origin. The
past uses the -eba formant. The future uses the e-subjunctive with the
2
A “3rd conjugation” form of the infinitive developed: ede-se → edere.
3
Some “3rd conjugation” forms also developed here: edis, editis.

171
32. REMAINING ROOT VERBS

a-subjunctive for the first person singular.

The present progressive active subjunctive usually uses an a-subjunctive.
Sometimes, however, older i-subjunctive forms occur.
In the original past progressive active subjunctive, the root assimilates
to the -se formant for the subjunctive, as in the infinitive.4 Here too, if
vowel length is not indicated, the verb cannot be distinguished from the
past progressive active subjunctive of sum, esse, except by context.

32.4 The Tense-Mood Stems of edo and fio

edo, ēsse, ēdi, esum fio, fieri, factus sum

ed- (OIU) fi- (6IOU)
ed-ēba- fi-ēba-
ed-ē- (-am) fi-e- (-am)
ed-a-; ed-i- fi-a-
ēs-se-; ede-re- fi-ere-
ēd-i- (-sti-s; -eru-)
ēd-era-
ēd-eri- (IO)
ēd-eri- (I)
ēd-isse-

Memorizing the Root Verbs

Table 32.5 presents the ten root verbs in two columns according to an order
that may be helpful in committing them to memory.

• Those on the left are two verbs—sum, esse and volo, velle—along with
their compounds; those on the right begin with consecutive letters of
the alphabet: one begins with d-, two with e-, two with f-.

• Present Progressive Subjunctive: Those on the left use the i-subjunctive.

On the right, the first uses the e-subjunctive and the remaining use
the a-subjunctive.
4
Here too a “3rd conjugation” form arose: ederem, ederes, etc.

172
 32. REMAINING ROOT VERBS

• Past and Future Progressive Indicative: On the left, the first two use
the -a and -i formants. On the right, the first and third (spelled
with two letters: do and eo) use the -ba and -bi formants. All the
remaining, on either side, use the -eba formant for the past and form
the future with the e-subjunctive (with 1S -a).

32.5 The Ten Root Verbs

sum, esse, fui, [futurum] do, dare, dedi, datum

possum, posse, potui, — edo, ēsse (edere), edi, esum
volo, velle, volui, — eo, ire, ii (ivi), -itum
nolo, nolle, nolui, — fero, ferre, tuli, (t)latum
malo, malle, malui, — fio, fieri, factus sum

173
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 32 Name____________________________________

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
fiunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
fiamus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
fieret 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
fietis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
fiebas 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
fit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
fierem 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
edimus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
ēssetis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
edas 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
edent 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
ēstis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
edit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Indicate whether each underlined prepositional phrase is acting as an adjective or adverb.

Voice, then, is the impact (1) of the inbreathed air (2) against the windpipe, and the agent that
produces the impact is the soul as dwelling (3) in these parts (4) of the body. Not every sound, as
we said, made (5) by an animal is voice—even (6) with the tongue we may make a sound which is
not voice, or (7) without the tongue as in coughing—what produces the impact must have soul (8)
in it and must be accompanied (9) by an act (10) of imagination, for voice is a sound (11) with a
meaning, and is not the result (12) of any impact (13) of the breath as in coughing; (14) in voice the
breath (15) in the windpipe is used as an instrument to knock with (16) against the walls (17) of the
windpipe.

(1) (7) (13)

(2) (8) (14)
(3) (9) (15)
(4) (10) (16)
(5) (11) (17)
(6) (12)
Identify the underlined nouns, adjectives, and noun/adjective combinations.

Ave, Regína Caelórum,/ Ave, Dómina Angelórum:/ Salve, radix, salve, porta/ Ex qua mundo lux
est orta:/ Gaude, Virgo gloriósa,/ Super omnes speciósa,/ Vale, o valde decóra,/ Et pro nobis
Christum exóra.

Noun/Adj. Stem Gender Number Case

regina masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
caelorum masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
domina domina- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
angelorum masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
radix radic- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
porta masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
mundo mundo- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
lux masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
virgo virgin- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
gloriosa glorioso/a-
omnes omni- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
decora decoro/a- masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl
Christum masc–fem–neut sg–pl nom–gen–dat–acc–abl

Give the aspect stems for the following root verbs.

Principal Parts Progressive Stem Perfect Stem

do, dare, dedi, datum
fero, ferre, tuli, (t)latum
fio, fieri, factus sum
nolo, nolle, nolui, —
malo, malle, malui, —
possum, posse, potui, —
volo, velle, vouli, —

What are the endings for the ablative case? Note where the neuter differs from the masculine and feminine.

UNIVERSAL a-stem o-stem e-stem u-stem C stem i-stem

Sing.
Pl.

Put each of the following nouns into the ablative case.

terra- angelo- die- fructu- leon- civi-

Sing.
Pl.

What is the origin of each of the three present subjunctive formants?

33 Long Vowel Conjugations;
Formation of the Perfect Stem

The Four Conjugations

You have studied ten very commonly used Latin root verbs. These verbs
did not originally use the theme vowel that appears in a few places. Most
Latin verbs, however, belong to one of the four conjugations. Such verbs
all used the theme vowels o/e- regularly in the present progressive. This
has produced the significant regularity found in these four verb classes.
The four conjugations are divided according to the ending of their pro-
gressive stem, and they are usually considered in the following order: a-
stems (amo, amāre), ē-stems (moneo, monēre), ĕ-stems (rego, regĕre), and
i-stems (audio, audı̄re). A handful of verbs are i-stems assimilated to the ĕ-
stem in a few parts (capio, capĕre). These five classes are regularly named,
respectively, the first, second, third, and fourth conjugations and “third
conjugation i-stems.” In this chapter, we will look at the conjugations
whose progressive stems end in a long vowel (“long vowel conjugation”):
a-stems, ē-stems, and i-stems. The ĕ-stems will be discussed in Chapter 34,
together with the i-stems partly assimilated to them.
Even when vowel length is not marked, verbs belonging to these five
classes can be distinguished by comparing the first two principal parts:

amo, amare moveo, movere dormio, dormire

pono, ponere fugio, fugere

1. ē-stems maintain an -e in the first principal part: moveo, movere.

175
33. LONG VOWEL VERBS; PERFECT STEM

2. ĕ-stems lack an -e in the first principal part: pono, ponere.

3. Pure i-stems have an -i in the first and the second principal part.

4. i-stems partly assimilated to ĕ-stems have an -i in the first principal

part but no -i in the second: fugio, fugere.

The Long Vowel Conjugations

Verbs with progressive stems ending in a long vowel are usually derived
from nouns or adjectives: laus, laudis → laudo, laudare (“praise”); mens,
mentis → moneo, monere (“mind,” “bring to mind”). Thus, such verbs
are called denominative verbs: they are formed by adding to a root that
was originally a noun root or adjective root.

The Progressive System of Long Vowel Conjugations

In these verbs, the root (-a, -e, -i ) and the theme vowel (to oversimplify: -a
taking -o, -e and -i taking -e) fused to form the long vowel as the progressive
stem ending. The conjugation of these verbs can be understood thoroughly
in terms of these progressive stem endings: -ā, -ē, -ı̄.
On the basis of the progressive stem so constituted, each long vowel
conjugation forms its progressive system with one or another of the formants
discovered in the study of the root verbs. This is exhibited in the tense-
mood stems of these verbs, given (by way of paradigm) in Table 33.1.

33.1 The Progressive System of Long Vowel Conjugations

lauda- (O) mone- (O) audi- (6IOU)

lauda-ba- monē-ba- audi-ēba-
lauda-bi- (IOU) monē-bi- (IOU) audi-e- (-am)
lauda/-e- mone-a- audi-a-
laudā-re- monē-re- audı̄-re-

Notice that the progressive stem ending is retained in all but one of
these stems: it is lost only in the present subjunctive progressive stem of
laudo, laudare. Consult LMP 35.2 to see the forms of these verbs derived
from these stems. These stems must be thoroughly mastered. It will help

176
 33. LONG VOWEL VERBS; PERFECT STEM

to notice that a-stem verbs use the same formants as dare, ē-stem verbs use
the same formants as ire, and i-stem verbs use the same formants as fieri.

The Perfect System and the Perfect Stem in

the Four Conjugations
The perfect system in all four conjugations uses the same formants that
are used with the perfect systems of the root verbs. The formation of the
perfect stem, however, demands some consideration. As stated in LMP
27.3, there are, with very few exceptions, four ways of forming the perfect
stem: -v or -u suffix, -s suffix, reduplication, and ablaut. These four are
presented below.

1. -v or -u Suffix
The standard Latin way of forming the perfect stem is by adding a -v or
-u suffix to the root. Recall that these are the same letter heard sometimes
as a consonant and sometimes as a vowel.1 Eventually they were written
in a slightly different form and will usually, but not always, appear so in
modern Latin texts. Look at the following examples and examine MLWL
34.2, 34.3, 35.5, 35.6, 36.4, and 36.5.

amo, amāre, amā-v -ı̄, amātum

sono, sonāre, son-u-ı̄, sonitum
dēleo, dēlēre, dēlē-v -ı̄, dēlētum
dēbeo, dēbēre, dēb-u-ı̄, dēbitum
scio, scı̄re, scı̄-v -ı̄, scı̄tum
aperio, aperı̄re, aper-u-ı̄, apertum

2. -s Suffix
The perfect and aorist (or simple) aspects of Latin’s parent language were
confused in form early on in Latin. In most of its parts the perfect system
1
This is an oversimplification. Sometimes this suffix is added to the root, at other
times it is added to the progressive stem or even something slightly different from either
the root or the progressive stem. This form is recognized by the suffix added rather than
by the stem to which the suffix is added.

177
33. LONG VOWEL VERBS; PERFECT STEM

uses the aorist endings, but sometimes an “aorist” or simple stem, formed
with an -s suffix, has been retained in the perfect system. No a-stems
exhibit this sort of perfect stem.

iubeō, iubēre, ius-s-ı̄, iussum

maneō, manēre, mān-s-ı̄, mānsum
remaneō, remanēre, remān-s-ı̄, remānsum
persuādeō, persuadēre, persuā-s-ı̄, persuāsum
rideō, ridēre, rı̄-s-ı̄, rı̄sum
subrideō, subridēre, subrı̄-s-ı̄, subrı̄sum
sentiō, sentı̄re, sēn-s-ı̄, sēnsum

Notice the effects of adding the -s suffix to these stems:

iub-s- → iuss-
man-s → mans-
persuad-s → persuas-
rid-s- → ris-
sent-s- → sens-

3. Reduplication
A handful of Latin verbs form the perfect stem with reduplication—the
“repetition” of the root’s first consonant, together with a vowel, as a prefix
to the root: tend- → te-tend-; pul- → pe-pul-. In the perfect stem redupli-
cation separates the consonants with an -e.

a) Thus, reduplication occurs without any other changes in te-tend-i,

pe-pul-i.
b) Often the vowel between the reduplicated consonant and the original
assimilates to the vowel of the stem: pe-pug-i → pupug-i, pe-posc-i →
poposc-i.
c) Stems beginning with st- or sp- reduplicate the cluster but drop the
s- of the stem. There are three such perfect forms.

sta-: ste-sta-i → ste-t-i

sponde-: spe-spond-i → spo-pond-i.
st-: ste-st-i → sti-t-i.

178
 33. LONG VOWEL VERBS; PERFECT STEM

d) Sometimes the vowel separating the consonants is lost: re-peperi →

re-pperı̄.

Examples of reduplication in the perfect stem occur in each of the long

vowel stems:

stō, stāre, stētı̄, statum [sta- → ste-t-]

cōnstō, cōnstāre, cōnstitı̄, (cōnstātūrus) [-sta- → -sti-t-]2
praestō, praestāre, praesti [-sta- → -sti-t-]

re-spondeō, re-spondēre, re-spondı̄ (re-spopondı̄), re-spōnsum [-sponde-

→ spe-pond- → spo-pond-]

re-periō, re-perı̄re, re-pperı̄ (←re-peperi ), re-pertum [-peri- → -pe-

peri- → -pperi-]

4. Ablaut
A few verbs use ablaut to form the perfect.3

a) Some merely lengthen the vowel of the root: ĕm- → ēm-i; lĕg- →
lēg-i.

b) This may also result in a different vowel: ag- → ēgi; cap- → cēp-i.

The first sort of ablaut, the mere lengthening of the vowel, is used in several
stems of the long vowel conjugations.

Two stems (and an important compound) in the “first” or a-stem

conjugation:

iuvō, iuvāre, iūvı̄, iūtum

adiuvō, adiuvāre, adiūvı̄, adiūtum
lavo, lavāre, lāvı̄, lavātum

The second or ē-stem conjugation has eight, of which five follow:

2
Ablaut is common in compounds.
3
Strong verbs in English form the simple past by ablaut: know, knew; sink, sank;
etc.

179
33. LONG VOWEL VERBS; PERFECT STEM

caveō, cavēre, cāvı̄, cautum

foveō, fovēre, fōvı̄, fōtum
moveō, movēre, mōvı̄, mōtum
sedeō, sedēre, sēdı̄, sessum
videō, vidēre, vı̄dı̄, vı̄sum

The fourth or i-stem conjugation has one stem (and several com-
pounds):

veniō, venı̄re, vēnı̄, ventum

adveniō, advenı̄re, advēnı̄, adventum
ēveniō, ēvenı̄re, ēvēnı̄, ēventum
inveniō, invenı̄re, invēnı̄, inventum

180
 33. LONG VOWEL VERBS; PERFECT STEM

Vocabulary List 11

dı̄cō, dı̄cere, dı̄xı̄, dictum [dic-] 32a

discō, discere, didicı̄, — [dico] 32
faciō, facere, fēcı̄, factum [fac-] 33
fugiō, fugere, fūgı̄, fugitum [fug-] 33
iaciō, iacere, iēcı̄, iactum [ia-] 33
pariō, parere, peperı̄, partum [par-] 33
iuvō, iuvāre, iūvı̄, iūtum 34
adiuvō, adiuvāre, adiūvı̄, adiūtum [iuvo] 34
putō, putāre, putāvı̄, putātum [putus] 34
disputō, -āre, -putāvı̄, -putātum [puto] 34
disputatio, disputationis (disputation-) f. 18
caveō, cavēre, cāvı̄, cautum [cav-] 35
contineō, -ēre, continuı̄, -tentum [teneo] 35
pertineō, pertinēre, pertinuı̄, — [teneo] 35
foveō, fovēre, fōvı̄, fōtum [fov-] 35
moveō, movēre, mōvı̄, mōtum [mov-] 35
videō, vidēre, vı̄dı̄, vı̄sum [vid-] 35
veniō, venı̄re, vēnı̄, ventum [ven-] 36
inveniō, -ı̄re, invēnı̄, inventum [venio] 36
adveniō, -ı̄re, advēnı̄, adventum [venio] 36
ēveniō, ēvenı̄re, ēvēnı̄, ēventum [venio] 36

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word List
(MLWL).

181
33. LONG VOWEL VERBS; PERFECT STEM

Notes on Vocabulary List 11 dico comes from a verb root meaning “to talk, speak;
declare.” A very large number of Latin words derive from this root, a few of which are
benedicere (“to bless”), maledicere (“to curse”), praeco (“crier, announcer”), condicio
(“contract, term”), iudicium, iudex and dictator. iacio also gives rise to a great num-
ber of compounds and English derivatives: “adjective,” “object,” “reject,” etc. Its root
means “to throw.” A related word is iaceo, iacere, which by ablaut produces a “stative”
meaning: “to be thrown down; to lie.” Some English pairs of verbs show a similar re-
lationship and are also distinguished by ablaut: “set”/“sit,” “fell”/“fall,” “lay”/“lie.”
pario, parere does not have the same relation to pareo, parēre, which is from a dif-
ferent root. Latin derivatives from pario, which means “to give birth,” include parens
(“parent”), peritus (“experienced”), expertus, and periculum (“danger”). Pars, partis
may come from the same root as pario; its original meaning was “something brought
forth” or “lot, portion, fate.” puto, putare first meant “to cut off unwanted branches,
to prune a tree.” It derives from the adjective putus -a, -um, which means “pure, un-
mixed.” It is worthwhile to keep track of the etymologies of the various Latin words
for knowledge and knowing. The fourth principal part of moveo, movere would have
been movetum. Since the v was pronounced more like our w, the second syllable was
susceptible to elision, which resulted in motum.

182
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 33 Name____________________________________

Give the aspect stems for the following verbs.

oro, orare, oravi, oratum timeo, timere, timui,— scio, scire, scivi, scitum
Progressive
Perfect

Give the tense-mood stems for the following verbs.

oro, orare, oravi, oratum timeo, timere, timui,— scio, scire, scivi, scitum

Analyze and identify the following verb forms. (Class: ā, ē, ī, ě, ī/ě.)

Verb Class Aspect Stem Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Vowel]
moneremus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
laudavero 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
invenies 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
contineo 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
exciditur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
habetis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
optes 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
adveniat 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
monebit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
stetimus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
contineatis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
veniebant 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
audiemur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
habuisti 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
donabaris 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
errant 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
What is the definition of a sentence?

What is the distinction between a nominal and a verbal sentence?

What is a compound sentence? What is a complex sentence?

This is the beginning of Huckleberry Finn. Identify each sentence as simple, compound, or complex. Underline any
subordinate clauses. Circle any verbs that are in the passive voice.

(1) You don't know about me without you have read a book by the name of The Adventures of Tom
Sawyer; but that ain't no matter. (2) That book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the
truth, mainly. (3) There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. (4) That is
nothing. (5) I never seen anybody but lied one time or another, without it was Aunt Polly, or the
widow, or maybe Mary. (6) Aunt Polly -- Tom's Aunt Polly, she is -- and Mary, and the Widow
Douglas is all told about in that book, which is mostly a true book, with some stretchers, as I said
before.

Using the given first two principal parts, identify the class (ā, ē, ī, ě, ī/ě) to which each of the following verbs belongs.

Verb Class Verb Class Verb Class

aperio, aperire paro, parare facio, facere
audeo, audere patior, pati fateor, fateri
cano, canere rapio, rapere irascor, irasci
cerno, cernere rego, regere opto, optare
conor, conari rideo, ridere vendo, vendere
deleo, delere sapio, sapere venio, venire
dormio, dormire sentio, sentire video, videre
experior, experiri sequor, sequi voco, vocare

What are the endings for the genitive case? Note where the neuter differs from the masculine and feminine.

UNIVERSAL a-stem o-stem e-stem u-stem C stem i-stem

Sing.
Pl.

Put each of the following nouns into the genitive case.

terra- angelo- die- fructu- leon- civi-

Sing.
Pl.

Translate, using a dictionary if necessary: “Domine, si vis, potes me mundare.” (Mt. 8:2)
34 ĕ-Stem Conjugation; Formation of
the Progressive Stem

ĕ-Stem Verbs
In English, the verb “to walk” began immediately as a verb; the noun
“walk” is derived from the verb. The verb “to whiten,” by contrast, is
derived from the noun or adjective “white.” Thus, verbs such as “to walk”
are called primitive verbs, while verbs such as “to whiten” are called de-
nominative verbs. The verbs of the previous chapter (a-stems, ē-stems, and
i-stems) are denominative verbs. Root verbs are primitive verbs, as are the
verbs to be considered here: ĕ-stem verbs.1 There are only ten root verbs,
but there are a great number of ĕ-stems: it is the largest class of verbs in
Latin.
What distinguishes the ĕ-stems from root verbs is that the latter use the
root as the progressive stem usually without any addition. On the other
hand, ĕ-stems add a theme vowel if the formant or ending being added does
not begin with a vowel. Consider the present progressive indicative of fero,
ferre and rego, regere as shown in Table 34.1.
While fero includes a theme vowel in two forms (ferimus, ferunt), three
of the forms (fers, fert, fertis) add the ending immediately to the consonant
stem ending. Since the first person singular ending is a vowel (-o), rego does
1
Once the various classes of verbs were established in Latin, other verbs might be
made and put in a class that they do not belong to by nature. So we should say that
most ĕ-stem verbs are primitive. This class of verbs is commonly called the “third
conjugation.”

183
34. Ĕ-STEM CONJUGATION; FORMATION OF THE PROG. STEM

34.1 Present Progressive Indicative of fero and rego

fero fers fert feri mus fertis ferunt

rego regi s regi t regi mus regi tis regunt

not add a theme vowel and looks similar to fero. All the other forms of rego,
however, add a theme vowel before the ending.
Properly speaking, a theme vowel belongs neither to the stem nor
to the formant or ending. Rather it arises between these for phonological
purposes when they combine. Since we are dividing verbs into classes by
their stems, and since it is the more extensive use of the theme vowel that
distinguishes ĕ-stems from root verbs, we will depict the theme vowel as
belonging to the stem. When presenting the ten tense-mood stems, the
theme vowel will be struck out where it does not appear. It would be more
accurate to think of it as never having been present rather than having been
lost, since it was not needed.2 Compare the tense-mood stems of fero, ferre
and rego, regere as shown in Table 34.2.

34.2 Tense-mood Stems of fero and rego

fero, ferre, tuli, [t]latum rego, regere, rexi, rectum

fer- tul-i (-sti-s; -eru-) regĕ- (IOU) rex-i- (-sti-s; -eru-)
fer-ēba- tul-era- regĕ
/-ēbā- rex-era-
fer-e- (-am) tul-eri- (IO) regĕ
/-e- (-am) rex-eri- (IO)
fer-a- tul-eri- (I) regĕ
/-a- rex-eri- (I)
fer-re- tul-isse- regĕ-re- rex-isse-

Again, the progressive stem of rego is always listed with the theme vowel,
although it is not needed for three of the five progressive tense-mood stems.
The perfect system is not different from the other classes of verbs.
2
Theme vowels are extremely important principles of Latin morphology, but they
do not fit easily into the classes of nouns, adjectives, and verbs. The attentive reader
will have noticed that we have sometimes considered the theme vowel as belonging to
the formant: the past indicative formant -eba- is merely the -ba- formant preceded by
a theme vowel. Again, we have also considered the theme vowel as part of the ending:
consonant stem nouns use the ending -em in the accusative singular. This is the common
accusative singular ending preceded by a theme vowel.

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 34. Ĕ-STEM CONJUGATION; FORMATION OF THE PROG. STEM

In the present progressive indicative, the theme vowel changes from -ĕ
to -i four times and to -u in the third person plural. This is indicated by
the mnemonic device “(IOU).” The whole progressive formation of rego is
presented here in Table 34.3 as well as in LMP 35.11:

34.3 The Progressive Formation of rego

pres prog act ind

rego regis regi t regi mus regi tis regunt
past prog act ind
regēbam regēbās regēbat regēbāmus regēbātis regēbant
fut prog act ind
regam regēs reget regēmus regētis regent
pres prog act subj
regam regās regat regāmus regātis regant
past prog act subj
regerem regerēs regeret regerēmus regerētis regerent

Formation of Progressive Stems Ending in -ĕ-

The progressive stem of these verbs (found in the first two principal parts)
is formed from the verbal root in one of five ways. Comparing the first two
principal parts makes clear which way. These five ways are summarized in
LMP 27.2
The various principles governing progressive ĕ-stem formation usually
clarify the relation of the progressive and perfect stems to the verbal root,
which can be otherwise confusing. In the following discussion of the five
methods of forming these progressive stems, the second and third principal
parts are compared.

1. Mere Root
Sometimes the mere verbal root appears without a suffix, “infix”, or other
alteration. The progressive stem seems “normal” in these verbs. One has
only to consider how the perfect stem was formed. Thus, ag-e-re and ēgi

185
34. Ĕ-STEM CONJUGATION; FORMATION OF THE PROG. STEM

show the same root “before” and “after” ablaut or vowel change. Tend-e-re
and te-tend-i present a non-reduplicated and reduplicated form of the same
root. See examples of such formation in MLWL 32.1.

2. Reduplication
Reduplication occurs in the progressive stems of a few verbs in the ĕ-stem
conjugation. Here the vowel between the reduplicated consonant and the
original is -i- rather than -e-. See examples of reduplication in the progres-
sive stem in MLWL 32.2. Two3 are of great importance:

gi-gn-e-re, gen-u-i (gn-, zero grade of root in progressive; gen-, normal

grade in perfect)
si-st-e-re, -stiti (both stems exhibit reduplication, but of different
consonants)

3. -n- Suffix (also -t-, -d-, -s-)

The suffix -n- is sometimes added to the root.4 See examples of -n- and -l-
suffixes in MLWL 32.3.

a) Sometimes the suffix appears clearly upon comparison with the perfect
stem: cerno, crevi; sino, sivi; sperno, sprevi; sterno, stravi. (Note
that such a root is often in zero grade in the perfect.)

b) When added to roots ending in -l-, the suffix -n- assimilates to the
-l-: pel-n- → pell-e-re, pepuli; tol-n- → toll-e-re, -tuli. In these the
perfect stems show only one -l-.

c) A few verbs have other suffixes such as -t-, -d-, or -s-. These verbs
need not be distinguished from the first class mentioned above.

4. -n- Infix
The -n- also appears as an infix with some stems ending in -p-, -b-; -c-,
-qu-; -g-; or -d-. “Infix” means that it is introduced within the stem.5
3
Other reduplicated stems are hard to see and need not be noted: si -zd- → sid-e-re;
si-s- → ser-e-re.
4
The abbreviation Xn represents the suffix -n- added to the root.
5
The abbreviation nC represents the infixed -n- followed by a consonant.

186
 34. Ĕ-STEM CONJUGATION; FORMATION OF THE PROG. STEM

The infix is usually recognized by comparing the progressive stem with the
perfect stem. See examples of such formation in MLWL 32.4.

a) So, tang-e-re, te-tig-i; linqu-e-re, liqu-i; frang-e-re, freg-i; pung-e-re,

pu-pug-i.

b) Before a labial, the -n- sometimes becomes an -m-: rumpo, rupi; ac-
cumbo, ac-cubui.

c) Sometimes the “nasalized” root also appears in the perfect stem and
even in the perfect participle: fingo, finxi, fictus and unguo, unxi,
unctus.6 Here the perfect participle or some other word must give
evidence to the original form of the root.

5. -sc- Suffix
The suffix -sc- is added to some roots, apparently to represent an action as
beginning. These are called “inchoative” verbs. See examples of the -sc-
suffix in MLWL 32.5.

a) So disco and didici present reduplication of the initial consonant of

the root (di-) to form the perfect stem and the addition of the suffix
-sc- to the root to form the progressive stem.
Frigesco and frixi present the same root frig- with the suffix -(e)sc-
in the progressive stem and the suffix -s- in the perfect stem.
Cre-sc-o and cre-v-i present the same root with the suffix -sc- in the
progressive stem and the suffix -v- in the perfect stem.

b) Sometimes the suffix -sc- also appears in the perfect stem: posco,
poposci.
N.B. Two verbs with stems in -ĕ- have the same perfect stem:

cre-sc-o, cre-sc-e-re, cre-v-i, cre-tum

cer-n-o, cer-n-e-re, cre-v-i, certum

The first has the root cre- throughout. How should one describe the
differences in the forms of the second root: cer- and cr-e-?
6
Kent 383.III.

187
34. Ĕ-STEM CONJUGATION; FORMATION OF THE PROG. STEM

Assimilated ĕ-Stem Verbs

The progressive formants used by i-stem and ĕ-stem verbs are the same.
Perhaps this allowed for some i-stem verbs to lose some of their own char-
acteristics and take on traits of ĕ-stem verbs. This creates a subclass of
verbs that are called “assimilated ĕ-stems.”7 The process of their transfor-
mation from i-stem to ĕ-stem verbs was never completed. Capio, capere (to
hold, seize) is an example of this class, which we will abbreviate as i/ĕ-stem
verbs.

34.4 Principal Parts of ĕ-, i/ĕ-, and i-Stem Verbs

Stem Principal Parts

ĕ rego, regere, rexi, rectum
i/ĕ capio, capere, cepi, captum
i audio, audire, audivi, auditum

Assimilated ĕ-stem verbs retain their i-stem ending in all progressive

forms except for the past subjunctive and the progressive infinitive. The
principal parts of ĕ-, i/ĕ-, and i-stem verbs are shown in Table 34.4.

34.5 Comparison of Pure ĕ-Stems with Assimilated ĕ-Stems

rego, regere, rexi, rectum capio, capĕre, cēpi, captum

regĕ- (IOU) capi- (6IOU)
regĕ/-ēbā- capi-ēba-
regĕ/-e- (-am) capi-e- (-am)
regĕ/-a- capi-a-
regĕ-re- capĕ-re-
rex-i- (-sti-s; -eru-) cēp-i (-sti-s; -eru-)
rex-era- cēp-era-
rex-eri- (IO) cēp-eri- (IO)
rex-eri- (I) cēp-eri- (I)
rex-isse- cēp-isse-

7
These are commonly called “third conjugation i-stems.”

188
 34. Ĕ-STEM CONJUGATION; FORMATION OF THE PROG. STEM

34.6 Comparison of Pure ı̄-Stems with Assimilated ĕ-Stems

audio, audı̄re, audivi, auditum capio, capĕre, cēpi, captum

audi- (6IOU) capi- (6IOU)
audi-ēbā- capi-ēba-
audi-e- (-am) capi-e- (-am)
audi-a- capi-a-
audi-re- capĕ-re-
audiv-i- (-sti-s; -eru-) cēp-i (-sti-s; -eru-)
audiv-era- cēp-era-
audiv-eri- (IO) cēp-eri- (IO)
audiv-eri- (I) cēp-eri- (I)
audiv-isse- cēp-isse-

Tables 34.5 and 34.6 list the tense-mood stems of the same verbs. Once
again, there are no differences among the classes of verbs in the perfect
system. “6IOU” means that the -i is retained in all forms, including before
the -o and -unt endings of the first person singular and the third person
plural.

189
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 34 Name____________________________________

What is a primitive verb?

How are assimilated ĕ-stems like i-stem verbs? How are they like ĕ-stem verbs?

Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Class Aspect Stem Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Vowel]
dicunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
discemus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
tendis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
pellerem 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
dixeritis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
consistat 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
pellamur 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
fugiam 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

For the following ĕ-stem verbs, indicate the manner of formation of the progressive stem: mere root (--), reduplication (R),
added -n- suffix (Xn), added -l- suffix (Xl), added -n- infix (nC), or added -sc- suffix (sc). Then, on the basis of this,
indicate the root of each verb.

Verb Format. Root Verb Format. Root

gigno, gignere sumo, sumere
dico, dicere contemno, contemnere
tollo, tollere nasco, nascere
cresco, crescere minuo, minuere
sino, sinere consisto, consistere
vinco, vincere tango, tangere

Indicate whether each perfect stem is formed by the addition of -v- or -u- (V), an -s- (S), reduplication (R), or ablaut (A).

cano, canere, cecini, cantum pello, pellere, pepuli, pulsum

fluo, fluere, flūxi, fluctum rego, regere, rexi, rectum
sisto, sistere, sistiti, statum occido, occidere, occīdi, occisum
pono, ponere, posui, positum requiesco, requiescere, requievi, requietum
lego, legere, lēgi, lectum gero, gerere, gessi, gessum
diligo, diligere, dilexi, dilectum sumo, sumere, sumpsi, sumptum
Identify the class (ā, ē, ī, ě, ī/ě) to which each of the following verbs belongs.

Verb Class Verb Class

patior, pati, passus sum molior, moliri, molitus sum
iuvo, iuvare, iuvi, iutum doleo, dolere, dolui (doliturus)
exigo, exigere, exegi, exactum malo, malle, malui
do, dare, dedi, datum opto, optare, optavi, optatus

Identify and translate the underlined verbs in this excerpt from Luke, ch.5. (You do not need to translate them as they
are used in context; translate the form.)

Et factum est, in una dierum, et ipse erat docens, et erant pharisaei sedentes et legis doctores, qui
venerant ex omni castello Galilaeae et Iudaeae et Ierusalem; et virtus Domini erat ei ad sanandum.
Et ecce viri portantes in lecto hominem, qui erat paralyticus, et quaerebant eum inferre et ponere
ante eum. Et non invenientes qua parte illum inferrent prae turba, ascenderunt supra tectum et per
tegulas summiserunt illum cum lectulo in medium ante Iesum. Quorum fidem ut vidit, dixit:
“Homo, remittuntur tibi peccata tua.”

Verb Progr. Stem Identification Translation

factum est faci/ĕ- 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass

prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
venerant veni- 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
erat s-/es- 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
quaerebant quaerĕ- 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
inferrent in-fer- 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
ascenderunt ascendĕ- 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
dixit dicĕ- 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
remittuntur re-mittĕ- 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

What are the endings for the accusative case? Note where the neuter differs from the masculine and feminine.

UNIVERSAL a-stem o-stem e-stem u-stem C stem i-stem

Sing.
Pl.

Put each of the following nouns into the accusative case.

terra- angelo- die- fructu- leon- civi-

Sing.
Pl.
35 The Imperative Mood

The Latin progressive system has an imperative mood used for signifying
commands. The jussive subjunctive may also signify commands, but the
imperative mood is more direct and often more forceful. The perfect system
has no imperative, presumably because it is contrary to the nature of a
command to represent the action as complete. Similarly, no first person
forms exist. The forms of the imperative that do exist should be divided
into those commonly used and those used infrequently.

The Common Forms

The common forms are in the second person: singular and plural, active and
passive. These are formed by adding to the progressive stem the endings
shown in Table 35.1.

35.1 Common Endings for The Imperative Mood

Active Passive
Singular — -re
Plural -te -mini

The active singular uses the bare progressive stem. For ĕ-stem and
assimilated ĕ-stem verbs this includes the theme vowel: rege, cape. The
active plural ending -te is the first part of the personal ending -tis that
we have already seen. The passive imperative endings are the same as the

191
35. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

passive endings used for the other moods, but the second person singular
ending -ris is not used for the imperative. (LMP 34)
A few verbs use the bare root for the active imperative singular, even
though two of these verbs belong to the short-ĕ conjugation and a third is
an assimilated ĕ-stem: dic, duc, fac, fer.
Latin has a special idiom for negative commands. The imperative forms
of nolo, nolle are used with an infinitive. In Latin one does not say “Do
not adore a strange god,” or “Do not judge,” but “Do not wish to adore
a strange god,” or “Do not wish to judge.” Noli adoráre deum aliénum.
Nolite iudicáre.

The Uncommon Forms

The uncommon imperative forms are usually called the “future imperative.”
Any command implies the fulfillment of the command in the future, but
these forms contain a formant that explicitly refers to the future. This
formant is -to, which was originally a pronoun that meant “from this.” It
came to mean “after this time” and so became a marker for the future.
Among the uncommon “future imperative” forms are third person im-
perative forms that appear especially in laws. Even though English lacks
such forms, their usefulness should be clear: not every law is a direct com-
mand to those living under the law. In English we use the jussive subjunc-
tive, which may be used in Latin as well. Regio imperio duo sunto. “There
shall be two men vested with the power of kings.” Amicitia regi Antiocho
cum populo Romano his legibus esto. . . “There shall be amity between King
Antiochus and Rome on the following terms. . . .”

35.2 Uncommon Endings for The Imperative Mood

2nd Person 3rd Person

Active Passive Active Passive
Singular -to -tor -to -tor
Plural -tote -nto -ntor

The endings for the uncommon forms of the imperative are added to the
progressive stem, and are shown in Table 35.2. The following can be seen
from this table:

192
 35. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

• The second person plural passive does not have an uncommon form
that employs the formant -to.

• In the singular the third person forms are the same as the second
person forms.

• The passive forms merely add the formant -r to the active ending.
On account of the formant -to, no extra vowel (-u) is added.

• The formant -to is added before the ending, as is expected, in all

forms except the third person plural, where it follows the ending.
The double consonant is simplified, e.g., -nt + -to → -ntto → -nto.

It is not necessary to commit the uncommon endings to memory. Unless

you read certain kinds of Latin texts, you are unlikely to run across these
forms for most verbs, but a couple of verbs that use these endings occur
more frequently: (1) the verb esse uses both es and este with the common
endings and esto and estote with the uncommon endings; (2) the form
memento 1 (“remember, be mindful of”) appears in the canon at Mass; it
has also become an English word meaning “keepsake.”

Review of Root Verb Formation

At present you should be thoroughly familiar with the stems of ten root
verbs. The perfect stems all have the same formation; the progressive stems
are found in Table 35.3. You should be able 1) to give the various progressive
and perfect stems for each of these root verbs, 2) to state which of the
five parts of the progressive system are formed in three distinct ways (e.g.
past prog. ind.), and 3) to describe each of these three ways (e.g. the i-
subjunctive, the e-subjunctive, and the a-subjunctive).

1
Memento belongs to the verb memini, meminisse which has only perfect forms. The
object to be remembered may be put in the genitive case: Memento, Domine, famulorum
famularumque tuarum. . . “Be mindful, O Lord, of your servants and handmaidens. . . ”

193
194 35. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

35.3 The Five Progressive Stems of Each of the Root Verbs

s-u- (N) / es- da- (O)

er-a- da-bā-
er-i- (IOU) da-bi- (IOU)
s-i- d-e-
es-se- da-re-
poss-u- (N) / pot-es- ed- (OIU)
poter-a- ed-ēba-
poter-i- (IOU) ed-ē- (-am)
poss-i- ed-a-; ed-i-
pos-se- ēs-se-; ede-re-
vol-u- (N) / vul- (vis) e-/i- (IOU)
vol-ēbā- i-bā-
vol-ē- (-am) i-bi- (IOU)
vel-i- e-a-
vel-le- i-re-
nol-u- (N) (non vis) fer-
nol-ēbā- fer-ēba-
nol-ē- (-am) fer-e- (-am)
nol-i- fer-a-
nol-le- fer-re-
mal-u- (N) (ma-vis) fi- (6IOU)
mal-ēbā- fi-ēba-
mal-ē- (-am) fi-e- (-am)
mal-i- fi-a-
mal-le- fi-ere-
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 35 Name____________________________________

What are the three moods in Latin? What does each signify?

Which four verbs use the unaugmented root for the imperative singular?

How does one use the imperative to form negative commands, i.e., prohibitions?

Give the imperative forms of the following verbs.

Active Passive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
nolo, nolle, nolui, — ---- ----
pario, parere, peperi,
partum
debeo, debere, debui,
debitum
dormio, dormire,
dormivi, dormitum
oro, orare, oravi,
oratum

Give the progressive infinitives based on the following progressive stems.

Progr. Stem Active Passive

mal- ----
fer-
narra-
placē-
molli-
quaerĕ-
sapi/ĕ-

Translate: “Adtollite portas, principes, vestras, et elevamini, portae aeternales, et introibit rex gloriae.” (Ps. 23:7)

principes and portae are in the vocative

ad-tollĕ- lift up porta- gate intro-e/i- go in, enter
Analyze and identify the following verb forms.

Verb Class Aspect Stem Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Vowel]
constitimus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
delent 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
iubeatis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
sentiet 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
sciveram 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
ames 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
laudavisti 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
debebit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
audiant 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
staretis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
delemini 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
risissemus 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
iubebar 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

What is the primary use of the dative case? What is the primary use of the genitive case?

What are the two primary uses of the accusative case? What are the three primary uses of the ablative case?

Classify the following verbs. In the first column, indicate the manner of formation of the progressive stem: mere root (--),
reduplication (R), added -n- suffix (Xn), added -l- suffix (Xl), added -n- infix (nC), or added -sc- suffix (sc). In the third
column, indicate the manner of formation of the perfect stem: added -v- or -u- (V), added -s- (S), reduplication (R), or
ablaut (A). In the second column, state the class/conjugation.

Progressive 1 Infinitive 2 Perfect 3

ponō ponere posuī
requiēscō requiēscere requiēvī
scrībō scrībere scrīpsī
tangō tangere tetigī
tendō tendere tetendī
iaciō iacere iēcī
36 Participles

The participle is a verbal adjective, that is, an adjective derived from a verb.
On the one hand, it shares in the verb’s power to represent something as
flowing and moving. Compare the verb “sings” in “He sings a song” with
the noun “song.” Both the verb and the noun refer to a vocal musical
performance, but “song” represents it as if it were a thing, while the verb
“sings” represents the same performance as an action, as does the participle
“singing.” Verbs have grammatical properties that follow from their nature,
such as tense, aspect, and voice, and they may take an object or set up
other grammatical constructions, such as indirect statement. Participles,
too, may have these properties and powers due to their verbal character:

It was moving to hear the choir singing Handel’s Hallelujah Cho-

rus.
The aria, sung by the soprano, brought the crowd to their feet.

The participle is not a finite verb form, because it does not have the
grammatical property of person. Other non-finite verb forms—the infini-
tive, the gerund, and the supine—are verbal nouns, which will be discussed
later.
On the other hand, participles share in the character of adjectives. Ad-
jectives represent something as inhering in another. For example, the noun
“gold” signifies a color as if it were a thing or subject. The adjective
“golden” in “golden retriever” represents this color as inhering in a sub-
ject or “present in a subject,” in this case, a dog. Adjectives may be used
attributively, as in “golden retriever,” or in a predicate, as in “The sky is
blue.” Adjectives may also be used substantively, when the noun that is

195
36. PARTICIPLES

modified is left unstated: “The poor will be with you always.” Participles
may do all these things and will also have the properties of gender, number,
and case, just like adjectives.

The inn was called “The Prancing Pony.”

The cup is broken.
The damned suffer principally from a loss of the presence of
God.

Morphology of Participles
The morphology of participles is not simple because some participles have
tense, albeit in an imperfect way, while others do not have tense at all.
Two participles have aspect, while two others either do not have aspect
or perhaps they have only simple aspect. We will look first at the forms
of the four participles and then discuss the grammatical properties of each
separately.
Participles are formed from a stem, possibly a formant, and always
an adjective ending. Let us look first at the four masculine, nominative,
singular participles of the verb dare as an example and then consider each
kind of participle separately. Recall that the four principal parts of this
verb are do, dare, dedi, datum.

36.1 Participle Formation in do, dare

Participle Stem Formant Ending

Progressive Participle progressive stem -nti-
dans = da- + -nti- + -s
Perfect Participle participle stem [none]
datus = dato-/data- + -s
Future Active Participle participle stem -ur-
daturus = dat-o-/dat-a- + -ur- + -s
Future Passive Participle progressive stem -ndo-/-nda-
dandus = da- + -ndo- + -s

196
 36. PARTICIPLES

1. The progressive participle adds the formant -nti- to the progressive

stem. Thus, this participle is an i-stem adjective and takes the same
case endings as other i-stem adjectives. Specifically, it is an i-stem
adjective of one ending, i.e., it has only one nominative singular form
for all genders (see Chapter 12). Note that a theme vowel is inserted
for ĕ-stem verbs, i-stem verbs, and some root verbs.

36.2 Progressive Participle Formation

Verb Class Progr. Participle Dictionary

Stem Stem Entrya
laudo, laudare a lauda- laudanti- laudans, laudantisb
teneo, tenere e tene- tenenti- tenens, tenentis
sentio, sentire i senti- sentienti- sentiens, sentientis
ago, agere ĕ agĕ- agenti- agens, agentis
facio, facere i/ĕ faci- facienti- faciens, facientis
fero, ferre root fer- ferenti- ferens, ferentis
a
Participles are not usually given in the dictionary under a separate entry. They
would be looked up under the verb from which they are formed. Certain participles
have developed distinct meanings, however, and are listed separately, e.g., praesens,
praesentis is the progressive participle of praeesse but has the meaning of “at hand, in
person, present.”
b
This participle is similar to the English present participle (praising, holding, feeling,
etc.). Translation of participles is discussed more below.

2. The perfect participle is an o-/a-stem adjective. No formant is

added to the participle stem; the adjective endings are added imme-
diately to the stem. While the participle stem can be found by
removing the ending from the fourth principal part, we may note that
the participle stem is formed in one of three ways:

a) By the addition of -to- or -ta- to the root or a stem. This may

involve a change to the root or stem for phonetic reasons.
Note that laudatum is formed from the progressive stem, while
tentum is formed from the root. The final consonant of the root
ag- changes to -c- before the formant to-/ta-, i.e., it becomes
unvoiced.

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36.3 Perfect Participle Formation by addition of -to- or -ta-

Verb Root or Stem Participle Stem Perfect Participlea

laudo, laudare lauda- laudato-/a- laudatumb
teneo, tenere ten- tento-/a- tentum
ago, agere ag- acto-/a- actum

a
When the perfect participle is given in the dictionary, the neuter nominative singular
form is given, e.g., laudatum. A more complete presentation would be, for example,
laudatus, laudata, laudatum.
b
The Latin perfect participle is similar to the English past participle (praised, held,
done, etc.).

b) By insertion of an -ı̆- theme vowel together with the participle

ending. Thus, one adds -ito- and -ita-.

36.4 Perfect Participle Formation by addition of -ı̆-

Verb Root or Stem Participle Stem Perfect Participle

credo, credere cred- credito-/a- creditum
habeo, habere hab- habito-/a- habitum

c) For phonetic reasons the -t- of the ending may change to -s-.
This may involve a change to the stem ending.

36.5 Perfect Participle Formation by change from -t- to -s-

Verb Root or Stem Participle Stem Perfect Participle

iubeo, iubere iub- iusso-/a- iussus
sentio, sentire sens- senso-/a- sensus
cado, cadere cad- caso-/a- casum
mitto, mittere mis- misso-/a- missus

Note that some—but not all—of these are formed from the per-
fect stem. Sometimes a second -s- will be lost. In casum, the
dental root ending falls out before the -s- (see LMP 1).

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 36. PARTICIPLES

3. The future active participle adds the formant or infix -ur- imme-
diately before the -o/-a ending of the participle stem. Thus, this
participle is also an o-/a-stem adjective. It may help to consider that
the word “future” is derived from the Latin future active participle of
esse, namely, futurum.

36.6 Future Active Participle Formation

Participle Future Active Dictionary

Verb Stem Participle Stem Entry
laudo, laudare laudato-/a- laudaturo-/a- laudaturus, -a, -uma
teneo, tenere tento-/a- tenturo-/a- tenturus, -a, -um
sentio, sentire senso-/a- sensuro-/a- sensurus, -a, -um
ago, agere acto-/a- acturo-/a- acturus, -a, -um
facio, facere facto/a- facturo/a- facturus, -a, -um

a
There is no English participle that is similar to the Latin future participles. The
future active participle must be rendered by a circumlocution (e.g., about to praise, going
to praise).

4. The future passive participle adds the formant -ndo- or -nda- to

the progressive stem. It is also an o-/a-stem adjective. Just as for
progressive participles, a theme vowel is inserted for ĕ-stem verbs,
i-stem verbs, and some root verbs.

Forms and Use

The progressive participle is often called the present active participle,
but this is a misnomer as it does not truly have tense. It is because this
participle is progressive that it represents its action as occurring at the same
time as the main verb in the clause in which it appears. The progressive
participle is active in form but this form is used to signify the middle voice
for deponent verbs.

Vidi aquam egredientem de templo.

I saw water coming from the temple. (The water was coming
forth at the same time he saw it. The progressive form indicates

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36. PARTICIPLES

36.7 Future Passive Participle Formation

Progressive Future Passive Dictionary

Verb Class Stem Participle Stem Entry
laudo, laudare ā lauda- laudando-/a- laudandus, -a, -uma
teneo, tenere e tene- tenendo-/a- tenendus, -a, -um
sentio, sentire i senti- sentiendo-/a- sentiendus, -a, -um
ago, agere ĕ agĕ- agendo-/a- agendus, -a, -um
facio, facere i/ĕ faci- faciendo-/a- faciendus, -a, -um
fero, ferre root fer- ferendo-/a- ferendus, -a, -um

a
Again, a circumlocution is necessary as there is no similar English participle (e.g.,
to be praised, to be held, etc.).

not that water is coming out now—in the present—but that it

was coming out in the past at the same time as his seeing it.)

The perfect participle, like the progressive participle, lacks tense. Be-
cause it is perfect in aspect, it signifies its action as complete at the time
signified by the finite verb in the clause. In effect, this makes it seem like
the participle has past tense.

Adducunt scribae et Pharisaei mulierem in adulterio apprehen-

sam.
The scribes and Pharisees brought forth a woman caught in
adultery. (Her being caught was complete at the time she was
brought forth.)

The future active participle has tense in an imperfect way. Rather

than indicate that something will occur in the future, it represents its action
as occurring after the time signified by the finite verb in the clause:

Morituri te salutamus.
We who are about to die salute you. (The gladiators’ death is
after—in the future with respect to—the time they are saluting
the emperor.)

The future active participle is active in form, but it is used to signify

the middle voice of deponent verbs.

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 36. PARTICIPLES

The future passive participle is also called the gerundive,1 although

this name really applies to only one use of the future passive participle. The
specific use of the future passive participle as a gerundive requires special
attention and will be discussed later. This participle is future in the same
imperfect way that the future active participle is: it represents its action as
occurring after the time signified by the finite verb in the clause.

Ille est vir laudandus.

He is a man to be praised.

Both of the future participles seem to be simple in aspect. This may

be confusing since the future passive participle is formed from the progres-
sive stem and the future active participle is formed from the participle stem,
which seems to be perfect. Whereas for verbs the progressive form indicates
either progressive or simple aspect—likewise for the perfect form—the fu-
ture participles are only simple in aspect.

Translation of Participles
When translating a Latin participle into English, it is necessary to convey
the properties of the Latin participle by equivalent English constructions.
While in some cases this requires only using an English participle for a Latin
participle, this is frequently not possible. In English we do not consistently
use participles with the same force with which they are used in Latin.
Also, English dependence on word order sometimes requires the separation
of a participle and the noun it modifies. Finally, English supplies for a
lack of participles by the use of auxiliary participles (e.g., “having been
thrown”) or other circumlocutions (e.g., “about to die”). The result is that
a literal translation of a Latin participle often produces an awkward or even
confusing sentence in English.
One solution is to translate participles that are used attributively—to
modify a noun—as relative clauses:

Morituri te salutamus.
Literal: We, being about to die, salute you.
1
It is helpful to remember that the gerund is a verbal noun, but the gerundive is a
verbal adjective.

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36. PARTICIPLES

Better: We who are about to die salute you.

Eos timentes confirmat.

Literal: He encourages those fearing.
Better: He encourages those who are afraid.

Latin participles often have adverbial force even though they are always
used as adjectives. This can be brought out by the insertion of a subordi-
nating conjunction in English or even the use of a subordinate clause:

Damnatum poenam sequi oportebat.

If condemned [If he is condemned], punishment must overtake
him.

Paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet.

After delaying a little while, he orders them to give the signal.

Ut oculus sic animus se non videns alia cernit.

As the eye, so the mind, though not seeing itself, perceives other
things.

This is only an introduction to the subtlety of correctly translating the

Latin participle. It is necessary for a student to consult a grammar (such as
those by Woodcock, or Allen and Greenough, or Hale and Buck) regularly
when he encounters participles.

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 36. PARTICIPLES

Vocabulary List 12

iungō, iungere, iūnxı̄, iūnctum [iug-] 32a

coniungō, -ere, -iūnxı̄, -iūnctum [iungo] 32
legō, legere, lēgı̄, lēctum [leg-] 32
dı̄ligō, dı̄ligere, dı̄lēxı̄, dı̄lēctum [lego] 32
intellegō, -ere, -tellēxı̄, intellēctum [lego] 32
mittō, mittere, mı̄sı̄, missum [mit-] 32
āmittō, āmittere, āmı̄sı̄, āmissum [mitto] 32
prōmittō, -ere, prōmı̄sı̄, -missum [mitto] 32
nōscō, -ere, nōvı̄, nōtum [(g)na- / gno-] 32
cognōscō, -ere, cognōvı̄, -nitum [nosco] 32
ignōscō, -ere, ignōvı̄, ignōtum [nosco] 32
narrō, -āre, narrāvı̄, narrātum [nosco] 34
recognōscō, -ere, -nōvı̄, -nitum [nosco] 32
petō, petere, petı̄vı̄, petı̄tum [pet-] 32
competō, -ere, -petı̄vı̄, -petı̄tum [peto] 32
sinō, sinere, sı̄vı̄, situm [si-] 32
dēsinō, dēsinere, dēsı̄vı̄, dēsitum [sino] 32
pōnō, -ere, posuı̄, positum [po + sino] 32
compōnō, -ere, -posuı̄, -positum [pono] 32
quaerō, -ere, quaesı̄vı̄, quaesı̄tum [quaes-] 32
acquı̄rō, -ere, -quı̄sı̄vı̄, -quı̄sı̄tum [quaero] 32
requı̄rō, -ere, -quı̄sı̄vı̄, -ı̄tum [quaero] 32
regō, regere, rēxı̄, rēctum [reg-] 32
corrigō, -ere, corrēxı̄, corrēctum [rego] 32
surgō (surrigō), -ere, surrēxı̄, -rēctum [rego] 32

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word List
(MLWL).

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36. PARTICIPLES

Notes on Vocabulary List 12 intellego is another Latin word for knowing. It comes
from a root meaning “to collect” plus the prefix inter- (“between, among”). nosco and
its derivatives form another group of words for knowing. The root gna-, which means
“to know,” generally lost its g at the beginning of a word (nosco, narro), but kept its
g in a compound (cognosco, ignosco). Nosco originally meant “to get to know” due to
the -sc infix. Its perfect forms (novi, etc.) would have meant “to have gotten to know”
or just “to know.” Eventually, nosco came to mean just “to know,” with the result
that the perfect has the same meaning as the progressive. There is another root, gen-
(“to beget”), which also has the form gna- but is unrelated to the root of nosco. pono
combines the prefix po- (“off, away”) and the verb sino. Po- is not related to pro; it is
probably from the same root as ab: apa-. (The letters p and b differ only in that b is
voiced.) Thus, po- + sino → pono would have meant “to leave off” → “to offload” →
“to put.”

204
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 36 Name____________________________________

What is a participle?

What grammatical properties does a participle have?

How does a participle differ from a finite verb?

There are four kinds of participles in Latin. What are their names? How is each formed?

Name/Kind Formation

When is a theme vowel used in the formation of a participle?

What is the participle stem? In what three ways can it be formed?

Form the progressive participle and future passive participle for each of these verbs.

Progressive Future Passive

fero, ferre, tuli, latum
contundo, condere, contudi, contussum
pario, parere, peperi, partum
debeo, debere, debui, debitum
dormio, dormire, dormivi, dormitum
oro, orare, oravi, oratum

Form the perfect participle and future active participle for each of these verbs.

Perfect Future Active

fero, ferre, tuli, latum
contundo, condere, contudi, contussum
pario, parere, peperi, partum
debeo, debere, debui, debitum
dormio, dormire, dormivi, dormitum
oro, orare, oravi, oratum
Analyze and identify the underlined participles in the following passages.

Multitudinis usus, quem in rebus nominandis sequendum philosophus censet, communiter

obtinuit ut sapientes dicantur qui res directe ordinant et eas bene gubernant. Unde inter alia quae
homines de sapiente concipiunt, a philosopho ponitur quod sapientis est ordinare. Omnium
autem ordinatorum ad finem, gubernationis et ordinis regulam ex fine sumi necesse est: tunc enim
unaquaeque res optime disponitur cum ad suum finem convenienter ordinatur; finis enim est
bonum uniuscuiusque. (St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, Prologue)

Participle Stem Formant Case Identification

Ending
nominandis nom/gen/dat/acc/abl sg/pl masc/fem/neut
progr/perf/fut act/fut pass
sequendum nom/gen/dat/acc/abl sg/pl masc/fem/neut
progr/perf/fut act/fut pass
sapientes nom/gen/dat/acc/abl sg/pl masc/fem/neut
progr/perf/fut act/fut pass
sapiente nom/gen/dat/acc/abl sg/pl masc/fem/neut
progr/perf/fut act/fut pass
ordinatorum nom/gen/dat/acc/abl sg/pl masc/fem/neut
progr/perf/fut act/fut pass

Tunc demum reminiscens pincernarum magister ait: “Confiteor peccatum meum. Iratus rex servis
suis me et magistrum pistorum retrudi iussit in carcerem principis satellitum, ubi una nocte
uterque vidimus somnium praesagum futurorum.” (Gen. 41:9-11)

Participle Stem Formant Case Identification

Ending
Iratus nom/gen/dat/acc/abl sg/pl masc/fem/neut
progr/perf/fut act/fut pass
futurorum nom/gen/dat/acc/abl sg/pl masc/fem/neut
progr/perf/fut act/fut pass

Analyze and identify the underlined verbs in the following passage (Mt. 8:1-3).

Cum autem descendisset de monte, secutae sunt eum turbae multae. Et ecce leprosus veniens
adorabat eum dicens: “Domine, si vis, potes me mundare.” Et extendens manum, tetigit eum
dicens: “Volo, mundare!”; et confestim mundata est lepra eius.

Verb Class Aspect Formant [Theme Ending Identification

Stem Vowel]
descendisset 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj/imp
secutae sunt 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj/imp
adorabat 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj/imp
vis 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj/imp
tetigit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj/imp
Volo 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj/imp
mundare 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj/imp
37 Pronouns

Pronouns, unlike nouns, do not signify by means of a distinct concept. For

example, we have the nouns “flower” and “rose” because we have distinct
concepts that correspond to them. Instead, pronouns must signify through
reference to something otherwise known or previously stated. We might
point at a flower and say, “This is a rose.” The significance of the pronoun
“this” is known by the act of pointing. Another way that reference occurs
is with personal pronouns such as “I” or “you.” Here the grammatical
property of person shows who is signified by the pronoun. When a pronoun
refers to something previously stated, what it refers to is called the an-
tecedent.1 The name “pronoun” refers to the word’s function of standing
“in the place of”—in Latin pro—a noun. This may mean that the pronoun
is used instead of repeating the noun that serves as the antecedent (“I saw
John, and he saw me”), but this is not always the case. In the sentence
“This is a rose,” the pronoun is used where a noun would have been used,
but there is no previously stated noun that it is taking the place of.
There are many different kinds of pronouns, but it is difficult or im-
possible to provide a systematic classification of them. Pronouns do not
constitute a genus that divides neatly into lower genera and finally lowest
species in the manner that Porphyry describes in the Isagoge. Rather, there
are various qualities that may be mixed and matched, and these qualities
are not all of the same kind.
Just as adjectives can be formed from nouns (flower → flowery; gold
→ golden), so also pronominal adjectives are formed from pronouns
1
The name “antecedent” means “going before” (cedens +ante), but it is not strictly
necessary that the antecedent be stated prior to the pronoun that refers to it. For
example, one might say, “He doesn’t remember me, but I remember Peter quite well.”

205
37. PRONOUNS

(me → my). There is not always a difference in form: “red” may be a noun
or adjective, and “that” may be either a pronoun or pronominal adjective.

Kinds of Pronouns
Person (CLS 14.1) is found in some pronouns, and these are called personal
pronouns (LMP 14, 16). It is through this property that these pronouns
refer to what they signify. Latin has personal pronouns for first and second
person but not for third person.

ego I nos we meus [adj.] my noster [adj.] our

tu you (sg.) vos you (pl.) tuus [adj.] your (sg.) vester [adj.] your (pl.)

These pronouns may also be used to refer back to the subject of the
sentence, and then they are called reflexive pronouns (LMP 15–16). In
addition, there is a pronoun that is only reflexive and is used to refer to a
subject in the third person, whether singular or plural:

sui himself, herself, themselves suus [adj.] his, her, its, their (own)

An intensive pronoun expresses emphasis: “I will see to it myself,”

which is equivalent to “I myself will see to it.” In English the emphatic
pronoun, -self, is a special use of or development from the reflexive pronoun,
which accounts for them having the same form. In Latin the intensive
pronoun is entirely distinct from the reflexive (LMP 24).

ipse, ipsa, ipsum myself, yourself, etc.

Other pronouns refer to something by their spatial position, i.e., whether

it is nearer to or farther from the speaker than another. These are demon-
strative pronouns (LMP 23), the same forms being used for demonstra-
tive adjectives:

hic this ille that

Relative pronouns (LMP 25) combine the functions of a pronoun and

a conjunction. “I know a man who is seven feet tall” means “I know a man
and he is seven feet tall.” The relative pronoun functions as a subordinating

206
 37. PRONOUNS

conjunction that connects the relative clause to the main clause. The same
form is used for the pronoun and the adjective.

qui, quae, quod who, which

Interrogative pronouns (LMP 19, 25.2) are used in questions: what

they refer to is being sought by a question.

quis, quid who?, what?

qui, quae, quod [adj.] which?, what?

Some pronouns are distinguished from others by whether they refer to

their antecedent in a definite or an indefinite manner. Here is a definite
pronoun (LMP 17), which uses the same forms for the definite adjective:

is, ea, id he, she, it

In Latin this definite pronoun is used instead of a third person personal

pronoun. Indefinite pronouns (LMP 19–22) instead refer to their an-
tecedents in a less determinate way.

aliquis, aliquid anyone ullus, ulla, ullum [adj.] any

nemo no one nullus, nulla, nullum [adj.] no, none
uter, utra, utrum either neuter, neutra, neutrum neither

While the definite and indefinite are opposed, both can be found in a
single pronoun. The suffix -dam is added to an indefinite pronoun to signify
in a definite manner.

quidam, quaedam, quoddam a certain one

The suffix -dem can be added to a definite pronoun to convey the sense
of identity (LMP 18). Naturally, it is easy to be confused by the similarity
of -dam and -dem.2

idem, eadem, idem the same

2
Unfortunately, there is an adverb quidem (“indeed”) that is not part of the pronouns
quidam or idem.

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37. PRONOUNS

This is not a complete list of Latin pronouns and pronominal adjectives.

The pronouns given here are meant to represent some of the rich variety of
Latin pronouns. English pronouns are also varied, but the variation is not
exactly the same in the two languages. For some Latin pronouns there are
clear English equivalents, but this is not always so.
If the division of pronouns is not as easy as one might like, pronouns do
manifest the creative power of the human mind in language. The pronoun in
itself is a word used in place of another and so signifies no distinct concept
on its own. But it is susceptible of combining with its basic function a
variety of other properties. The relative pronoun combines the function
of two parts of speech: pronoun and conjunction. Definite and indefinite
pronouns qualify the manner in which a pronoun refers to its antecedent.
Personal pronouns are distinguished by the grammatical property of person,
as are the reflexive pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns are distinguished by
differences in the act of pointing.

Morphology of Pronouns
Even the stem method, at least on an introductory level, cannot make the
morphology of pronouns entirely intelligible. The development of pronouns
contains too many twists and turns. Instead, over time one will become
familiar with the different pronoun stems and endings. Most of the pronoun
endings are the same as noun endings. Consider first the definite pronoun
(LMP 17), shown in Table 37.1.
Note the following regarding the definite pronoun:

• The stem seems to alternate between e- and i-. With the exception
of iis, the stem i- is used only before consonants.

• As usual, the neuter has the same form in the nominative and ac-
cusative.

• As usual, the dative and ablative plural use the same forms.

• The genitive and dative singular forms show the -ius and -i endings
seen in the UNUS NAUTA adjectives. See Table 11.3.

• The -d ending of the neuter nominative singular is new.

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 37. PRONOUNS

• Other forms use the endings of o/a-stem adjectives.3

37.1 The Definite Pronoun

Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Ablative

is eum eō
ea eiusa eı̄ eam eā
id id eō
iı̄/ei eōrum eōs
b
eae eārum eı̄s, iı̄s, ı̄s eās eı̄s, iı̄s, ı̄s
ea eōrum ea
a
The forms eius and eı̄ are used for all genders.
b
Any of the forms eı̄s, iı̄s, ı̄s (in both dative and ablative) are used for all genders.

Consider next the demonstrative pronouns (LMP 23), shown in Ta-

bles 37.2 and 37.3.

37.2 The Demonstrative Pronoun hic

Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Ablative

hı̄c hunc hōc
haec huius huic hanc hāc
hoc hoc hōc
hı̄ hōrum hōs
hae hārum hı̄s hās hı̄s
haec hōrum haec

Many of the forms should make sense.

• Once again we see the UNUS NAUTA endings in the genitive and
dative singular.

• The neuter is always the same in the nominative and accusative.

3
But note some variation. For example, is simply adds the -s nominative singular
ending to the stem, but eos and eas add -o or -a to the stem and then the case ending.

209
37. PRONOUNS

37.3 The Demonstrative Pronoun ille

Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Ablative

ille illum illō
illa illı̄us illı̄ illam illā
illud illud illō
illı̄ illōrum illōs
illae illārum illı̄s illās illı̄s
illa illōrum illa

• The neuter singular of ille has the -d ending seen in is, ea, id.

• Many o/a-stem adjective endings are discernable.

But some differences are worthy of note.

• Many forms of hic end with the letter c.

• The neuter nominative and accusative plural of hic has the -ae ending
(followed by -c), which to this point has only been seen in feminine
forms.

Consider finally the relative pronoun (LMP 25), shown in Table 37.4.

37.4 The Relative Pronoun

Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Ablative

quı̄ quem quō
quae cuius cuı̄ quam quā
quod quod quō
quı̄ quōrum quōs
quae quārum quibus quās quibus
quae quōrum quae

• Note that the spelling of the stem changes in the genitive and dative
singular.

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 37. PRONOUNS

• Once again the neuter nominative and accusative plural end in -ae.

One sees many similarities to other pronouns, but we also see for the
first time some noun endings not used with o/a-stem adjectives.

• The masculine accusative singular looks like an i-stem adjective.

• The dative and ablative plural forms also look like i-stem adjectives.

If it were possible to provide rules to explain such variation, the memo-

rization of such rules would be far more burdensome than simply memoriz-
ing the forms. Nor is rote memorization of these forms to be emphasized.
For purposes of identification it is sufficient to note the places where pro-
nouns differ from the standard noun endings seen in o/a-stem and i-stem
adjectives. You may consult the paradigms in LMP when in doubt.
Consult LMP for the paradigms of idem, eadem, idem and quidam,
quaedam, quoddam. Note when the addition of the suffix causes the loss of
a final consonant or the lengthening of a vowel.
It is worthwhile to begin to commit to memory the personal and reflexive
pronouns shown in Table 37.5.

37.5 The Personal and Reflexive Pronoun

Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Ablative

ego meı̄ mihı̄, mı̄ mē mē
tū tuı̄ tibı̄ tē tē
nōs nostrum, nostrı̄ nōbis nōs nōbis
vōs vestrum, vestrı̄ vōbis vōs vōbis
— suı̄ sibı̄ sē sē

211
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 37 Name____________________________________

How is a pronoun able to signify but not “by means of a distinct concept”? How does this fit with the definition of a sign
as “a thing whch, over and above the impression it makes on the senses, causes something else to come into the mind as
a consequence of itself”?

At least three different kinds of Latin pronouns may be translated by a third person personal pronoun in English,
although none of them are personal pronouns in Latin: is, ille, hic, idem and perhaps others may all be translated as “he.”
How can this be justified?

Identify the pronouns according to class: personal (P), reflexive (X), demonstrative (DEM), relative (R), interrogative (INT),
definite (DEF), or indefinite (IND).

Pronoun Class Pronoun Class Pronoun Class

aliquis, aliquid meus, mea, meum quidam, quaedam, quoddam
ego nemo quis, quid
hic, haec, hoc neuter, neutra, neutrum sui
idem, eadem, idem nos suus, sua, suum
ille, illa, illud noster, nostra, nostrum tu
is, ea, id qui, quae, quod tuus, tua, tuum
ullus, ulla, ullum uter, utra, utrum vester, vestra, vestrum

Identify the following pronouns according to class (P, X, DEM, R, INT, DEF, or IND) as well as gender, number and case.

Pronoun Class Gender Number Case

cuius masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
mihi masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
illis masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
aliquos masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
earundem masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
neminis masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
hac masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
quid masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
eae masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
se masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
Identify the underlined pronouns in the following passage (Mk. 2:3-11).

Et veniunt ferentes ad eum paralyticum, qui a quattuor portabatur. Et cum non possent offerre
eum illi prae turba, nudaverunt tectum, ubi erat, et perfodientes summittunt grabatum, in quo
paralyticus iacebat. Cum vidisset autem Iesus fidem illorum, ait paralytico: “Fili, dimittuntur
peccata tua.” Erant autem illic quidam de scribis sedentes et cogitantes in cordibus suis: “Quid
hic sic loquitur? Blasphemat! Quis potest dimittere peccata nisi solus Deus?” Quo statim cognito
Iesus spiritu suo quia sic cogitarent intra se, dicit illis: “Quid ista cogitatis in cordibus vestris?
Quid est facilius, dicere paralytico: ‘Dimittuntur peccata tua’, an dicere: ‘Surge et tolle grabatum
tuum et ambula’? Ut autem sciatis quia potestatem habet Filius hominis interra dimittendi
peccata” — ait paralytico: “Tibi dico: Surge, tolle grabatum tuum et vade in domum tuam.”

Pronoun Class Gender Number Case

eum masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
qui masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
illi masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
quo masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
illorum masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
quidam masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
Quid masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
hic masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
Quis masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
se masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
illis masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
ista masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl
tibi masc—fem—neut sg—pl nom—gen—dat—acc—abl

What new ending is seen in pronouns for the neuter singular? The neuter plural?

Can you detect a middle sense in the following Latin deponent verbs?

fruor, frui, fructus, sum to enjoy, delight in, take joy from
utor, uti, usus sum to use, employ, make use of, profit by
nascor, nasci, natus sum to be born, to begin life
morior, mori, mortuus sum to die, expire
opinor, opinari, opinatus sum to suppose, imagine, think, judge
confiteor, confiteri, confessus sum to acknowledge, confess, own, avow
orior, oriri, ortus sum to arise, stir, get up

Based on their meanings, which of the deponent verbs given above would you expect to take a direct object?
38 *Review of Noun Formation

Noun Formation by Case

While reading the following comments, examine LMP 2 and LMP 3–5.

Nominative singular: -s or bare stem.

Stems in -ro and -ri show some eccentricity in the nominative singular.
Neuter o-stems use an accusative singular ending -m.
Nominative plural: -es ending.
A-stems and o-stems use an -i ending. (-o drops out)
Neuters take an -a ending, with two exceptions (haec, quae).
Accusative singular: -m (m/f.; neuter o-stems); other neuter, bare
stem.
The -o of the o-stem corrupts to a -u.
C stems add an -e before -m.
The i-stems imitate consonant stems and drop -i.
Accusative plural: -ns → -s with compensatory lengthening.
C stems, -e-ns → -ēs.
The i-stems imitate C stems and drop -i.
Neuters take an -a ending, with two exceptions (haec, quae).
Ablative singular: bare stem.
(Originally -d ending. Loss of -d causes compensatory lengthening.)
C stems add -e, without lengthening.
Generally, animate i-stems imitate C stems.
Neuter i-stems, however, retain the stem ending.

213
38. *REVIEW OF NOUN FORMATION

Ablative-dative plural: -bus.

A-stems and o-stems use -is (instrumental case) with loss of stem
ending.
A few a-stems retain -bus.
C stems imitate i-stems and take an -i-bus.
The u-stems follow C stems and usually lose -u.

Dative singular: -i.

In a-stems, -i corrupts to -e.
In o-stems, -i drops out with compensatory lengthening.

Genitive singular: -s, usually preceded by a vowel.

In C stems, -is; i-stems, -s; u-stems, -s with lengthened -u.
A-stems, o-stems and e-stems add -i (-oi → -i ; -ai → -ae).

Genitive plural: -um.

A-stems, o-stems and e-stems: -r-um.

214
 38.1 Latin Nouns: Endings

Nom Gen Dat Acc Abl

Common Endings
-s / —a -m
Sg. -i/-s -i — / -e
N: -m / — N: -m / —
-i / -es -s
Pl. -um -is / -bus -is / -bus
N: -a N: -a

Endings by Stem Type - Singular

-a a- a-(i→)e a-(i→)e a-m a-
(o→)u-s
-o o/-i o-/i (o→)u-m o-
N: (o→)u-m
-e e-s e-i e-i e-m e-
u-s u-i u-m
-u u-s u-
N: u- N:u-/i N: u-
C-sb C-em
C C-i s C-i C-e
N: C- N: C-
i-s / /i-s i/-em i/-ec
-i i-s i/-i
N: /i / (i→)e- N: /i / (i→)e- N: i-

Endings by Stem Type - Plural

-a a-(i→)e a-r um a/-is a-s a/-is
o/-i o-s
-o o-r um o/-is o/-is
N: /o-a N: /o-a
-e e-/es e-r um e-bus e-s e-bus
u-/es u-s
-u u-um u
/ -i bus u
/ -i bus
N: u-a N: u-a
C-es C-es
C C-um C-i bus C-i bus
N: C-a N: C-a
i/-es i/-es
-i i-um i-bus i-bus
N: i-a N: i-a
a
The notation “-s / —” means that this form either takes the ending -s or remains
as the bare stem.
b
Liquids (l, r ) reject the -s (amor- → amor ). Dentals (d, t) drop out before -s
(aestat- → aestas). Usually -n drops out and the -s is lost (leon- → leo).
c
In the ablative singular adjectives always use the bare stem, even when modifying
masculine and feminine nouns: leone gravi.
Questions and Exercises for Chapter 38 Name____________________________________

Indicate the proper noun endings.

SINGULAR
universal a-stem o-stem e-stem u-stem C stem i-stem
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
abl.

PLURAL
universal a-stem o-stem e-stem u-stem C stem i-stem
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
abl.

In the following passage from a well-known prayer, nine nouns or noun/adjective combinations have been taken out.
Supply the missing words according to the information given.

(1), inter omnes (2)(3); (4b) talem (4a) profert, (5), (6), (7). (8), (9), dulce pondus sustinens!

Noun Stem Meaning Gender Adj. Stem Inflected Form

1 cruc- cross f. fideli- nom. sg.:

2 arbor- tree f. uno/a- (UN) nom. sg.:

3 f. nobili- nom. sg.:

4 silva- forest f. nullo/a- (UN) nom. sg.:

5 flos- flower m. abl. sg.:

6 frondi- leaf f. abl. sg.:

7 germin- seed n. abl. sg.:

8 ligno- wood n. dulci- nom. sg.:

9 clavo- nail m. dulci- abl. sg.:

Translate the newly-completed passage above.

Give the correct forms of the following noun/adjective combinations.

Noun Adjective Number/Case Inflected Form

cervus, cervi m. celer, celeris, celere abl. pl.
lux, lucis f. clarus, clara, clarum acc. sg.
monitum, moniti n. rectus, recta, rectum nom. pl.
nubes, nubis f. levis, leve abl. sg.
gens, gentis f. divus, diva, divum gen. pl.
aula, aulae f. uter, utra, utrum dat. sg.
cultus, cultus m. nobilis, nobile acc. pl.
res, rei f. multus, multa, multum nom. pl.

Identify the indicated nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs in the following passage.

Vidit Iesus Nathanael venientem ad se et dicit de eo: “Ecce vere Israelita, in quo dolus non est.”
Dicit ei Nathanael: “Unde me nosti?” Respondit Iesus et dixit ei: “Priusquam te Philippus
vocaret, cum esses sub ficu, vidi te.”

Noun/Adj. Identification Noun/Adj. Identification

Iesus masc/fem/neut sg/pl Philippus masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
Israelita masc/fem/neut sg/pl ficu masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
dolus masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl

Pronoun Identification Pronoun Identification

se masc/fem/neut sg/pl ei masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
eo masc/fem/neut sg/pl me masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl nom/gen/dat/acc/abl
quo masc/fem/neut sg/pl te masc/fem/neut sg/pl
nom/gen/dat/acc/abl nom/gen/dat/acc/abl

Verb Identification Verb Identification

vidit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass Respondit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
dicit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass dixit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
est 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass vocaret 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
dicit 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass esses 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj
nosti 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass vidi 1st/2nd/3rd sg/pl act/pass
prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj prog/perf pres/past/fut indic/subj

Translate the passage above.

39 *Poetry; Animula vagula
blandula

The poem that follows was written by the emperor Hadrian, while on his
death bed.

1) To prepare to read the poem, find the dictionary entries for the nouns
and adjectives with the following stems:

blando/a-
comit- m/f. → comes
hospit- m. → hospes
ioco- m.
nudo/a-
pallido/a-
rigido/a-
vago/a-

2) A common diminutive ending in Latin is -ulus, -ula, -ulum. For ex-

ample, a small pars is a particula or particle; a small mass or moles is
a molecula or molecule. Five diminutives are found in this poem: an-
imula, vagula, blandula, pallidula, and nudula. The noun is a familiar
one: anima. The adjectives are vaga, blanda, pallida, and nuda.

3) The phrase dare iocum is used in the poem. Translate this literally.
How would we say this in English?

217
39. *POETRY; ANIMULA VAGULA BLANDULA

Anı́mula vágula blándula,

anima-ula- vaga-ula- blanda-ula-

Hospes cómesque córporis,

hospit-s comit-s -que corpos-is

Quae nunc ábibis in loca

qua-e ab-i-bi-s

Pallı́dula rı́gida núdula?

pallida-ula rigida- nuda-ula-

5 Nec (ut soles) dabis iocos.

sole-s da-bi-s ioco-(n)s

1 animula is the diminutive of anima. This noun, together with the two adjectives
following it, is in the vocative case, the case for addressing the person to whom the
speaker is speaking. This case only differs from the nominative case in masculine
o-stem nouns.
vagula modifies animula.
blandula modifies animula.
2 hospes 5. Since this is a noun, it does not modify animula. Rather, it is in
apposition to animula (3.21). So in the phrase “my uncle, Joe,” “Joe” is in
apposition to “my uncle.”
comes 5; 3.21.
corporis “of the body.” 10.11.
3 quae modifies loca. (Word order is especially free in poetry.) It is therefore neuter
plural. (See note below.) Quae is an interrogative pronoun meaning “what?”
nunc (adv.) “now.”
in has what sense with the accusative?
loca is the object of in. Note that the nominative singular is locus. The word
maintains the masculine gender in the plural when it means a citation or place in
a book. But when it means “place” as a body’s location, it takes a neuter plural
form: loca. English word order would be: In quae loca nunc abibis?
4 pallidula is the diminutive of pallida. Does this modify animula in the vocative
or the implicit subject (tu) of the verb abibis?
nudula is the diminutive of nuda.
5 nec (adv.) “nor.”
ut soles “as you are accustomed.”
iocos 7.1.

218
40 *Readings

Galileo’s New Science

In a work called a Dialogue on Two New Sciences, Galileo Galilei proposed
mathematical arguments for the following propositions:

Theorema Primum. Propositio Prima

theoremat- primo-m proposition- prima-

Si Mobile æquabiliter latum, eademque cum velocitate duo

mobili- aequa-bil-iter lato-m ea-dem -que velocitat-e duo-
pertranseat spatia, tempora lationum erunt inter se ut spatia
per-trans-e-a-t spati(o)-a tempos-a lation-um es-u-nt spati(o)-a
peracta.
per-act(o)-a

mobile subj. of pertranseat, “mo- per-trans-e-a-t per “through,”

bile” trans “across,” eo, ire
aequabiliter adv. “equally” spatia (spatio- n. space, interval)
latum “borne” (this is the “middle” objȯf pertranseat
of fero, ferre, tuli, (t)latum) tempor-a (tempos- n.) subj. of
ea-dem-que -que means “and.” It erunt
follows the word it joins. ea-dem lation-um (lation-) “of the move-
means “the same.” It modifies ve- ments”
locitate. inter se “among themselves”
cum prep. w/ abl. “with” ut as
velocitate “velocity,” obj. of cum peracta “traversed”
duo modifies spatia

219
40. *READINGS

Theorema Secundum. Propositio Secunda

theoremat- secundo-m proposition- secunda-

Si Mobile temporibus æqualibus duo pertranseat spatia, erunt

mobili- tempos-i-bus aequali-bus duo- per-trans-e-a-t spati(o)-a es-u-nt
ipsa spatia inter se ut velocitates. Et si spatia sint ut
ips(o)-a spati(o)-a velocitat-es spati(o)-a s-i-nt
velocitates, tempora erunt æqualia.
velocitat-es tempos-a es-u-nt aequali-a

tempor-i-bus aequali-bus “in equal times” (ablative of time) 8.31

duo modifies spatia
per-trans-e-a-t from eo, ire
ipsa modifies spatia. “the spaces themselves”

Theorema Tertium. Propositio Tertia

theoremat- tertio-m proposition- tertia-

Inæqualibus velocitatibus per idem spatium latorum tempora

in-aequali-bus velocitat-i-bus i-dem spatio-m lato-r-um tempos-a
velocitatibus e contrario respondent.
velocitat-i-bus contrario- re-sponde-nt

inaequali-bus velocitat-i-bus “with unequal velocities” (ablative of means)

per prep. w/ acc. “through”
i-dem “same” (cf. ea-dem above)
lato-r-um “of [things] borne”
velocitat-i-bus dat. pl. “to the velocities”
e contrario “in a contrary manner, inversely”
respondent “[cor]respond”

220
 40. *READINGS

Theorema Quartum. Propositio Quarta

theoremat- quarto-m proposition- quarta-

Si duo mobilia ferantur motu æquabili, inæquali tamen velocitate,

duo- mobili-a fer-a-nt-ur motu- aequabili- in-aequali- velocitat-e
spatia, temporibus inæqualibus ab ipsis peracta, habebunt
spati(o)-a tempos-i-bus in-aequali-bus ipso-is per-act(o)-a habe-b(i)-o-nt
rationem compositam ex ratione velocitatum, & ex ratione
ration-e-m com-posita-m ration-e velocitat-um ration-e
temporum.
tempos-um

mobili-a “mobiles”
fer-a-nt-ur “are borne, move”
motu abl. of means or instrument
aequabili “equable,” mod. motu
inaequali modifies velocitate
tamen postpositive adv. “yet”
velocitat-e abl. of means or instrument
spatia subj. of habebunt
tempor-i-bus inaequali-bus “in unequal times” (abl. of time—from loc. abl.)
ab ipsis “by them” (original abl. signifying an agent—ablative of agent)
peracta “traversed”
habe-bu-nt “will have”
ration-e-m “ratio”
composita-m “composed” mod. rationem
ex prep. w/ “original” abl.
ration-e “ratio”
velocitat-um “of the velocities”
tempor-um (tempos- n.) “of the times”

221
40. *READINGS

Theorema Quintum. Propositio Quinta

theoremat- quinto-m proposition- quinta-

Si duo mobilia æquabili motu ferantur, sint tamen velocitates

duo- mobili-a aequabili- motu- fer-a-nt-ur s-i-nt velocitat-es
inæquales, & inæqualia spatia peracta, ratio temporum
in-aequali-es in-aequali-a spati(o)-a per-act(o)-a ration- tempos-um
conposita erit ex ratione spatiorum, & ex ratione velocitatum
con-posit(o)-a es-i-t ration-e spatio-r-um ration-e velocitat-um
contrarie sumptarum.
contrari(o)-e sumpta-r-um

aequabili motu abl. of means tempor-um (tempos- n.) “of the times”
fer-a-nt-ur conposita “composed”
tamen postpositive adv. “yet” ex prep. w/ “original” abl.
velocitat-es subj. of sint spatio-r-um “of the spaces”
in-aequal-es velocitat-um “of the velocities”
in-aequali-a predicated of spatia contrarie “contrarily, inversely”
peracta mod. spatia sumpta-r-um “taken,” modifies
ratio “ratio” velocitatum

Theorema Sextum. Propositio Sexta

theoremat- sexto-m proposition- sexta-

Si duo Mobilia æquabili motu ferantur, ratio velocitatum ipsorum

duo- mobili-a aequabili- motu- fer-a-nt-ur ration- velocitat-um ipso-r-um
composita erit ex ratione spatiorum peractorum & ex ratione
com-posit(o)-a es-i-t ration-e spatio-r-um per-acto-r-um ration-e
temporum contrarie sumptorum.
tempos-um contrari(o)-e sumpto-r-um

aequabili motu abl. of means

fer-a-nt-ur
velocitat-um ipso-r-um “of the velocities themselves, of the velocities”
composita “composed”
per-acto-r-um “traversed,” mod. spatiorum
contrarie “in a contrary way, inversely”
sumpto-r-um “taken,” mod. temporum

222
A Appendix: Vocabulary Lists

This appendix contains in one place all of the vocabulary lists, reproduced
here exactly as they are found at the end of every third chapter in the
Primer.

223
A. APPENDIX: VOCABULARY LISTS

Vocabulary List 1a

et (et. . . et) 4b
sed 4
vel 4
aut (aut. . . aut) 4
linea, lineae f. (linea-) 6
circulus, circuli m. (circulo-) 7
numerus, numeri m. (numero-) 7
punctum, puncti n. (puncto-) 7
triangulus, trianguli m. (triangulo-) 7
pars, partis (parti-) f. 22
rēctus, rēcta, rēctum (recto-) 23
ūnus, ūna, ūnum (unius) 28
duo, duae, duo (dual) 28
tres, tria 28
quattuor (indecl.) 28
quı̄nque (indecl.) 28
sex (indecl.) 28
septem (indecl.) 28
octō (indecl. dual) 28
novem (indecl.) 28
decem (indecl.) 28
nōn 37
etiam 38

a
A new vocabulary list appears at the end
of every third chapter.
b
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

224
 A. APPENDIX: VOCABULARY LISTS

Notes on Vocabulary List 1 In these vocabulary lists, various kinds of information

are included in parenthesis. et. . . et and aut. . . aut are idiomatic uses of these words
which need to be considered distinctly. parti- is the stem of the noun pars. As we will
see later, it is often not easy to find the noun’s stem just from looking at the dictionary
entry of the noun. unius is the irregular genitive singular of the adjective unus, una,
unum. The genitive singular form of an adjective is not usually part of the dictionary
entry. It is included here only because it is irregular. indecl. means that this adjective
is indeclinable, i.e., its endings do not change to reflect different number or case as most
adjectives’ endings do. dual refers to an almost lost alternative to singular and plural.
The dual number refers to having two and only two of something. octo means “eight”
and is thought of as two fours. The root of octo refers to the four fingers on the hand
to which the thumb is opposed. One apparently showed the number eight not by using
five fingers on one hand and three on the other but by holding up both hands with
the thumbs folded down. (As can be seen in the notes just given, some provide useful
information; others are more for the sake of taking delight in language.)

225
A. APPENDIX: VOCABULARY LISTS

Vocabulary List 2

pater, patris (patr-) m. 14a

servus, servi (servo-) m. 7
tribus, tribūs f. 19
adventus, adventūs m. 19
domus, domūs f. 19
effectus, effectūs m. 19
fructus, fructūs m. 19
manus, manūs f. 19
sensus, sensūs m. 19
spiritus, spiritūs m. 19
cornū, cornūs n. 19
genū, genūs n. 19
acies, aciei f. 20
diēs, diēi f./m. 20
facies, faciei f. 20
superficiēs, superficiēi f. 20
fides, fidei f. 20
res, rei f. 20
speciēs, speciēi f. 20
spes, spei f. 20

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

226
 A. APPENDIX: VOCABULARY LISTS

Notes on Vocabulary List 2 Macrons are placed over certain vowels to indicate
that they are long by nature: tribūs. We will not be attending to the length of vowels at
all times, but only when it is helpful for the sake of morphology. The ancient Romans
did not mark vowel lengths; rather, they are the addition of later editors of Latin texts.
More importantly, it is an unnecessary burden to learn the length of every vowel. And
while it is possible to explain the length of most vowels in Latin words and why they
shift from short to long or long to short, this is a very specialized knowledge far beyond
beginning students. servus and tribus would seem to belong to the same declension if
one considered only the nominative singular form. The genitive singular form shows that
servus is an o-stem and tribus is a u-stem. The stem of servŏ- ends in a short o. The
short u is pronounced with the mouth in almost the same position as for the short o,
but the jaw is slightly more closed. Since the s sound requires the jaw to close after the
short o sound (say, “boss”), it was natural to begin the closing of the jaw even during
the vowel sound, turning the short o into a short u. (Did you say, “bah-uss”?) Thus
the phonological principle (LMP 6): ŏ in a final syllable, when followed by a consonant,
generally corrupts to ŭ: servo-s → servus. This is not to claim that such a corruption
was necessary, but only to justify why it did occur. cornu and genu are the only two
neuter u-stem nouns you will be asked to learn. acies and the other e-stem nouns given
here are the only eight e-stems you will be asked to learn. dies can be either masculine
or feminine, and some Latin grammars give an account of when it is masculine and when
it is feminine.

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Vocabulary List 3

philosophia, philosophiae f. 6a
philosophus, philosophi m. 7
imber, imbris (imbri-) m. 8
nox, noctis (nocti-) f. 8
turris, turris (turri-) f. 8
urbs, urbis (urbi-) f. 8
sedes, sedis (sedi-) f. 8
animal, animalis (animali-) n. 8
exemplar, exemplaris (exemplari-) n. 8
mare, maris (mari-) n. 8
miles, militis (milit-) m. 10
quantitas, quantitātis (quantitat-) f. 10
poema, poematis (poemat-) n. 10
caput, capitis (capit-) n. 10
rex, regis (reg-) m. 11
princeps, principis (princip-) m. 12
caelebs, caelibis (caelib-) m./f. 12
consul, consulis (consul-) m. 13
flos, floris (flos-) m. 15
genus, generis (genes-) n. 15
sanguis, sanguinis (sanguin-) m. 18
panis, panis (pan-) m. 18
iuvenis, iuvenis (iuven-) m./f. 18
nomen, nominis (nomin-) n. 18

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

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Notes on Vocabulary List 3 The stems of consonant and i-stem nouns will regularly
be given. animal derives from animus (“mind, spirit”), from which anima (“breath,
soul”) is another derivative. Although n-stem nouns regularly lost the n in the nominative
singular, canis, panis and iuvenis exhibit the n even in this form. Historical evidence
shows that even canis and iuvenis lost the n at one time, but for different reasons the n
was restored. panis is unique among n-stems in that the stem ending was not originally
preceded by a vowel: the original form was pastnis. Presumably, the -st helped save the
n. canis comes from the root kuon-: the loss of the first vowel and shift of the second
yields the stem can-. In a different development, the root lost the second vowel and
the k softened to h: hun-. From this we eventually get the English “hound.” iuvenis,
given as a noun here, would have the same form as an adjective meaning “young.”
The comparative iuvenior, “younger,” contracted to iunior, yielding in English “junior.”
The loss of the syllable -ve makes more sense if one recalls that the consonant v was
pronounced more like our w. It is possible that miles is related to the English “mile”
through the Latin word mille (“thousand”). The English “mile” is derived from the
Latin expression for “a thousand paces.” The miles was a foot soldier, not a knight
mounted on a horse or other specialized kind of soldier, the kind of soldier that one had
“by the thousand.” princeps is derived from primus (“first,” “foremost,” superlative of
prior, “in front of,” pro, “before”) and capere (“to take”): one who takes the first place.

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Vocabulary List 4

femina, feminae f. 6a
rēgı̄na, rēgı̄nae f. 6
agricola, agricolae m. 6
poeta, poetae m. 6
dominus, domini m. 7
puer, pueri (puero-) m. 7
ager, agri (agro-) m. 7
vir, virı̄ (viro-) m. 7
aedificium, aedificii n. 7
donum, doni n. 7
venter, ventris (ventri-) m. 8
nubes, nubis (nubi-) f. 8
virtus, virtūtis (virtut-) f. 10
custos, custōdis (custod-) m./f. 10
dux, ducis (duc-) m./f. 11
mel, mellis (mell-) n. 13
os, oris (os-) n. 15
os, ossis (oss-) n. 15
cor, cordis n. 21
iter, itineris (itiner-; iter-) n. 21
altus, alta, altum 23
bonus, bona, bonum 23
dexter, dextra, dextrum 24
sinister, sinistra, sinistrum (sinistro/a-) 24

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

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Notes on Vocabulary List 4 dominus is derived from domus: he was the master of
the house. cor has lost the final d (cord → cor ) because in Latin a final d is usually lost
after a long vowel or a consonant. In Chapter 17 we will see that the ablative singular
used to end in a long vowel and a final d, but the d was lost: animād → animā, animōd
→ animō. The final d was retained after a short vowel: sĕd. iter reflects that the parent
language of Latin was much more complex than Latin itself. For example, proto-Indo-
European had more declensions, which have been simplified and condensed into the five
Latin declensions. Iter belonged to a small subdeclension of neuter nouns that had an
r-stem in the nominative and an n-stem in the genitive: iter, itinis. Latin combined
these forms into the new genitive singular itineris, which makes the noun an r-stem
throughout but also reflects the old n-stem form. The English “sinister” has a negative
connotation, but sinister can mean both “lucky” and “unlucky.” In Roman augury,
the augur faced the south and his left side was associated with the East, which was
considered the favorable side. Greek augurs faced north, putting the unfavorable west
on their left side. Thus, the word took on opposite meanings. altus took on opposite
meanings: “high” and “deep.” Here the opposites are alike in being far removed from sea
level. A placid sea without waves had neither high crests nor deep troughs. os, ossis
loses the second s of its stem because it is impossible to pronounce a double consonant
at the end of a word.

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Vocabulary List 5

murus, muri m. 7a
liber, libri (libro-) m. 7
nix, nivis (niv-; nom. sg: nig-) f. 16
senex, senis (nom: senec-; sen-) m. 21
vesper, vesperis (vesper-; vespero-) m. 21
vis, vis (sg: vi-; pl : viri-) f. 21
falsus, falsa, falsum 23
vērus, vēra, vērum 23
malus, mala, malum 23
longus, longa, longum 23
magnus, magna, magnum 23
asper, aspera, asperum (aspero/a-) 24
lı̄ber, lı̄bera, lı̄berum (libero/a-) 24
ācer, ācris, ācre (acri-) 26
celer, celeris, celere (celeri-) 26
salūber, salūbris, salūbre (salubri-) 26
brevis, breve 26
difficilis, difficile 26
facilis, facile 26
omnis, omne 26
ūtilis, ūtile 26
suāvis, suāve 26
prior, prius 27
vetus, veteris (vetes-) m./f./n. 27
sum, esse, fuı̄, [futūrum] [es-/s-] 31

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

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Notes on Vocabulary List 5 nix cannot be explained simply from the stem niv -,
since nivs would not contract to nix. Proto-Indo-European had a sound g w or g w h, which
is like our q (= k w ) but voiced. The root from which nix derives is nig w h-. If the g is
lost, nig w h- becomes niv-, the normal stem of this noun; if the w is lost nig w h- becomes
nig-. Thus, nix derives from the other stem taken from the same root: nigs → nix.
senex has two stems as shown. Senectus (“old age”) derives from one of these; senatus
(“senate”) and senator derive from the other. vis reflects that proto-Indo-European had
two i-stem declensions, one in which the i was long and the other in which it was short.
Latin collapsed these two into its one i-stem declension (which it further compounded
with consonant stems), in which the i is short. Vis had a stem that ended in a long
i, so the accusative singular vim is regular; vem, which would be regular for a stem
ending in a short i, is not used. Rather than retaining its ı̄-stem forms in the plural, it
developed an s-stem, which by rhotacism becomes viri-. vetus is the one true consonant
stem adjective to be learned. The others are comparatives. The root from which vetus
is derived means “year.” Originally, senex was usually used to describe people and vetus
was used to describe horses, which were much more likely to live longer than other cattle,
since the Romans did not eat horses.

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Vocabulary List 6

in (prep., acc. and abl.) 1a

super (prep., abl. and acc.) 1
ā, ab, abs (prep., abl. only) 3
dē (prep., abl. only) 3
ex, ē (prep., abl. only) 3
cum (prep., abl. only) 3
prae (prep., abl. only) 3
prō (prep., abl. only) 3
sine (prep., abl. only) 3
sub (prep., abl. and acc.) 3
ūllus, ūlla, ūllum (ullius) 25
nūllus, nūlla, nūllum (nullius) 25
ūnus, ūna, ūnum (unius) 25
sōlus, sōla, sōlum (solius) 25
neuter, neutra, neutrum (neutrius) 25
alter, altera, alterum (alterius) 25
uter, utra, utrum (utrius) (utro/a-) 25
tōtus, tōta, tōtum (totius) 25
alius, alia, aliud (alterius—from alter) 25
commūnis, commūne 26
humilis, humile 26
immortālis, immortāle 26
mortālis, mortāle 26
inferior, inferius 27
superior, superius 27

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

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Notes on Vocabulary List 6 in, pro and other prepositions were originally adverbs
(“He went in.” “It has happened before.”), which came to be further specified by a noun
(“He went in the room.” “It happened before noon.”) Their adverbial force is also felt
when they are used as prefixes for verbs: prosum, ineo. humilis is derived from the
noun humus (“ground, soil”). Hummus is from Arabic, a non-Indo-European language,
and so not related. Humus does appear to be related to homo (“man,” i.e., “earthling”)
and humanus. Thus, the meaning of the proto-Indo-European root suggests that man is
made of earth: “Then the Lord God formed man from the dust of the ground” (Gen. 2:7).
mortalis and other adjectives show the suffix -alis which generally means “belonging
to, connected with, derived from.” Some suffixes like -alis make adjectives out of nouns
without any extra special meaning: -ius (patrius, “paternal”), -cus (bellicus, “of war”),
-nus (caninus, “canine”), -aris (popularis, “of the people”), etc. Other suffixes both add
a special meaning and form an adjective from a noun: -ax (having a tendency: tenax,
“tenacious, able to hold on”), -bilis (having a passive quality or ability: mobilis, “able
to be moved”), -osus (fullness: verbosus, “verbose, full of words”). communis comes
from cum (“with”) and munus (“function, task, duty”). Community arises from sharing
in the tasks and duties of others.

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Vocabulary List 7

anima, animae f. 6a
luna, lunae f. 6
locus, loci m. (n. pl. loca and loci) 7
sedile, sedilis (sedili-) n. 8
laus, laudis (laud-; laudi-) f. 10
iudex, iudicis (iudic-) m./f. 11
sol, solis (sol-) m. 13
honor, honoris (honos- → honor-) m. 14
cinis, cineris (cines-) m. 15
vas, vasis (vas-) n. 15
bos, bovis (bov-) m./f. 16
hiems, hiemis f. 17
imāgō, imāginis (imagin-) f. 18
antı̄quus, antı̄qua, antı̄quum 23
dūrus, dūra, dūrum 23
hūmānus, hūmāna, hūmānum 23
novus, nova, novum 23
perfectus, perfecta, perfectum 23
pūrus, pūra, pūrum 23
stultus, stulta, stultum 23
ultimus, ultima, ultimum 23
vı̄vus, vı̄va, vı̄vum 23
miser, misera, miserum (misero/a-) 24
niger, nigra, nigrum (nigro/a-) 24
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum (pulchro/a-) 24

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

236
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Notes on Vocabulary List 7 sedile and sedes are nearly equivalent. Sedes was
formed directly from the verbal root of sedeo. sedile added the adjectival suffix -ile,
which was then used substantively (“a thing which may be sat on”) and eventually
became a noun. bos shows two stems (bo- and bov-): (sing.) bo-s, bov-is, bov-i, bov-em,
bov-e; (pl.) bov-es, bov-um, bo-bus, bov-es, bo-bus. One also sees bu-bus and bov-ibus for
bobus. All these come from the same root, which we may represent as bou-. The stem bo-
reflects a loss of the second vowel; the stem bov- reflects the change of the vowel u into
the semi-vowel v. Bu- of bubus apparently comes from losing the o of bou- instead of the
u. hiems is the only m-stem we learn. The English “hibernate” comes from the Latin
hibernus, which itself comes from hiemrinus. Note that m and b are pronounced with
the mouth in the same position; they differ only in whether the breath passes through
the nose or exits the mouth at the parting of the lips. This makes a transition from m
to b easy. cinis comes from a root related to a verb meaning “to burn.” This root can
be seen in words like “incense” and “incendiary.” antiquus is just a different spelling of
anticus, an adjective formed from the adverb antea (“before, in front of”). Something
is old or ancient because it comes before us in time. stultus may derive from a verb
meaning “to place,” so a fool is someone whose mind is unmoving or stuck in place.

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Vocabulary List 8

ad (prep., acc. only) 2a

per (prep., acc. only) 2
post (prep., acc. only) 2
propter (prep., acc. only) 2
trāns (prep., acc. only) 2
tussis, tussis (tussi-) f. 8
dōs, dōtis (dōti-) f. 8
linter, lintris (lintri-) f. 8
uter, utris (utri-) m. 8
femur, femoris (femor-) n. 14
corpus, corporis (corpos-) n. 15
grus, gruis (gru(v)-) f. 16
sus, suis (su(v)-) m./f. 16
eō, ı̄re, iı̄ (ı̄vı̄), itum [eo] 31
adeō, adı̄re, adiı̄, aditum [eo] 31
obeō, obı̄re, obiı̄ (obı̄vı̄), obitum [eo] 31
redeō, -ı̄re, rediı̄ (redı̄vı̄), reditum [eo] 31
trānseō, -ı̄re, transiı̄ (-ı̄vı̄), -situm [eo] 31
regō, regere, rēxı̄, rēctum [reg-] 32
amō, amāre, amāvı̄, amātum [am-] 34
laudō, -āre, laudāvı̄, laudātum [laus] 34
dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuı̄, dēbitum [habeo] 35
moneō, -ēre, monuı̄, monitum [man-] 35
audiō, audı̄re, audı̄vı̄, audı̄tum [au-2 ] 36
sciō, scı̄re, scı̄vı̄, scı̄tum [sec-1 ] 36

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word
List (MLWL).

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Notes on Vocabulary List 8 propter is derived from prope (“nearby, at hand”).

Since a reason or cause is near its effect in a figurative sense, propter came to mean
“on account of, for the sake of.” uter gave rise to the name for the organ, “uterus,”
for obvious reasons. It is not related to uter, utra, utrum, which dropped the opening
consonant of its original stem quoter- or cuter-. Thus, uter, utra, utrum is a compound
with the same stem quo/a- found in cum and many pronouns, such as qui, quae, quod.
grus and sus are listed as having the stems gru(v)- and su(v)-. This does not mean that
they are sometimes u-stems and sometimes consonant stems. The forms of sus are (sing.)
sus, suis, sui, suim/suem, sui/sue; (pl.) se, suium, suibus, suis/sues, suibus. Note that
the stem never ends in -uv. Grus is the same. Rather, the v in su(v)- and gru(v)- means
that these nouns must be thought of as ending in a consonant rather than a vowel. Thus,
these nouns are consonant stems rather than u-stems. Proto-Indo-European had both a
short-u and a long-u declension, which were collapsed into the one u-stem declension in
Latin. Grus and sus were ū-stems that did not follow the normal pattern of becoming
ŭ-stems but were drawn into the consonant stem declension, because the endings of
the proto-Indo-European ū-stems were more like the endings of consonant stems than
the endings of ŭ-stems. adeo, adire and the other verbs on this list are followed by
information in brackets. This indicates either the other Latin word or the pre-Latin root
from which these words derive: rego, regere comes from the root reg-. Adeo, adire is a
compound of eo, ire. Laudo, laudare derives from the Latin noun laus, laudis. Audio is
said to come from the root au-2 , because there is another root, au-1 , which is spelled the
same but unrelated. The numbers do not indicate an order between them, just that they
are distinct. Thus, one can see that audeo [au-1 ] is not related to audio [au-2 ]. Likewise,
scio, scire [sec-1 ] is not related to sequor, sequi [sec-2 ]. De + habeo → debeo. De- has
a negating force: you lack what you do not have; you are in debt or you owe when you
lack what you must pay back.

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Vocabulary List 9

enim 4a
neque, nec 4
sı̄ (conj.) 4
dō, dare, dedı̄, datum [d-] 31
condō, condere, condidı̄, -ditum [dare] 32
crēdō, crēdere, crēdidı̄, crēditum [dare] 32
vendō, vendere, vendidı̄, -ditum [venum + dare] 32
ferō, ferre, tulı̄, (t)lātum [fer-] 31
adferō, adferre, attulı̄, allātum [fero] 31
auferō, auferre, abstulı̄, ablātum [fero] 31
cōnferō, -ferre, cōntulı̄, collātum [fero] 31
efferō, efferre, extulı̄, ēlātum [fero] 31
ı̄nferō, ı̄nferre, intulı̄, illātum [fero] 31
offerō, offerre, obtulı̄, oblātum [fero] 31
perferō, perferre, pertulı̄, perlātum [fero] 31
praeferō, -ferre, -tulı̄, praelātum [fero] 31
prōferō, prōferre, prōtulı̄, prōlātum [fero] 31
referō, referre, retulı̄, relātum [fero] 31
transferō, -ferre, transtulı̄, -lātum [fero] 31
ergō 37
nunc 37
semper 37
numquam 38
ōlim 38
sōlum 39

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word List
(MLWL).

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Notes on Vocabulary List 9 credo, credere combines the root of cor, cordis and
do, dare: “to put in the heart” → “to believe.” Many of the compounds of fero, ferre,
have prefixes that may stand alone as adverbs or prepositions; others may not. The
prefix ob-, as in offerre, means “towards, in front of, against.” It is found in many other
words, such as “obstacle” (from ob + stare, “what is standing in the way”), “obedience”
(from ob + audire, “to listen to”), “object” (from ob + iacere, “to throw against”),
“obligation” (from ob + ligare, “what is tied onto”), and so on. The principal parts of
offere also reveal the connection between the words “offering” and “oblation.” semper
has the root sa-, which is also written as sem- and sim- and means “ together, like.”
Related words are semel (“once”), simul (“together, at the same time”), similis (“like,
similar”), and simplex (“having a single layer, simple”).

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Vocabulary List 10

inquam, inquit (def. verb) 30a

possum, posse, potuı̄, — [sum] 31
volō, velle, voluı̄, — [vel-, vol-] 31
nōlō, nōlle, nōluı̄ [volo] 31
mālō, mālle, māluı̄, — [volo] 31
fiō, fierı̄, factus sum [fi-] 31
pellō, pellere, pepulı̄, pulsum [pel-] 32
tendō, tendere, tetendı̄, tentum/tensum [ta-] 32
stō, stāre, stētı̄, statum [st-] 34
cōnstō, -stāre, cōnstitı̄, (-stātūm) [sto] 34
praestō, -āre, praestitı̄, praestitum [sto] 34
sistō, sistere, stitı̄, statum [sto] 32
cōnsistō, -sistere, cōnstitı̄, — [sto] 32
capiō, capere, cēpı̄, captum [cap-] 33
dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvı̄, dēlētum [li-] 35
iubeō, iubēre, iussı̄, iussum [iub-] 35
maneō, -ēre, mānsı̄, mānsum [man-] 35
remaneō, -ēre, -mānsı̄, -mānsum [maneo] 35
persuādeō, -ēre, persuāsı̄, -sum [suad-] 35
rideō, ridēre, rı̄sı̄, rı̄sum 35
subrideō, -ēre, subrı̄sı̄, subrı̄sum [rideo] 35
sentiō, sentı̄re, sēnsı̄, sēnsum [sent-] 36
reperiō, -ı̄re, repperı̄, repertum [pario] 36

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word List
(MLWL).

242
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Notes on Vocabulary List 10 The root of volo is vol-, vel-, or ver-, which means “to
perceive, watch out for.” English cognates include “wary,” “aware,” “lord,” “steward,”
“warden,” “award,” “reward,” “guard” and “panorama.” pello comes from the root
pel-, which is also found in the forms pal-, pul- and even spar-. Related words are pollen
(“fine flour”), pulvis (“dust”), populus (“army, people”) and parcere (“to use moderately,
spare”). Some English cognates are “spare,” “spear,” “spur” and “spurn.” tendo has
the root ta- or ten-, which means “to stretch.” Related words are tabula (“table”), teneo
(“to hold”), tenuis (“thin”), contendo, tempto (“to feel, test”), ostendo (“to stretch
forth, show”), and even tempus (“a stretch of time, time”). deleo comes from the root
li-, which means “to pour, smear.” Other Latin words that share the same root are linea,
littera, and litus. The English word “lime” is a cognate.

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Vocabulary List 11

dı̄cō, dı̄cere, dı̄xı̄, dictum [dic-] 32a

discō, discere, didicı̄, — [dico] 32
faciō, facere, fēcı̄, factum [fac-] 33
fugiō, fugere, fūgı̄, fugitum [fug-] 33
iaciō, iacere, iēcı̄, iactum [ia-] 33
pariō, parere, peperı̄, partum [par-] 33
iuvō, iuvāre, iūvı̄, iūtum 34
adiuvō, adiuvāre, adiūvı̄, adiūtum [iuvo] 34
putō, putāre, putāvı̄, putātum [putus] 34
disputō, -āre, -putāvı̄, -putātum [puto] 34
disputatio, disputationis (disputation-) f. 18
caveō, cavēre, cāvı̄, cautum [cav-] 35
contineō, -ēre, continuı̄, -tentum [teneo] 35
pertineō, pertinēre, pertinuı̄, — [teneo] 35
foveō, fovēre, fōvı̄, fōtum [fov-] 35
moveō, movēre, mōvı̄, mōtum [mov-] 35
videō, vidēre, vı̄dı̄, vı̄sum [vid-] 35
veniō, venı̄re, vēnı̄, ventum [ven-] 36
inveniō, -ı̄re, invēnı̄, inventum [venio] 36
adveniō, -ı̄re, advēnı̄, adventum [venio] 36
ēveniō, ēvenı̄re, ēvēnı̄, ēventum [venio] 36

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word List
(MLWL).

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Notes on Vocabulary List 11 dico comes from a verb root meaning “to talk, speak;
declare.” A very large number of Latin words derive from this root, a few of which are
benedicere (“to bless”), maledicere (“to curse”), praeco (“crier, announcer”), condicio
(“contract, term”), iudicium, iudex and dictator. iacio also gives rise to a great num-
ber of compounds and English derivatives: “adjective,” “object,” “reject,” etc. Its root
means “to throw.” A related word is iaceo, iacere, which by ablaut produces a “stative”
meaning: “to be thrown down; to lie.” Some English pairs of verbs show a similar re-
lationship and are also distinguished by ablaut: “set”/“sit,” “fell”/“fall,” “lay”/“lie.”
pario, parere does not have the same relation to pareo, parēre, which is from a dif-
ferent root. Latin derivatives from pario, which means “to give birth,” include parens
(“parent”), peritus (“experienced”), expertus, and periculum (“danger”). Pars, partis
may come from the same root as pario; its original meaning was “something brought
forth” or “lot, portion, fate.” puto, putare first meant “to cut off unwanted branches,
to prune a tree.” It derives from the adjective putus -a, -um, which means “pure, un-
mixed.” It is worthwhile to keep track of the etymologies of the various Latin words
for knowledge and knowing. The fourth principal part of moveo, movere would have
been movetum. Since the v was pronounced more like our w, the second syllable was
susceptible to elision, which resulted in motum.

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A. APPENDIX: VOCABULARY LISTS

Vocabulary List 12

iungō, iungere, iūnxı̄, iūnctum [iug-] 32a

coniungō, -ere, -iūnxı̄, -iūnctum [iungo] 32
legō, legere, lēgı̄, lēctum [leg-] 32
dı̄ligō, dı̄ligere, dı̄lēxı̄, dı̄lēctum [lego] 32
intellegō, -ere, -tellēxı̄, intellēctum [lego] 32
mittō, mittere, mı̄sı̄, missum [mit-] 32
āmittō, āmittere, āmı̄sı̄, āmissum [mitto] 32
prōmittō, -ere, prōmı̄sı̄, -missum [mitto] 32
nōscō, -ere, nōvı̄, nōtum [(g)na- / gno-] 32
cognōscō, -ere, cognōvı̄, -nitum [nosco] 32
ignōscō, -ere, ignōvı̄, ignōtum [nosco] 32
narrō, -āre, narrāvı̄, narrātum [nosco] 34
recognōscō, -ere, -nōvı̄, -nitum [nosco] 32
petō, petere, petı̄vı̄, petı̄tum [pet-] 32
competō, -ere, -petı̄vı̄, -petı̄tum [peto] 32
sinō, sinere, sı̄vı̄, situm [si-] 32
dēsinō, dēsinere, dēsı̄vı̄, dēsitum [sino] 32
pōnō, -ere, posuı̄, positum [po + sino] 32
compōnō, -ere, -posuı̄, -positum [pono] 32
quaerō, -ere, quaesı̄vı̄, quaesı̄tum [quaes-] 32
acquı̄rō, -ere, -quı̄sı̄vı̄, -quı̄sı̄tum [quaero] 32
requı̄rō, -ere, -quı̄sı̄vı̄, -ı̄tum [quaero] 32
regō, regere, rēxı̄, rēctum [reg-] 32
corrigō, -ere, corrēxı̄, corrēctum [rego] 32
surgō (surrigō), -ere, surrēxı̄, -rēctum [rego] 32

a
Numbers refer to the Morphological Latin Word List
(MLWL).

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 A. APPENDIX: VOCABULARY LISTS

Notes on Vocabulary List 12 intellego is another Latin word for knowing. It comes
from a root meaning “to collect” plus the prefix inter- (“between, among”). nosco and
its derivatives form another group of words for knowing. The root gna-, which means
“to know,” generally lost its g at the beginning of a word (nosco, narro), but kept its
g in a compound (cognosco, ignosco). Nosco originally meant “to get to know” due to
the -sc infix. Its perfect forms (novi, etc.) would have meant “to have gotten to know”
or just “to know.” Eventually, nosco came to mean just “to know,” with the result
that the perfect has the same meaning as the progressive. There is another root, gen-
(“to beget”), which also has the form gna- but is unrelated to the root of nosco. pono
combines the prefix po- (“off, away”) and the verb sino. Po- is not related to pro; it is
probably from the same root as ab: apa-. (The letters p and b differ only in that b is
voiced.) Thus, po- + sino → pono would have meant “to leave off” → “to offload” →
“to put.”

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 21.8 Latin Verbs: Common Formants
Progressive System Perfect System
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Present Past Future Present Past Present Past Future Present Past
— -a-/-ba-/-eba- -i-/-bi-/-e- -i-/-e-/-a- -se- — -era- -eri- (IO) -eri- (I) -isse-
Verbs Formants by Root Verb
sum, esse su-/es- er-a- er-i- s-i- es-se- fu-i- fu-era- fu-eri- fu-eri- fu-isse-
possum, posse possu-/potes- poter-a- poter-i- poss-i- pos-se- potu-i- potu-era- potu-eri- potu-eri- potu-isse-
volo, velle volu-/vul- vol-eba- vol-e- vel-i- vel-(se→)le- volu-i- volu-era- volu-eri- volu-eri- volu-isse-
nolo, nolle nol(u)- nol-eba- nol-e- nol-i- nol-(se→)le- nolu-i- nolu-era- nolu-eri- nolu-eri- nolu-isse-
malo, malle mal(u)- mal-eba- mal-e- mal-i- mal-(se→)le- malu-i- malu-era- malu-eri- malu-eri- malu-isse-
do, dare da- da-ba- da-bi- da/-e- da-(se→)re ded-i- ded-era- ded-eri- ded-eri- ded-isse-
edo, esse ed- ed-eba- ed-e- ed+ a-/i- e(d→)s-se- ed-i- ed-era- ed-eri- ed-eri- ed-isse-
eo, ire e-/i- i-ba- i-bi- e-a- i-(se→)re- i(v)-i- i(v)-era- i(v)-eri- i(v)-eri- i(v)-isse-
fero, ferre fer- fer-eba- fer-e- fer-a- fer-(se→)re- tul-i- tul-era- tul-eri- tul-eri- tul-isse-
fio, fieri fi- fi-eba- fi-e- fi-a- fi-e-(se→)re-
Stems Formants by Stem Ending
-ĕ ĕ- ĕ/-eba- ĕ/-e- ĕ/-a- ĕ-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri- -isse-
-a a- a-ba- a-bi- a
/-e- a-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri- -isse-
-e e- e-ba- e-bi- e-a- e-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri- -isse-
-i i- i-eba- i-e- i-a- i-(se→)re- -i- -era- -eri- -eri -isse-
rego, regere, rexi, rectum capio, capĕre, cepi, captum laudo, -are, -avi, -atum moneo, -ēre, -ui, -itum audio, -ire, -ivi, -itum
regĕ- (IOU) rex-i- capi- (IOU) cep-i- lauda- (O) laudav-i- mone- (O) monu-i- audi- (IOU) audiv-i-
regĕ/-eba- rex-era- capi-eba- cep-era- lauda-ba laudav-era- mone-ba- monu-era- audi-eba- audiv-era-
regĕ/-e- (-am) rex-eri- (IO) capi-e- (-am) cep-eri- (IO) lauda-bi laudav-eri- (IO) mone-bi- monu-eri- (IO) audi-e- (-am) audiv-eri- (IO)
regĕ/-a- rex-eri- (I) capi-a- cep-eri- (I) lauda
/-e laudav-eri- (I) mone-a- monu-eri- (I) audi-a- audiv-eri- (I)
regĕ-re- rex-isse- capĕ-re- cep-isse- lauda-re laudav-isse- mone-re- monu-isse- audi-re- audiv-isse-
Personal Endings “R Passive” Present Perfect Active Imperative Passive Imperative
-m/-o -mus -(o)r -mur -i -imus — — — —
-s -tis -re/-ris -mini -isti -istis —/-to -te/-tote -re/-tor -mini
-t -nt -tur -ntur -it -erunt -to -nto -tor -ntor