PhysicsLaboratoryManual

J.P.COLLEGEOFENGINEERING
College Road, Ayikudi, Tenkasi – 627852
AffiliatedtoAnnaUniversityandApprovedbyAICTE

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Academic Year : 2024-2025

CLASS: I B.E/I-B.TECH

Prepared by

Mrs. R. Baby AP/PHY

DEPARTMENTOFPHYSICS

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J.P.COLLEGEOFENGINEERING AYIKUDY–627852

DEPARTMENTOFSCIENCEANDHUMANITIES

PHYSICSLABORATORY MANUAL

AcademicYear 2024-2025

CLASS: I B.E/B.TECH

Preparedby

Mrs. R. Baby AP/PHY

DEPARTMENTOFPHYSICS

LABIN CHARGE HOD PRINCIPAL

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SYLLABUS
LTPC
BS3171 PHYSICSANDCHEMISTRYLABORATORY
0042

PHYSICSLABORATORY:(AnySevenExperiments)

OBJECTIVES:
• Tolearntheproperuseofvariouskindsofphysicslaboratoryequipment.
• Tolearnhowdatacanbecollected,presentedandinterpretedinaclearandconcisemanner.
• Tolearnproblemsolvingskillsrelatedtophysicsprinciplesandinterpretationof
experimentaldata.
• Todetermineerrorinexperimentalmeasurementsandtechniquesusedtominimizesuch
error.
• Tomakethestudentasanactiveparticipantineachpartofalllabexercises.

1. Torsionalpendulum-Determinationofrigiditymodulusofwireandmomentofinertiaof regular
and irregular objects.
2. Simpleharmonicoscillationsofcantilever.
3. Non-uniformbending-DeterminationofYoung’smodulus
4. Uniformbending–DeterminationofYoung’smodulus
5. Laser-Determinationofthewavelengthofthelaserusinggrating
6. Airwedge-Determinationofthicknessofathinsheet/wire
7. a)Opticalfibre-DeterminationofNumericalApertureandacceptanceangle
b)Compactdisc-Determinationofwidthofthegrooveusinglaser.
8. Acousticgrating-Determinationofvelocityofultrasonicwavesinliquids.
9. Ultrasonicinterferometer –determinationofthevelocityofsoundandcompressibilityof
liquids
10. Postofficebox-DeterminationofBandgapofasemiconductor.
11. Photoelectriceffect
12. MichelsonInterferometer.
13. Melde’sstringexperiment
14. Experimentwithlatticedynamicskit.

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Exp.No. INDEX PAGE No.

6
ListofExperiments
7
Safety Instructions

1 Determinationofmomentofinertiaofadisc andrigiditymodulus of a 8
wire-Torsional pendulum

DeterminationofYoung’smodulusbynon-uniformbending method.
2 17

DeterminationofYoung’smodulusby uniformbendingmethod.
3 25

4 Determinationofwavelengthofthelaserusinggrating 33

5 Determination ofthicknessofathinwire-Airwedgemethod 39

(a) Determinationofnumericalapertureandacceptanceangle 47
6 (b) Determinationofwidthofthecompactdiscgrooveusing
laser 53

Determinationofthevelocityofsoundandcompressibilityof liquids by 57
7
using Ultrasonic Interferometer

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J.P.COLLEGEOFENGINEERING
AYIKUDY– 627852

PHYSICSLABORATORY-I

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Determinationofmomentofinertiaofadiscandrigiditymodulusofa
wire-Torsionalpendulum

2. DeterminationofYoung’smodulusbynon-uniformbendingmethod.

3. DeterminationofYoung’smodulusbyuniformbendingmethod.

4. Determinationofwavelengthofthelaserusinggrating

5. Determinationofthicknessofathinwire-Airwedgemethod
6. (a)Determinationofnumericalapertureandacceptanceangle
(b)Determinationofwidthofthecompactdiscgrooveusinglaser
7. Determination of the velocity of sound and compressibility of liquids by
using Ultrasonic Interferometer

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PHYSICSLABORATORY

SAFETYINSTRUCTIONS

 Students must wear appropriate clothing to laboratory. This

includes shoes that are not open toed.

 Do not modify or damage the laboratory equipment in any way

unless the modification is directed by the instructor. This does not
include the changing of a lab setup as prescribed by the procedures
in the carrying out of measurements.

 Use care when loosening and tighten screws and bolts. Some of
them are plastic and break easily.

 Do not force any of the equipment. If an excessive amount of force

is necessary then tell your instructor.

 Incasethefirealarmsounds,pleaseexitthebuildingbythenearest safe
exit. If the fire is in the room leave everything behind.

 For thermal experiments be away from the heater and do the

experiments carefully.

 Extra care should be taken while handling glass wares like

Capillary tube, Grating, Prism, Thermometer etc.,

 While doing Laser experiments, avoid direct contact of the Laser

light with eyes.

 While operating some instruments like Ultrasonic interferometer,

Band gap apparatus, make sure that the initial adjustmentsare made
before switch on the setup.

 After completing the experiments, switch off the electrical

instrument

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Tofindthetimeperiodsofthediscatdifferentstages

Length ofthesuspension wire(l)= ................................... x10-2 m

Positionoftheequal
masses
Timefor10oscillations Timeperiod(timefor
one oscillation)
Trial- 1 Trial- 2 Mean

Unit second second second second

Withoutanymasses T0=

Withmassesatclosest T1=
distance

d1 =…..x10-2m

With masses at T2=

maximumdistanced2
=…..x10-2m

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ExpNo: 1 Date:

DETERMINATIONOFRIGIDITYMODULUS–TORSIONAL PENDULUM
AIM
To determine the moment of inertia of the metallic disc and the rigidity modulus of the
material of the wire.

APPARATUSREQUIRED

Torsional pendulum (uniform circular disc suspended by a wire) ,Two equal cylindrical
masses , Stop clock , Screw gauge , Metre scale.

FORMULA

Momentofinertia ofthedisc

I= 2m(d22 –d12)T2 0 Kg.m2

(T22–T21)

Rigiditymodulusofthematerialofthewire

η= 8πIl N/m2
T02r4

Where,

η–Rigiditymodulusofthematerialofthewire(N/m2) I –
Moment of inertia of the disc (kgm2)
m-Mass(massofonecylinder)placedonthedisc inKg
d1 – Distance between the centre of the axis of the wire and the centre of
theoneoftheidentical weightswhentheidenticalweightsareplaced close
to the axis of the wire(m)
d2- Distance between the centre of the axis of thewire and the centre of
theoneoftheidenticalweightswhentheidenticalweightsareplaced further
to the axis of the wire (m)
r- radiusifthewire
T1–Periodofoscillationwithweightsatdistance(d1)(sec) T2–
Periodofoscillationwithweights atdistance(d2)(sec)

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Tofindtheradius(r)ofthesuspensionwire

Zero error=±… .................... division

Leastcount(LC)= ……………. Zerocorrection=.............. mm

S.No. Pitch Scale Head Scale HSR= Observed CorrectReading

Reading(PSR) Coincidence HSCXLC Reading=PSR+ + ORZC
(HSC) (HSC x LC)

Unit mm div. mm Mm

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Meandiameterofthe wire(d)

=....................... x 10-3 meter

Meanradiusofthewire(r)

d/2= ..................... x 10-3 meter

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PROCEDURE

1. One end of a long, uniform wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined is

clamped by a vertical chuck. To the lower end, a heavy uniform circular disc is attached by
another chuck. Thelength of the suspension ‘l’ isfixed to a particular value(say 60 cm or 70
cm). The suspended disc is slightly twisted so that it executes tensional oscillations. Care is
taken to see that the disc oscillates without wobbling.

2. The first few oscillations are omitted. By using the pointer, (a mark made in the
disc) the time taken for 10 complete oscillations are noted. Two trials are taken. The mean
time period T (time for one oscillation) is found.

3. Two equal cylindrical masses are placed on the disc symmetrically on either side,
close to the suspension wire (at the minimum distance). The closest distance ‘d 1’ from the
centre of the mass of the cylinder and thecentre of thesuspension wire is found. The disc with
masses at distance ‘d1’ is made to executive tensional oscillations by twisting the disc. Thetimes
taken for 10 oscillations are noted. Two trials are taken. The mean time period ‘T1’ is determined.

4. Two equal masses are now moved to the extreme ends so that the edges of
masses coincide with the edge of the disc and the centers are equi-distant. The distance ‘d2’
from thecentreofthemassof thecylinder and thecentreof thesuspension wireisnoted. The disc
with masses at distance ‘d2’ is allowed to execute tensional oscillations by twisting the disc.
The time taken for 10 oscillations is noted and time period ‘T 2’ is calculated.

5. Themassof oneof thecylindersplacedonthediscisfound. Thediameter of the

wireisaccuratelymeasuredatvariousplacesalongitslengthwithscrewgauge.From this, the radius
of the wire is calculated. The moment of inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus of the
wire are calculated using the given formulas.

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CALCULATION

Massofany oneofthecylindrical masses, m= Х10-3kg.

Radiusofthesuspended wire, r= Х10-3m

Minimumdistancebetweenthe suspension

wireandthecentreofmass ofthe cylinder d1= Х10-2m

Maximum distancebetweenthesuspension

wireandthecentreofmass ofthe cylinder d2= Х10-2m

Lengthofthesuspendedwire, l= Х10-2m

Timeperiodwithout masses, T0= sec

Timeperiodwhentwo identical massesare

placed at the minimum distance“d1” , T1 = sec

Time period when two identical masses are

placed at the maximum distance “d2” , T2 = sec

The moment of inertia of the metallic disc is given by

2m (d2 2–d12)T02

I=
T22–T12

TheRigiditymodulusof the material ofthewireisgiven by,

8Il
 2 2 4
Nm-
T0 r

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RESULT

1. Themomentofinertiaofthemetallicdisc(I) = kgm2

2. TheRigiditymodulusofthematerialofthewire( )= Nm-2

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VIVA-VOCEQUESTIONS

1. Whatistorsionalpendulum?

Abodysuspendedfromarigidsupportbymeansof alongandthinelasticwireiscalleda torsional

pendulum.

2. Whyisitcalledatorsionalpendulum?`

Itexecutesin torsionaloscillations,itiscalledasatorsionalpendulum.

3. Whatistheshape ofrigidbodyyou canuse foratorsionalpendulum?

Sphere, cylinder andcirculardisc.

4. Whatarethe factorsaffectingthetimeperiodofthependulum?

Thefactorsaffectingthetimeperiodofthependulumaremomentofinertiaof therigidbody, rigidity

modulus, length, radius and material of the wire. `

5. Howdoesthetorsionalpendulumoscillate?(OR)Whatismeantbytorsional
oscillations?

When the torsional pendulum is given a slight rotation by applying a torque, the wire is
twisted. Nowarestoringcoupleisdevelopedinthewireduetoelasticityontheremovalof external
torque, the restoring couple tends to untwist the wire, so that the pendulum oscillates. Such
oscillations are called torsional oscillation.

6. Whatisthetypeofoscillationproduced in atorsionalpendulum?

Simple harmonic oscillation

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Non-Uniformbendingofabeam

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ExpNo:2 Date:

DETERMINATIONOFYOUNG’SMODULUSBYNONUNIFORM BENDING
METHOD
AIM

Todeterminetheyoung’s modulusofthegiven materialofthebeambynon uniform

bending.

APPARATUSREQUIRED

Alonguniformbeamusuallyametresacle,travelling microscope,pin,weight hanger

with slotted weights, vernier caliper, screw gauge, knife edges etc.

FORMULA

TheYoung’s modulus ofthegivenmaterialofthebeam

gl3 M
Y= Nm-2
3
4bd y

where,
 g -Acceleration dueto gravity(ms-2)
 l-Distance betweenthetwoknifeedges(m)
 b-Breadthofthebeam(m)
 d-Thicknessofthe beam(m)
 y -Depressionproducedfor‘M’kgofload (kg)
 M-Load applied(m)

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(i) Tofinddepression(y):

LC=0.001cm TR=MSR+(VSCxLC)

Distance MicroscopeReading Depression

between Loading Unloading for50(M)g
knife Load
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR Mean (y)
edges(l)
x10-2 m x10-3kg x10-2m div x10-2 m x10-2 m div x10-2 m x10-2 m x10-2m
W

W+50

W+100

W+150

W+200

W+250

Meandepression(y)= ..................... x10-2 m

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PROCEDURE

Thegivenbeamisplacedonthetwoknifeedges(A&B)atadistancesay70cmor
80cm.

A weight hanger is suspended at the centre (C) of the beam and a pin isfixed vertically
on the frame of the hanger as shown in the figure. Taking the weight hanger alone as the dead
loadthe tip of thepin isfocused by the microscope, and is adjusted in such a way that the tip of
the pin just touches the horizontal cross wire. The reading on the vertical scale is noted. Now
the weight is added in steps of 50 g. Each time the tip of the pin is made to touch the
horizontal cross wire and the readings are noted from the vertical scale of the microscope.
The procedure is followed until the maximum load is reached.

The same procedure isrepeated by unloading theweight in steps of same 50 g and the
readings are tabulated in the tabular column. From the readings the mean of (M/y) is
calculated. The thickness and the breadth of the beam are measured using screw gauge and
vernier caliperrespectively andaretabulated. By substituting thevalues inthe given formula, the
Young’s modulus of the material of the beam can be calculated.

A graph is drawn taking load (m) along x-axis and depression ‘y’ along y-axis as
shown in the figure. The slope of the graph gives the value K=y/M. TheYoung’s modulus can
be calculated by substituting the value of the slope in the given formula.

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(ii) Tofindthebreadthofthebeamusingverniercaliper (b):

LC=0.01cm ZE= ...................... div

ZC= ...................... div

Observedreading= TR=OR+ZC
MSR VSC VSR
S.No. MSR + VSR

x10-2 m div div x10-2 m x10-2 m

Meanb= ................. x10-2 m

(iii) Tofindthethickness ofthebeamusing screwgauge(d):

LC=0.01mm ZE= ...................... div

ZC= ...................... div

PSR HSC HSR OR=PSR+HSR TR=OR+ZC

S.No.
x10-3 m div div x10-3m x10-3 m

Meanb= .................. x10-3 m

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CALCULATION

g -Accelerationdueto gravity g = ms-2

l-Distancebetweenthetwoknifeedges l = x10-2m

b -Breadthofthe beam b = x10-2m

d-Thicknessofthebeam d = x10-2m

y–depression y = x10-2m

i. By calculation
gl3 M
Y= Nm-2
3
4bd y

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RESULT
TheYoung’s modulus ofthegivenmaterialofthebeam,

By calculation Y = ................................ Nm-2

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VIVA-VOCE

1. Whatismeantbynon-uniform bending?
2. Defineneutralaxis.
3. Name anytwomethodsusedtodeterminethe Young’s modulusofthebeam.
4. Defineelasticity.
5. Will therebeanychangeinYoung’smodulusofthematerial,ifitsthicknessis
increased? Justify.
6. Whatarethebasic assumptionsmade forthetheoryof bending?
7. Why irongirdersusedinbuildingaremadeintheformofI-section?
8. Whatistheuse ofkeepinganoptimumof0.7to0.8mdistancebetweentheknifeedges?
9. Defineelastic limit.
10. Whatismeantby elastic constants?

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UNIFORMBENDING

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ExpNo:3 Date:

DETERMINATIONOFYOUNG’SMODULUS–UNIFORM
BENDING
AIM

To determine the young’s modulus of the materialofthe beamby uniformbending

method.

APPARATUSREQUIRED

A uniform rectangular beam, two equal knife edges, two weight hanger with
slottedweight, vernier microscope, pin, screw gauge, vernier caliper.

FORMULA

3Mga 2
Y Nm-2
3
2bd y

Where, Y=Young’smodulusofthematerialofthebeam -Nm2

M=the load producing the depression - Kg

g=acceleration duetogravity-ms-2

l=Lengthofthebeambetweenthetwoknife edges–m

a=distancebetweenthepointofapplicationofloadandnearestKnifeedge-m b=

breadth of the beam - m

d=thicknessofthebeam-m

y= elevationproducedforaload–m

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To findthe Elevation(y)

LC =0.001cm TR=MSR +(VSC *LC)

S.No Load TravelingMicroscopeReading Mean Elevation

‘y’forMkg
Increasingload Decreasingload
-3
x10-2 m
x 10 kg MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR

cm div cm cm div cm cm

1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

5 W+200

6 W+250

Meany= x10-2 m

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PROCEDURE:

1. Thegivenbeamissymmetricallysupportedontwoknifeedges.
2. Twoweighthangersaresuspendedatequaldistancefromtheknifeedges.
3. A pinis fixedverticallyatC bysomewax.
4. Thelengthofthe beam(l)betweentheknifeedges issetfor50cm.
5. Atravelingmicroscopeisfocusedonthetipofthepinsuchthatthehorizontalcross wire
coincides with the tip of the pin.
6. Thereading intheverticaltraversescaleisnotedfor deadload. Inequalstepsof m Kg
added to theweight hangers; thecorrespondingreadings for loading are noted.
Similarly readings are noted while unloading.
7. Thebreadthandthethicknessof thebeamaremeasuredwithaverniercalipersand screw
gauge respectively.

FromthedataYoung’smodulus ofthebeamiscalculated.

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Tofindthebreadthofthebeamusingverniercaliper

LC = 0.01cm Zero Error = ± ………div

Zerocorrection=………div

S.No. MSR VSC VSR OR=MSR+ TR=OR +ZC

=(VSCXLC) VSR
(cm) div. (cm) x10-2 m

Meanb= ................. x10-2 m

TofindthethicknessofthebeamusingScrew gauge

LC=0.01mm ZE=± ---------- div

ZC= ------- x10-3m

HSR=HSC(ZE OR=PSR+
PSR HSC TR =OR +ZC
S.No +LC) HSR
(mm) (Div) x 10-3m
(mm)

Mean d =................. x10-3m

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CALCULATION:

Load applied at midpoint m = -------------- x10-3kg.

Accelerationduetogravity g=--------------ms-2.

Breadthofthebeam b = ---------------- x10-2 m

Thicknessofthebeam d= -------------- x10-3 m

Distancebetween thepointof application
ofloadand nearest knifeedge a= ---------------- x10-2 m
Lengthofthebeambetweentheknife edgesl= -------------------- x 10-2 m
2
3Mga
Young’smodulusofthebeamE Nm-2
3
2bd y

RESULT:

TheYoung’s modulusofthematerialofthegivenbeambyuniformbending

Y= Nm-2

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VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Whatisstress? Giveitsunit.
Theforceappliedonabodyperunitarea is knownasstress.Itsunitis N/m2.

2. Whatiselasticity?
Thepropertyof the body toregainits original shape and size, after theremoval of the
applied stress.

3. Whatarethefactors affectingtheelasticityofamaterial?
a. Effectof stress
b. Effectofchangein temperature
c. Effectof Impurities
d. Effectofhammering,rollingand annealing
e. Effectofcrystallinenature.

4. Whatisuniformbending?
The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent forms an arc of a circle
and elevation is made on the beam. This bending is called uniform bending.

5. What isHooke’sLaw?

The stress applied to a body is directly proportional to the strain produced in the
body.

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Determination ofwavelength ofthe lasersource

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ExpNo:4 Date:

LASER-DETERMINATIONOFTHEWAVELENGTHOFTHE
LASER USING GRATING

AIM

Todeterminethewavelengthofthegivenlasersourceusinggrating

APPARATUSREQUIRED

Lasersource, Grating,Screen,Stand

FORMULA

Wavelengthofthe laser source

Where,

 θ–angleofdiffraction
 N-the numberoflinesper metreofthegrating(m)
 n-Orderofthe ring(nounit)

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Determinationofwavelengthoflasersource
Distance
Order
between Readingsforthe diffractedimage
thegrating of Meanθ=
S.No.
and the diffraction (θ1+θ2)/2
screen(D)
(n) Left Right

×10-2m ×10-2 m ×10-2 m ×10-2 m ×10-2 m

tanθ1= θ1= tanθ2= θ2 =
x1 x2
(x1/D) tan-1(x1/D) (x2/D) tan-1(x2/D)

Meanλ=…………….. m

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RESULT

Wavelengthofthe laser source, λ= ................................. meter

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VIVAVOCE

1. Howwill youdeterminethesizeofthe particleusinglaser?

2. Whattype oflaseryou usefortheexperiment?Whatisitswavelength?

3. What willyoudotogetcleardiffractionpatternonthescreen?

4. Whatisthedifferencebetweenthediffractionbypowder particleandgrating?

5. Whyisthediffractionpatternproducednotintheformofconcentricrings?

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FIG:-AIRWEDGEMETHOD

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ExpNo:5 Date:

DETERMINATIONOFTHICKNESSOFATHINWIRE–AIRWEDGE METHOD

AIM

To determine the thickness of the thin wire by forming interference fringes using air-
wedge arrangement.

APPARATUS

Travellingmicroscope,Sodiumvapourlamp,Condensinglens,apairofoptically plane
glass plates, a glass plate kept at 45º on a suitable stand.

FORMULA

Thicknessof thethin wire isgivenby,

l
t  m
2

Where,

λ-Wavelength ofthesodiumvapourlamp(λ=5893Х10-10 m),inmeter.

l- Distancebetweenthespecimenwireandtheedgeofcontact,inmeter. β -

Mean width of one fringe, in meter.

EXPERIMENTALSETUP

The experimental setup is shown in fig (4) two optically plane rectangular glass plates are
placed one over the other such that one of their edges touch along a straight line. These are
held in position by a rubber band and the given thin wire is kept between the glass plates at
the other end parallel to the line of contact. The air film enclosed between the glass plates is
wedge shaped and hence the arrangement is called an air-wedge.

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Todeterminethebandwidth(β):

Microscopereading Meanwidth
Widthof5
of one
Order of fringes
MSR TR fringe(β)
thefringe
VSC Х10-2m
Х10 m
-2
Х10 m
-2 Х10-2m

nn+5

n+10

n+15

n+20

n+25

n+30

n+35

n+40

n+45

n+50

β=…….Х10-2m

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The air-wedge arrangement is kept on the bed plate of atravelling microscope.

Light from a sodium source is rendered parallel by a condensing lens C. A glass plate kept at
45º to the horizontal reflects the light and makes it fall normally on the air- wedge
arrangement. Due to the interference of the beams of light getting reflected from the
topandbottomoftheair wedge, apatternconsistingof brightanddarkparallelstraightbands of
equal width is formed. The microscope enables viewing of this pattern.

PROCEDURE

1. The microscope is focused on the interference pattern. The cross-wire is made to

coincide with the centre of a bright band nearer to the contact edge of the glass
plates. This band is identified as the nth band. The microscope reading on the
horizontal scale is recorded in Table 1.

2. Themicroscopeismovedtowardstheother end of theglassplates. Thecross-wire is

th
successfully made to coincide with every fifth i.e., (n +5) th, (n + 10) etc bright
bands and corresponding microscope readings are recorded.

3. Theobservationsarerecorded till say(n+50)thbandis reached.

4. Fromthetable,themeanbandwidth oftheinterference bandsisfoundout.

5. The distance l between the lines of contact of the glass plates and the thin wire is
found out using a travelling microscope.

6. Thethicknessofthe giventhinwireisfoundoutusingthegivenformula.

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Todeterminethedistance between theedgeofcontact andthespecimenwire

Microscopereading

Position
MSR TR
VSC
Х10-2m Х10-2m

Rubberband

(edgeof (R1)
contact)

Specimen
(R2)
wire

CALCULATION

Wavelengthofthesodiumvapourlamp, λ=5893x10 -10 m Distance

between the specimen wire and

the edge of contact, l = …… x10-2 m

Mean width of one fringe, β = ............. x10-2 m

Thicknessofthethinwireisgiven by,
l
t m
2
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RESULT

Thicknessofthe thinwire= ................... meter.

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VIVA-VOCEQUESTIONS

1. What ismeantbyinterferenceof light?

Whenthetwowavessuperimposeovereachother,resultantintensityismodified.The modification
in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called interference.

2. Isthereisanyenergylossininterferencephenomenon?

No, thereisonlyredistributionof energyie,energyfromdarkplacesisshiftedtobright places

3. What areinterference fringes?

Theyarealternatelybrightanddarkpatchesof lightobtainedintheregionofsuperpositionof two

wave trains of light.

4. Whatistheshapeoffringesinwedgeshapedfilm?

Thefringesin wedge-shaped filmarestraightlinefringes.

5. Whattypeofsource isrequiredindivisionofamplitude?

In divisionofamplitudeabroadsource isrequiredso that thewholefirmmay beviewed together

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Fig:DeterminationofNumericalAperture

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ExpNo:6 Date:

DETERMINATIONOFNUMERICALAPERTUREAND

ACCEPTANCE ANGLE OF AN OPTICAL FIBRE

AIM

TodetermineNumericalApertureandAcceptanceangle ofthegivenopticalfiber.

APPARATUSREQUIRED

Opticalfibercable,Laser source,Numericalaperturejig,screen etc.

FORMULA
1. NumericalapertureoftheopticalfiberNA=sinθowher
e,
 NA -Numerical Apertureofthefibre(nounit)

2. Acceptanceangleθo=tan-1(r/d)degree
where,
 r–Radiusofthecircularimage
 d-Distance fromfibreendtocircularimage

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PROCEDURE

Measurementofnumericalapertureandacceptanceangle:

Usinglaser, wecanfindthenumericalapertureofthefiberoptica;cable.Thegiven laser

source is connected to the optical fiber cable. The other end is exposed to the air medium in
the dark place. The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper.

Now, wegetilluminatedcircularpatchonthescreen. Thedistancefromthefiber end to

circular image (d) is measured using meter scale. The radius of the circular image is also
measured. Thus the acceptance angle is calculated.Fromthe acceptance angle, thenumerical
aperture of the cable is found by using the given formula.

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Determinationofnumericalapertureandacceptanceangle

Distance
between the
fiber end and Radiusofthe Acceptanceangle NA = sinθo
S.No
circularimage circularimage θo= tan-1(r/d)
(r)
(d)

×10-2m ×10-2 m nounit

MeanNA =………………..

CALCULATION:

i) Numerical apertureoftheoptical fiberNA=sinθo

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ii. Acceptanceangleθo= tan-1(r/d)degree

RESULT

i. Thenumericalapertureofthegiven opticalfiber, NA =…………………….

ii. Theacceptance angle ofthegivenopticalfiber, o= ........................... degree

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Whatisanopticalfiber?Explainbrieflyitsstructure.
2. Whatare thecharacteristicsofopticfiber?
3. What isthe needforajacketina optical fiber?
4. Whytherelative indexofcladdingmustalways behigherthan thatofcore?
5. Whylightfromalasersourceandnotfroma LEDis preferredforanoptical fiber?

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Fig:Determinationofwidthof grooveusingcompact disc

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Exp No:6(b) Date:

DETERMINATIONOFWIDTHOFTHEGROOVEUSING

LASER – COMPACT DISC

AIM

Todetermineofwidthofthe grooveinthecompactdisc usingLaser.

APPARATUSREQUIRED

Laser source,aCD,screen,ruler,holdersetc.

FORMULA

Widthofthe groove(distance betweenCDtracks)

d=Lx(λ/w)(m)

L–Thedistanceoflaserbeamabovepaper(m) W –
Distance between diffraction spots (m)
λ– Wavelengthofthelasersource(nm)

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PROCEDURE

 Anarrangementoflasersource,SD andasheetofpaperismade.

 Alignthe CD ata 45degree angle.

 Adjusttogetabrightspot onthepaper directlyunderneath theCDalongwithotherdiffraction spots

in line with laser.

 Thepositionofeachspotonthe paperare determined.

 Thedistanceoflaserbeamabovepaperandthedistancebetweendiffractionspotsaremeasured and

tabulated

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Result

Thewidthofthegroove inthe compactdisc usinglaseris,d= m.

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Fig:UltrasonicInterferometer

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ExpNo:7 Date:

DETERMINATION OF THE VELOCITY OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

ANDCOMPRESSIBILITYOFTHEGIVENLIQUID –ULTRASONIC
INTERFEROMETER.
AIM

i. Todeterminethevelocityofultrasonicwavesinthemediumofdifferentliquidsusing
ultrasonic interferometer.
ii. Todeterminethecompressibilityofthegivenliquid.

APPARATUSREQUIRED

Ultrasonicinterferometer,Quartzcrystalofnaturalfrequency2MHz,Micrometerand
sensor,Liquids (Water, Kerosene, Benzene and CCI 4 ) as source etc.

FORMULA

i. Velocityofultrasonicwavesinagivenliquid
v= fλ ms-1
ii. Wavelengthofultrasonicwaves
λ= m
iii. Compressibilityoftheliquid
K= 1/(v2ρ) m2N-1
Where,
f-FrequencyofthegeneratorwhichexcitestheCrystal(Hz) d -
Distance moved by the oscillator (m)
x -Numberofoscillations
ρ - Density of the liquid (kg m-3)
λ-Wavelengthofultrasonics(m)

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DESCRIPTION

UltrasonicInterferometertechniquegivesaveryaccuratevalueinthemeasurementof sound
velocity. The ultrasonic interferometer consists of following two parts as shown in fig.

High frequency generator: It generates alternating field of variable frequencies. The

frequency generator is used to excite the quartz plate placed at the bottom of the measuring
cell at its resonant frequency. The excited quartz crystal generates ultrasonic waves in the
experimental liquid in the measuring cell.

Measuring cell: Measuring cell shown in fig has a double walled vessel with a
provision to maintain temperature constant. At the top of the cell a fine micrometer screw is
fitted. With the help of this screw, the reflector plate placed in the cell can be lowered or
raised through a known distance. The reflector and the quartz crystal (mounted at the bottom
of the cell) areparallel toeach other. Whenthe alternating fieldfrom thefrequency generator is
applied to the crystal, it gets into resonant vibrations.

PROCEDURE

The given liquid isfilled in the metalliccylinder.The ultrasonic generator is switched

ON. The micrometer is adjusted to zero. The micrometer is moved down so that the micro
ammeter of the generator shows the maximum deflection. The micrometer reading for the
maximum is noted in the table. As the micrometer is moved further downward a series of
maxima and minima are observed in the micro ammeter. Micro ammeter readings
corresponding to (n+3), (n+6), (n+9)….. maxima are recorded in thetable. From the tablethe
distance between 9 maxima is determined.

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Tofindthevelocityofultrasonicwavesintheliquid:

Type of the liquid = …………………..

Frequency of the generator (f) = ............................. Hz

L.C =0.01mm TR=PSR+(HSC xLC)

Readingfor‘x’oscillations
Number of
Oscillations InitialReading(R1) Finalreading(R2)
d=
λ= v=fλ
(x) R1 R2
PSR HSC TR PSR HSC TR

x10-3m x10-3m x10-3m x10-3m x10-3m x10-3m x103ms-1

n+3

n+6

n+9

n+12

n+15

n+18

Mean v = .................. 103ms-1

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CALCULATION

i) Wavelengthofultrasonicwaves
λ= m

ii) Velocityof ultrasonic wave

v=fλ ms-1

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iii) Compressibility of liquid

K= m2N-1

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RESULT

Velocityoftheultrasonicwavesinthegiveliquid, v=......................... ms-1

Compressibilityofthegiven liquid, K=……………….m2N-1

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VIVA-VOCE

1. Whatareultrasonicwaves?
2. Definepiezo–electriceffect.
3. Definean acoustic grating.
4. Explain inversepiezo–electriceffect.
5. Areultrasonicelectro-magneticwaves?Givereasons.

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