CHAPTER Manufacturing Processes Manufacturing processes are thesteps involved in converting raw materialsinto finished products. There are many different manufacturing processes, each of which is suited fora specific type of product and materi isused lopmetcea wide varity of prides inching egineblocks, crankshaft, and machine parts. 2. Forging: Metal is heated and then shaped by hammering or pressing. This process is used to produce strong and durable parts, such as crankshafts, connecting rods, and gears. 3. Machining: Metal is removed from a workpiece using a cutting tool. This process is used to produce high-precision parts, such as engine pistons and valves. 4. Forming: Metal is shaped by applying pressure. This process is used to produce a variety of products, stich as car bodies, appliance parts, and cans. 5. Welding: Two or more pieces of metal are joined together using heat or pressure. This process is used to praduce a wide variety of products, including bridges, buildings, and ships. 6. Injection molding: Molten plastic is injected into a mold and allowed to solidify.154 Manufacturing Processes ‘This process is used to produce a wide variety of plastic products, such as toys, bottles, and electronic components. 7. Extrusion: Molten plastic is forced through a die to produce a continuous shape. This process is used to produce products such as pipes, tubing, and film. Manufacturing processes can be classified into two main types: primary and secondary. © Primary manufacturing processes convert raw materials into basic materials, such as steel, aluminum, and plastic. * Secondary manufacturing processes convert basic materials into finished products. Manufacturing processes are constantly evolving as new technologies are developed. For example, additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is a new manufactur ing process that is used to produce complex parts that would be difficult or impossible to produce using traditional methods. Manufacturing processes are esséntial for, 1@ production ofall goods that we rely on in our daily lives, From the cars we drive to the homes we live in, manufacturing Processes are used to create the prb ts that we ugk every day. i yeu: 5.0.1 Examples of Manufacturing Processes Here are some examples of manufacturing processes used to produce different types of products: 1, Cars: The bodies of cars are typically made using sheet metal forming processes. The engine blocks, crankshafts, and other metal parts are made using casting or forging processes. 2. Electronics: The circuit boards in electronic devices are made using photolithogra- phy, a process that uses light to create patterns on a silicon wafer. The electronic components are then assembled on the citcuit boards using surface mount tech- nology. 3. Food: Food products are manufactured using a variety of processes, including mixing, baking, canning, and freezing. For example, bread is made by mixing flour, yeast, water, and other ingredients together and then baking the dough.5.1 Principles of Casting 155 4. Clothing: Clothing is manufactured using a variety of processes, inclucling cutting, sewing, and finishing. For example, a shirt is made by cutting fabric into the desired shape and then sewing the pieces together. Manufacturing processes are an essential part of the modern economy. By understand- ing the different types of manufacturing processes and how they are used to produce different types of products, we can gain a better understanding of the world around us. 5.1 Principles of Casting Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The mold is typically made of sand, metal, or ceramic. Once the material has solidified, the mold is broken open and the casting is removed. Casting is one ofthe oldest manufacturing processes, and itis still widely used today. Itisa versatile process that ean be used to produce castings of all sizes and shapes, from simple objects like brackets and gears aircraft parts, 5.11 Principles of casting The basic principles of casting are as follows: 1. Melting: The material to be cast is melted in a furnace, 2. Pouring: The molten material is poured into a mold. 3. Solidification: The molten material solidifies in the mold, taking on the shape of the mold cavity. 4, Mold removal: The mold is broken open and the casting is removed. Factors affecting casting quality The quality of a casting is affected by a number of factors, including: 1. The quality of the molten metal: The molten metal should be free of impurities and defects.136 Manufacturing Processes 2. The design of the mold: The mold should be designed to allow the molten metal to flow freely and to solidify evenly. 3. The casting process: The casting process should be controlled carefully to avoid defects such as porosity and shrinkage. Types of casting processes There are many different types of casting processes, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Some of the most common casting processes include: * Sand casting: This is the oldest and most widely used casting process. It is a versatile process that can be used to produce castings of all sizes and shapes. * Die casting: This is a high-volume casting process that is used to produce castings with high precision and repeatability. * Investment casting: This is a precision casting process that is used to produce castings with complex shapes and fine datai q e * Centrifugal casting: This is a casting; process that is used to produce castings with ) Casting is used to produce a wide variety of products, including: a tubular shape. Applications of casting 1. Automotive parts: Engine blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts, camshafts, wheels, and other automotive parts are commonly cast. 2. Aerospace parts: Aircraft engine components, landing gear, and other aerospace parts are commonly cast. 3. Machine parts: Gears, bearings, housings, and other machine parts are commonly cast. 4, Hand tools: Hammers, wrenches, and other hand tools are commonly cast. 5. Decorative items: Statues, plaques, and other decorative items are commonly cast. Casting is a versatile and widely used manufacturing process for producing metal products. Itis a complex process that requires careful control of the molten metal and the casting process. However, when done correctly, casting can produce high-quality castings with complex shapes and fine detail.5.2 Principles of Metal Forming 157 5.2 Principles of Metal Forming Metal forming is a manufacturing process in which a metal workpiece is deformed plastically to take the shape of a die or mold. Plastic deformation is defined as the permanent deformation of a material beyond its yield strength. The principles of metal forming are based on the following: Conservation of mass: The total mass of the workpiece must remain the same before and after deformation. Conservation of energy: The total energy of the workpiece must remain the same before and after deformation. Plasticity: The workpiece must be able to deform plastically without fracturing. The mechanics of metal forming can be complex, but the following are some general principles: 1. Yield strength: The yield strength of a material is the minimum stress required to cause plastic deformation. The yield strength of a material increases with strain hardening. 2. Strain hardening: Strain hardening is the phenomenon whereby a material be- comes stronger and harder as it is deformed plastically. 3. Flow curve: The flow curve of a material is a graph that shows the relationship. between stress and strain for the material. The flow curve can be used to determine the forces required to deform a material to a desired shape. 4. Friction: Friction between the workpiece and the die or mold can resist deforma- tion. Friction can be reduced by using lubricants and by designing the die or mold to minimize contact area. Metal forming processes can be classified into a number of different categories, includ- ing: 1. Rolling: Rolling isa process in which a workpiece is compressed between two rotating rolls. Rolling can be used to reduce the thickness of a workpiece, to change its width, or to create a desired shape. 2. Forging: Forging is a process in which a workpiece is compressed between two dies. Forging can be used to create a wide variety of shapes, including crankshafts, connecting rods, and gears.158 Manufacturing Processes 3. Extrusion: Extrusion is a process in which a workpiece is forced through a die to create a desired shape. Extrusion can be used to create long, thin products, such as rods, tubes, and wires. 4. Drawing: Drawing is a process in which a workpiece is pulled through a die to reduce its diameter and increase its length. Drawing is often used to create seamless tubes and wires. 5. Bending: Bending is a process in which a workpiece is deformed to change its angle. Bending is often used to create elbows, tees, and other curved shapes. 6. Metal forming is a versatile and widely used manufacturing process. It is used to produce a wide variety of products, including automotive parts, aerospace components, and consumer goods. Here are some of the advantages of metal forming: 1, Near net shape forming: Metal forming can be used to produce parts that are very close to their final shape. This reduces the amount of machining that is required, which can save time and money. i 2. High strength and hardness: Metal forming can produce parts with high strength and hardness. This is because the deformation process causes the grains in the metal to flow and align, which creates a stronger and more homogeneous structure. 3. Good surface finish: Metal forming can produce parts with a good surface finish. This is because the dies and molds are typically made of very smooth materials. 4, Cost-effectiveness: Metal forming is a cost-effective manufacturing process for mass production of parts. Metal forming is a complex and challenging field, but it is also a rewarding one. By understanding the principles of metal forming, engineers can design and produce high-quality metal parts at a competitive cost. 5.3 Joining processes Joining processes are used to connect two or more materials together to form a single unit, There are many different types of joining processes, but they all work on the same5.3 Joining processes 159 basic principles: 1. Coalescence: Coalescence is the process of two or more materials merging together to forma single, continuous phase. This can be done by melting the materials, applying pressure, or using a combination of heat and pressure. 2. Adhesion: Adhesion is the process of two or more materials sticking together to form a bond. This can be done using adhesives, or by creating mechanical interlocks between the materials. ‘The specific principles that are used in a particular joining process depend on the materials being joined and the desired properties of the joint. For example, welding is a coalescence process that uses heat to melt the materials being joined, while soldering is acoalescence process that uses a filler metal to melt and bond the materials together. Adhesive bonding is an adhesion process that uses an adhesive to bond the materials together. forming a permanent bond. The y different types of welding processes, re are many such as arc welding, gas welding, and laser welding. 2. Brazing and soldering: Brazing and soldering are processes that use a filler metal to melt and bond the materials together. Brazing uses a filler metal with a melting point that is above 450 A°C, while soldering uses a filler metal with a melting point that is below 450 A°c, 3. Adhesive bonding: Adhesive bonding is a process that uses an adhesive to bond the materials together. Adhesives can be used to bond a wide variety of materials, including metals, plastics, and ceramics. 4. Mechanical joining: Mechanical joining methods, such as bolting, riveting, and screwing, use fasteners to connect the materials together. These methods are often used to create temporary joints that can be disassembled easily. Joining processes are used in a wide variety of industries, including manufacturing, construction, and transportation. They are essential for creating strong and durable products and structures.160 Manufacturing Processes Here are some of the factors that should be considered when selecting a joining process: 1. The materials being joined: The type of materials being joined will determine which joining processes are feasible. For example, some joining processes, such as welding, are only suitable for certain types of metals. 2. The desired properties of the joint: ‘The desired properties of the joint, such as strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance, will also influence the choice of joining, process. 3. The cost and complexity of the process: The cost and complexity of the joining process must also be considered. Some joining processes, such as welding, can be expensive and complex, while others, such as adhesive bonding, are relatively simple and inexpensive. Itis important to select the right joining process for the specific application in order to ensure that the joint is strong, durable, ‘arid Me@ts all of the required requirements. 5.4 Principles of machining processes Machining is a manufacturing process in which a cutting tool is used to remove material from a workpiece to create the desired shape and size. Machining is one of the most important manufacturing processes in the world, and itis used to produce a wide range of products, from simple components to complex structures. 5.4.1 Principles of machining processes The basic principles of machining processes are the same regardless of the specific type of machining being performed. These principles include: 1. Relative motion between the cutting tool and the workpiece: There must be relative motion between the cutting tool and the workpiece in order for machining to occur. This motion can be created by either moving the cutting tool or moving. the workpiece.5.4 Principles of machining processes 161 2. Shearing: Machining is a shearing process, in which the cutting tool shears off material from the workpiece. This shearing occurs when the cutting tool is applied to the workpiece with sufficient force. 3. Chip formation: When material is removed from the workpiece by the cutting tool, it forms chips. The size and shape of the chips depends on a number of factors, including the type of material being machined, the cutting tool geometry, and the machining parameters. 5.4.2 Factors affecting machining processes A number of factors affect the machining process, including: 1. Type of material being machined: The type of material being machined has a significant impact on the machining process. Different materials have different properties, such as hardness, toughriéss) and ductility. These properties affect the machinability of the material, which is a measure of how easily the material can E i] 2. Cutting tool geometry: The geometry of the cutting tool also has a significant be machined. impact on the machining process. The cutting tool geometry includes factors such as the rake angle, clearance angle, and flank angle. These factors affect the chip formation process and the surface finish of the workpiece. 3. Machining parameters: The machining parameters include the cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut, These parameters control the rate at which material is removed from the workpiece and the surface finish of the workpiece. 5.4.3 Types of machining processes There are many different types of machining processes, but some of the most common include: 1. Turning: Turning is a machining process in which a rotating workpiece is ma- chined witha single-point cutting tool. Turning can be used to produce a variety of shapes, including cylindrical, conical, and spherical shapes.162 Manufacturing Processes 2. Drilling: Drilling is a machining process in which a rotating culting tool is used to create holes in a workpiece. Drilling can be used to produce a variety of hole sizes and depths. 3, Milling: Milling is a machining process in which a rotating cutting tool with multiple teeth is used to remove material from a workpiece. Milling can be used to produce a variety of shapes, including flat surfaces, grooves, and slots. 4, Grinding: Grinding is a machining process in which a rotating abrasive wheel is used to remove material from a workpiece. Grinding can be used to produce very accurate dimensions and surface finishes. 5.4.4 Applications of machining processes Machining processes are used to produce’a wide range of products, including: 1. Automotive parts: Engine components, transmission components, and other l automotive parts are commonly machined. 2. Aerospace parts: Aircraft components, spacecraft components, and other aerospace parts are commonly machined. 2 Medical devices: Surgical instruments, implants, and other medical devices are commonly machined. 4, Electronic components: Semiconductor chips, circuit boards, and other electronic components are commonly machined. 5. Consumer goods: Consumer goods such as appliances, tools, and toys are com- monly machined. Machining processes are an essential part of modem manufacturing. By understanding the principles of machining processes, engineers and manufacturers can produce high- quality products with the desired shape, size, and surface finish.5.5 Introduction to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) 163 5.5 Introduction to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machining is a manufacturing process in which pre-programmed computer software dictates the movement of factory tools and ma- chinery. CNC machines can be used to create a wide variety of parts, from simple to complex, with high precision and repeatability. CNC machines work by following a set of instructions, or program, thats created using computer-aided design (CAD) software. The CAD program generates a G-code file, which is a list of numerical instructions that tell the CNC machine how to move its tools and axes. The G-code file is then uploaded to the CNC machine, which uses it to control the machining process. ‘CNC machines can be used to perform a variety of machining operations, including: 1. Turning: Rotating a workpiece while a cutting tool removes material to create a desired shape. Milling: Using a rotating cutting tool to remove material from a workpiece to create a desiréd shape, Routing: Using a rotating cutting tool to cut shapes out of materials suich plastic, and metal. Drilling: Creating holes in workpieces. Grinding: Us rasive wheel fo remove material from a workpiece to achieve a desired finish. ” CNC machinesare used ina wide variety of industries, including aerospace, automotive, electronics, and medical. They are also used by hobbyists and makers to create their own projects. 5.5.1 Advantages of using CNC machines Advantages of using CNC machines 1. Accuracy and precision: CNC machines can produce parts with very high accuracy and precision. This is because the machines are controlled by computers, which can accurately follow the instructions in the G-code file. 2. Repeatability: CNC machines can produce identical parts over and over again. ‘This is because the machines are not affected by human error. 3. Versatility: CNC machines can be used to perform a variety of machining opera- tions. This makes them a very versatile tool for manufacturing.164 Manufacturing Processes 4, Productivity: CNC machines can operate 24/7 without getting tired. This means that they can produce parts much faster than manual machining processes. Overall, CNC machines are a powerful tool for manufacturing a wide variety of parts with high accuracy and precision. They are used in a wide range of industries and offer a number of advantages over manual machining processes. 5.6 Introduction to 3D printing 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a process of creating a three- dimensional object from a digital model. It works by adding material layer by layer until the object is complete. The first 3D printer was invented in the 1980s, but the technology has only become widely accessible in recent years. Today, there are many different types of 3D printers available, ranging from small desktop: models to large industrial machines. To 3D printan object, you first ned toe cite dligtal model, This canbe done using a variety of 3D modeling software progran slice it into thin layers, This slicin ; process sd {Ofc you have a digital model, you can \e using a special software program called a slicer. Once the model is sliced, you can transfer the file to your 3D printer. The printer will then read the file and start printing the object layer by layer. 3D printing can be used to create a wide variety of objects, including prototypes, tools, toys, jewelry, and even medical implants. Itis also becoming increasingly popular for manufacturing finished products. 5.6.1 Benefits of 3D Printing Here are some of the benefits of 3D printing: 1. It is possible to create complex objects that would be difficult or impossible to make using traditional manufacturing methods. 2. 3D printing can be used to create custom objects, such as prosthetics and dental implants.5.7 Introduction to Smart manufacturing 165 3. 3D printing is relatively fast and efficient, which can save time and money on manufacturing costs. 4. 3D printing can be used to produce objects from a wide variety of materials, including plastics, metals, and ceramics. 5. Overall, 3D printing is a powerful and versatile technology that has the potential to revolutionize many industries. 5.6.2 Examples of 3D printing Here are some examples of how 3D printing is being used today: 1, In manufacturing, 3D printing is being used to create prototypes, tools, and finished products. For example, Ford Motor Company is using 3D printing to create prototype car parts. 2. In the medical field, 3D printing is being used to create custom prosthetics, dental implants, and other medical devices. Fo example, surgeons at the University of Michigan have used 3D printing a éustom skull implant for a patient with a rare condition. 3. In education, 3D printing is being used to teach students about engineering, design, and manufacturing. For example, many schools now have 3D printers that students can use to create their own projects. 3D printing isa rapidly growing technology with the potential to change the way we make things. It is an exciting time to be involved in this field. 5.7 Introduction to Smart manufacturing Smart manufacturing isa technology-driven approach to manufacturing that uses data to improve efficiency, productivity, and quality. It is enabled by a variety of emerging technologies, including the Industrial Internet of Things (IT), artificial intelligence (Al), big data analytics, and cloud computing, ‘Smart manufacturing technologies connect machines, sensors, and people across the manufacturing process, from product design to production to delivery. This connectivity166 Manufacturing Processes allows manufacturers to collect and analyze data in real time, and to use this data to make more informed decisions about their operations. 5.7.1 Benefits of Smart Manufacturing Some of the key benefits of smart manufacturing include: 1. Increased efficiency and productivity: Smart manufacturing technologies can help manufacturers to automate tasks, optimize processes, and reduce waste. This can lead to significant improvements in efficiency and productivity. Improved quality: Smart manufacturing technologies can help manufacturers to identify and correct quality problems early in the production process. This can lead to significant improvements in product quality. Reduced costs: Smart manufacturing, technologies can help manufacturers to reduce costs in a number of ways, such as by reducing waste, improving efficiency, and extending the life of equipment, Increased agility: Smart manufacturing technologies can help manufacturers to be to revolutionize the manufacturing indust already being adopted by a number of leading manufacturers, and it is expected to become more widespread in the coming, years. 5.7.2. Examples Smart Manufacturing Technologies Here are some examples of how smart manufacturing technologies are being used today: 1. Sensors are being used to collect data on the condition and performance of ma- chines. This data can be used to predict when maintenance is needed, and to avoid unplanned downtime. 2. Alis being used to automate tasks such as quality inspection and process opti- mization. 3. Big data analytics is being used to identify trends and patterns in manufacturing data. This information can be used to improve decision-making and to identify58 Introduction to Thermal Engineering 167 opportunities for improvement. 4, Cloud computing is being used to store and analyze manufacturing data. This allows manufacturers to access their data from anywhere, and to scale their operations up or down as needed. Smart manufacturing is a complex and rapidly evolving field, but it has the potential to transform the manufacturing industry. By using data to improve their operations, manufacturers can become more efficient, productive, and agile. 5.8 Introduction to Thermal Engineering Thermal engineering is a branch of mechanical engineering that deals with the genera tion, conversion, and use of thermal energy. It isa broad field that encompasses a wide range of applications, including power generation, heating and cooling, and refrigera- tion. Thermal engineers use their knowledge of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer to design and analyze systems that inyolve the transfer of heat energy. L 5.8.1 Basic Principles of Thermal Engineering ‘The three fundamental principles of thermal engineering are thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. 1. Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships between heat, work, and energy. It provides the foundation for understanding how thermal systems work. 2. Fluid mechanics is the study of the behavior of fluids, such as air and water. It is important for understanding how fluids flow through and around thermal systems. 3. Heat transfer is the study of how heat energy moves from one place to another. It is essential for designing thermal systems that operate efficiently. Applications of Thermal Engineering 5.8.2 Applications of Thermal Engineering ‘Thermal engineering is used in a wide variety of applications, including:168 Manufacturing Processes 1. Power generation: Thermal engineers design and operate power plants that generate electricity from fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power. 2. Heating and cooling: Thermal engineers design and install heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in buildings. They also design and man- ufacture heating and cooling equipment, such as furnaces, air conditioners, and refrigerators. 3. Refrigeration: Thermal engineers design and build refrigeration systems that are used to preserve food and other perishable goods. They also design and manufac- ture refrigeration equipment, such as compressors, condensers, and evaporators. 4, Other applications: Thermal engineering is also used in a variety of other applica~ tions, such as the design of automotive engines, aircraft engines, and industrial Processes. ‘Thermal engineering is a broad an impotiant eld that plays a vital role in many industries. Thermal engineers use heii kowlédge of thermodynamics uid mechan- ics, and heat transfer to design and analyze Systems that involve the transfer of heat energy. Thermal engineering is a challenging but rewarding field that offers many career opportunities. 5.9 Working principle of Boilers The basic working principle of a boiler is to convert water into steam by using heat energy. This is done by burning fuel in a furnace, which heats up the water ina closed vessel. The heat causes the water to vaporize, and the steam is then collected and used for various purposes, such as generating electricity, heating buildings, or driving, industrial processes. There are two main types of boilers: water tube boilers and fire tube boilers. 1. Water tube boilers have a series of tubes through which the water flows. The heat from the furnace is transferred to the water through the walls of the tubes. Water tube boilers are typically more efficient than fire tube boilers, but they are also more complex and expensive to manufacture.Download as pafor tt furnace flow. The water surrounds the tubes, and the heat is transferred to the water from the hot gases. Fire tube boilers are simpler and less expensive to manufacture than water tube boilers, but they are also less efficient. Both water tube boilers and fire tube boilers can be used to generate steam or hot water. ‘The type of boiler that is used depends on the specific application. 5.9.1 Working principle of a boiler Here is a more detailed explanation of the working principle of a boiler: 1. uel is burned in the furnace, which heats up the air inside the furnace. 2. The hot air flows through the tubes in the boiler, transferring heat to the water inside the tubes. 5. The steam is then piped out of the boiler and used for its intended purpose. 5.9.2. Applications of Boilers Boilers are used in a wide variety of applications, including: 1. Electricity generation: Steam boilers are used to generate steam, which is then used to drive turbines to generate electricity. 2. Heating buildings: Steam boilers are used to heat water, which is then circulated through pipes and radiators to heat buildings. 3. Industrial processes: Steam boilers are used to provide steam for a variety of in- dustrial processes, such as food processing, paper making, and textile production. Boilers are an essential part of many modern industries and play a vital role in our daily lives.5.10 Otto cycle The Otto cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the processes that occur in a spark-ignition internal combustion engine. It is the idealized cycle for gasoline engines and is also used in some other types of engines, such as small gas turbines. ‘The Otto cycle consists of four strokes: 1. Intake stroke: The piston moves down the cylinder, drawing in a mixture of air and fuel. 2. Compression stroke: The piston moves up the cylinder, compressing the air-fuel mixture. 3. Power stroke: The spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture, causing it to combust. ‘The expanding gases push the piston down the cylinder, generating power. 4. Exhaust stroke: The piston moves upithe cylinder, expelling the spent exhaust (eu gases. i} The Otto cycle isa heat engine, which meats thatit converts heat energy into mechanical energy. The heat energy comes from the combustion of the air-fuel mixture. The Otto cycle is nota perfect heat engine, and some of the heat energy is lost to the environment. However, the Otto cycle is a relatively efficient heat engine, and it is the type of engine used in most cars today. 5.10.1 Working principle of Otto cycle The Otto cycle can be visualized on a pressure-volume (PV) diagram. The four strokes of the cycle are represented by the following four processes: 1. Process 1-2: Isentropic compression: The air-fuel mixture is compressed by the piston as it moves up the cylinder. This process is isentropic, which means that it is reversible and there is no heat transfer to or from the system 2. Process 2-3: Constant volume heat addition: The spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture, and the heat energy from the combustion process causes the gas pressure to increase. This process is constant volume, which means that the volume of the gas does not change.5.11 Diesel cycle 71 3. Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion: The expanding gases push the piston down the cylinder. This process is isentropic, just like the compression process. 4, Process 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection: The exhaust valve opens, and the spent exhaust gases are expelled from the cylinder. This process is constant volume, just like the combustion process. The net work output of the Otto cycle is equal to the area enclosed by the four processes on the PV diagram. The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is the ratio of the net work output to the heat energy added to the system. Thermal efficiency can be improved by increasing the compression ratio of the engine. 5.10.2 Applications of Otto cycle The Otto cycle is used in a variety of applications, including: 1. Gasoline engines in cars and trucks. (Pe (ay 2. Small gas turbines in airplanes and ‘heli 3. Generators for producing elegt 4. Compressors for pumping air or other gases 5. The Otto cycle i a versatile and efficient heat engine, and it is widely used in a variety of applications. 5.11 Diesel cycle The Diesel cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the combustion process in a diesel engine, Itis an ideal cycle, meaning that it represents the theoretical maximum. efficiency that a diesel engine can achieve. ‘The Diesel cycle consists of four strokes: 1. Intake stroke: The intake valve opens and the piston moves down, drawing air into the combustion chamber. 2. Compression stroke: The intake valve closes and the piston moves up, compress- ing the air in the combustion chamber,172 Manufacturing Processes [P-V AND T-S Diagram of Diesel Cycle] Figure 5.1: PV and TS diagram of diesel cycle 3. Power stroke: Fuel is injected into the compressed air and ignites due to the high temperature and pressure. The combustion process drives the piston down, producing work. 4, Exhaust stroke: The exhaust valve opens and the piston moves up, expelling the exhaust gases from the combit { ‘21 The Diesel cycle can be represented 'ch a presstire-volume (PV) diagram, as shown. below: 5.11.1 PV diagram of the Diesel cycle The four strokes of the Diesel cycle are represented by the four line segments on the PV diagram: 1, Line 1-2: Intake stroke 2. Line 2-3: Compression stroke 3. Line 34: Power stroke 4, Line 4-1: Exhaust stroke The net work done by the Diesel cycle is equal to the area enclosed by the four line segments on the PV diagram. Diesel engines are more efficient than spark-ignition engines (such as gasoline engines) because they operate at higher compression ratios. This is because the fuel in a diesel engine is ignited by the heat of compression, rather than by a spark plug,5.11 Diesel cycle 173 Diesel engines are also more fuel-efficient than spark-ignition engines, especially at high loads. This is because diesel engines burn fuel more completely than spark-ignition engines. 5.11.2 Applications of Diesel Cycle Diesel engines are used in a wide range of applications, including: 1. Automobiles 2, Trucks 3, Buses 4, Trains 5. Ships 6. Construction equipment 7. Power generation Diesel engines are known for their reliability and durability, and they can operate for long periods of time without requiring major maintenance. 5.113 Working principle of Diesel cycle The Diesel cycle isa compression ignition cycle, meaning that the fuel is ignited by the heat of compression rather than by a spark plug. This is achieved by compressing the air in the combustion chamber to a very high temperature and pressure. When the fuel is injected into the compressed air, it ignites spontaneously. 5.11.4 Four stages of Diesel Cycle The Diesel cycle can be divided into four stages: 1. Compression: Air is drawn into the combustion chamber and then compressed by the piston. This increases the temperature and pressure of the air.174 Manufacturing Processes 2. Combustion: Fuel is injected into the compressed air and ignites spontaneously. The combustion process drives the piston down, producing work. 3. Expansion: The piston continues to move down, expanding the combustion gases. ‘This produces more work. . Exhaust: The exhaust valve opens and the piston moves up, expelling the exhaust, gases from the combustion chamber. The Diesel cycle is a very efficient way to convert heat energy into mechanical work. Diesel engines are typically more efficient than spark-ignition engines, and they can also operate on a wider range of fuels. 5.12 Re-frigeration and air-conditioning cycles Refrigeration and air-conditioning cycles are thermodynamic cycles that use a refrig- tion to another They are used in a wide variety of applications, including refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners, and heat pumps. erant to transfer heat from one loc: The most common type of refriger -conditioning cycle is the vapor- compression cycle. This cycle consists of four main components: 1. Compressor: The compressor compresses the refrigerant, increasing its tempera- ture and pressure. This process requires energy input. Condenser: The condenser rejects heat from the refrigerant to the surrounding environment, causing the refrigerant to condense into a liquid. ‘The hot, high-pressure refrigerant gas then enters the condenser, where it rejects heat to the surrounding environment and condenses into a liquid. This process releases heat to the environment. Expansion valve: ‘The expansion valve reduces the pressure of the refrigerant, causing it to partially evaporate. ‘The liquid refrigerant then passes through an expansion valve, which reduces its pressure, This causes some of the refrigerant to evaporate, which absorbs heat from the surrounding environment. Evaporator:5.13 IC engines 15 ‘The low-pressure refrigerant vapor then enters the evaporator, where it absorbs ‘heat from the surrounding environment and completely evaporates. This process cools the surrounding environment. The refrigerant circulates through the cycle continuously, absorbing heat from the evaporator and rejecting heat to the condenser. Refrigeration and air-conditioning cycles are very efficient at transferring heat. They are used ina wide variety of applications to keep food fresh, cool homes and businesses, and provide comfort in hot weather. Here are some examples of how refrigeration and air-conditioning cycles are used: 1. Refrigerators and freezers: Refrigerators and freezers use refrigeration cycles to keep food fresh by removing heat from the food and preventing it from spoiling, 2. Air conditioners: Air conditioners use refrigeration cycles to cool homes and businesses by removing heat from the indoor air and rejecting it to the outdoor ait. er 3. Heat pumps: Heat pumps use reftigetation cycles to heat and cool homes and businesses, They can transfet heat fromacooler location to a warmer location, or vice versa. Refrigeration and air-conditioning cycles are an essential part of modem life. They help us to keep food fresh, cool our homes and businesses, and provide comfort in hot weather, 5.13 IC engines An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine. The force is typically applied to pistons (piston engine), turbine blades (gas turbine), a rotor (Wankel engine), or a nozzle (jet engine). IC engines are used in a wide variety of applications, including: 1, Automobiles176 Manufacturing Processes 2, Trucks 3. Buses 4, Motorcycles 5. Trains 6. Ships 7. Aircraft 8. Generators 9, Industrial machinery 1, Reciprocating engines have pistons that move up and down in cylinders. The most common type of reciprocating engine is the four-stroke engine, which is used in most automobiles and light trucks. Other types of reciprocating engines include two-stroke engines, six-stroke engines, and diesel engines. 2. Rotary engines have a rotating rotor that moves around a stationary housing. The most common type of rotary engine is the Wankel engine, which is used in some Mazda sports cars. 5.132 Operating Principle IC Engines The basic operating principle of all IC engines is the same. The engine first draws in a mixture of air and fuel. The mixture is then compressed, ignited, and combusted. The combustion produces high-temperature and high-pressure gases, which expand and push the pistons or rotor. This motion is then converted into rotary motion by a crankshaft, which can be used to drive a variety of machines and vehicles.5.14 Introduction to 2-Stroke engines 7 5.133 Advantages and disadvantages of IC engines IC engines have a number of advantages, cluding: 1. They are relatively simple and inexpensive to manufacture. 2, They are relatively efficient at converting fuel into mechanical energy. 3, They are very versatile and can be used in a wide variety of applications. 5.134 Disadvantages of IC Engines IC engines also have a number of disadvantages, including: 1. They produce emissions that can pollute the air. 2. They are relatively noisy. 3. They can be relatively complex to;maintain-and repair. IC engines are a mature technology that hag been around for over 150 years. They are still the most common type of engine used in|ychicles today. However, there is cue) y a growing interest in developing new types of engines, such as electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, that are more efficient and produce fewer emissions. 5.14 Introduction to 2-Stroke engines A two-stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine that completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast toa four-stroke engine that requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle during two crankshaft revolutions. ‘Two-stroke engines are simpler and lighter than four-stroke engines, and they have a higher power-to-weight ratio. This makes them ideal for applications where weight and power are important, such as motorcycles, chainsaws, and lawnmowers. However, two-stroke engines also have some disadvantages. 1. They are less fuel-efficient than four-stroke engines 2. Produce more emissions. Additionally,178 Manufacturing Processes 3. Use of a two-stroke oil mixture, which can be messy and inconvenient. 5.14.1 Working Principle of Two stroke Engine A two-stroke engine works by using the crankcase as a pump to move air and fuel into the combustion chamber. During the compression stroke, the piston moves up and compresses the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. At the top of the compression stroke, the spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture, which causes the piston to move down. As the piston moves down, it pushes the exhaust gases out of the exhaust port. At the same time, the intake valve opens and the crankcase pump draws a fresh mixture of air and fuel into the crankcase. ‘The piston then moves back up, compressing the fresh air-fuel mixture in the crankcase. At the top of the compression stroke, the intake valve closes and the exhaust ain-pushing the fresh air-fuel mixture into valve opens. The piston then moves dowr the combustion chamber and the exhaust gases out of the exhaust port, ‘This cycle repeats itself every tine the'crankshaft rotates once. 5.142 Advantages and Disadvantages of Two-Stroke Engines 1. Advantages: (a) Simpler and lighter than four-stroke engines (b) Higher power-to-weight ratio (6) Less expensive to manufacture Disadvantages: (a) Less fuel-efficient than four-stroke engines (b) Produce more emissions (6) Require the use of a two-stroke oil mixture (d) Can be noisy and smoky (©) Applications of Two-Stroke Engines5.15 Introduction to 4-Stroke engines 179 5.143 Applications of Two-Stroke Engines ‘Two-stroke engines are used in a wide variety of applications, including: 1. Motorcycles 2, Lawnmowers 3. Weed trimmers 4, Chainsaws 5. Snowblowers 6. Outboard motors 7. Generators 8, Air compressors ‘Twosstroke engines are still widely ised manyappjications but they are being phased out in some areas due to emissions regulations, 5.15 Introduction to 4-Stroke engines A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. The four separate strokes are termed: 1. Intake: The intake valve opens and the piston moves down the cylinder, drawing ina mixture of air and fuel. 2. Compression: Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed, and the piston moves up the cylinder, compressing the air-fuel mixture. 3. Power: The spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture, causing it to expand rapidly and drive the piston down the cylinder. This is the only stroke that produces power to turn the crankshaft.180 Manufacturing Processes 4, Exhaust: The exhaust valve opens and the piston moves up the cylinder, pushing out the spent exhaust gases. Once the exhaust stroke is complete, the cycle begins again with the intake stroke. Four-stroke engines are the most common type of internal combustion engine used in automobiks, trucks, and other motor vehicles. They are also used in many other applications, such as lawnmowers, generators, and boats. Four-stroke engines are more efficient than two-stroke engines, and they produce fewer emissions, They are also quieter and more reliable. However, four-stroke engines are also heavier and more complex than two-stroke engines, 5.15.1 Advantages of four-stroke engines 1. More efficient than two-stroke engines 2. Produce fewer emissions 3. Quieterand more reliable 4. Longer lifespan 5.152 Disadvantages of four-stroke engines 1. Heavier and more complex than two-stroke engines 2. More expensive to manufacture 5.153 Applications of four-stroke engines 1, Automobiles 2. Trucks 3. Buses 4, Motorcycles 5. Lawnmowers 6, Generators5.16 Introduction to SI/CI Engines 181 7. Boats 8, Airplanes 9, Industrial machinery Four-stroke engines are a versatile and efficient type of internal combustion engine that is used ina wide variety of applications. 5.16 Introduction to SI/CI Engines Spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (Cl) engines are the two most common. types of internal combustion engines. They are used in a wide variety of applications, indluding cars, trucks, buses, boats, and generators. Slengines are generally powered byigasoline, and they use a spark plug to ignite the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. The spark plug creates a high-voltage electrical spark that ignites the mite causing ito burn rapidly and expand. This expansion drives the piston down! which in: alates the crankshaft. Clengines are generally powered by diesel fuel, and they rely on the heat of com- pression to ignite the air-fuel mixture. In a Cl engine, the air is compressed to a very high temperature and pressure, which causes the diesel fuel to ignite spontaneously when itis injected into the combustion chamber. This combustion process also drives the piston down and rotates the crankshaft, Here is a table that summarizes the key differences between SI and Cl engines: ‘Table 5.1: Differences between $1 and Cl engines Characteristic ST engine Clengine Fuel Gasoline Diesel Tgnition method | Spark plug | Compression Compression ratiol 81 to121 | 14 to 251 Air-fuel ratio By 18:1 to 25:1 Efficiency’ 25% 10.35% | 30% to 40% Emissions | Relatively low | Relatively high Noise Relatively Tow | Relatively high | Cost Relatively low | Relatively high’182 Manufacturing Processes 5.161 Applications of SI and CI engines Sl engines are commonly used in cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles, and boats, They are also used in some small generators. Cl engines are commonly used in heavy-duty trucks, buses, construction equipment, and agricultural equipment. They are also used in large generators and marine engines. Advantages and disadvantages of SI and CI engines: 1. Sl engines (a) Advantages: i. Relatively low cost ii, Relatively low emissions iii, Smooth and quiet operation Disadvantages: a i. Lower efficiency than Clengines J | ii, Less torque than Cllengines222 =) iii. Requires higher octane fuel 2. Cl engines: (a) Advantages: i. Higher efficiency than SI engines More torque than SI engines Can run ona variety of fuels, including diesel, biodiesel, and vegetable oil (b) Disadvantages: i. Relatively higher cost ii, Relatively higher emissions ili, Noisier and rougher operation than SI engines Overall, ST and Cl engines have different strengths and weaknesses. The best type of engine for a particular application depends on a variety of factors, including fuel costs, emissions requirements, and performance requirements.5.17 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 183 5.17 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Electric and hybrid vehicles are becoming increasingly popular as people look for ways to reduce their environmental impact and save money on fuel. 5.17.1 Components of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles These vehicles use a variety of components to propel them, including: 1. Internal combustion engine (ICE): Electric hybrid vehicles have a conventional ICE, which powers the vehicle when the battery is depleted or when the vehicle needs more power than the battery can provide. 2. Electric motor(s): Electric and hybrid vehicles have one or more electric motors, which are powered by batteries. The electric motor(s) can propel the vehicle on their own, or they can work in conjunction with the ICE to improve fuel efficiency and performance. 3. Battery pack: Hlectric and hybrid vehicles have a battery pack, which stores the electrical energy that powers the electric motor(s). The battery pack can be charged by plugging the vehicle into an external power source, or by regenerative braking. 4. Power control unit: The power control unit manages the flow of power between the ICE, the electric motor(s), and the battery pack. Itensures that the right amount of power is being used at the right time. 5. Regenerative braking system: The regenerative braking system captures energy that is lost during braking and converts it into electrical energy, which is stored in the battery pack. This helps to improve the fuel efficiency of the vehicle. In addition to these main components, electric and hybrid vehicles also have a variety of other components, such as a transmission, cooling system, and climate control system. 5.172 How Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Work? Electric and hybrid vehicles work in different ways, but they both use the combination of an ICE and an electric motor to propel the vehicle.184 Manufacturing Processes Inan electric vehicle, the electric motor is the only source of power. The battery pack is charged by plugging the vehicle into an external power source, and the electric motor uses the stored electrical energy to propel the vehicle. Ina hybrid vehicle, the ICE and the electric motor(s) work together to propel the vehicle. The ICE can power the vehicle directly, or it can be used to generate electricity to power the electric motor(s). The battery pack can also be charged by regenerative braking. The specific way that the ICE and electric motor(s) work together ina hybrid vehicle depends on the type of hybrid system. There are three main types of hybrid systems: 1, Parallel hybrid systems: In a parallel hybrid system, the ICE and electric motor(s) can power the vehicle independently o in conjunction with each other. 2. Series hybrid systems: In a series hybrid system, the ICE powers a generator, which in turn powers the electric motor(s). The ICE does not directly power the wheels. 3. Plug-in hybrid systems: Plug in inybrid systems have a larger battery pack than other types of hybrid systems. This allows U thehehicle to travel further on electric power alone. Plug-in hybrid systems ean be plugged into an external power source to charge the battery pack. 5.17.3 Benefits of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Electric and hybrid vehicles offer a number of benefits, including: 1. Reduced emissions: Electric and hybrid vehicles produce less tailpipe emissions than conventional gasoline-powered vehicles. This helps to improve air quality and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 2. Improved fuel efficiency: Electric and hybrid vehicles are more fuel-efficient than conventional gasoline-powered vehicles. This can save you money on fuel costs. 3. Reduced noise: Electric vehicles are much quieter than conventional gasoline- powered vehicles. This can make for a more pleasant driving experience. 4, Performance: Electric and hybrid vehicles can offer excellent performance, thanks to the instant torque provided by the electric motor(s).5.17 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 185 Electric and hybrid vehicles are becoming increasingly popular as people look for ways to reduce their environmental impact and save money on fuel. These vehicles offer a number of benefits, including reduced emissions, improved fuel efficiency, reduced noise, and excellent performance.