STUDY NOTES 1 Mechanics of a Particle 1.1 Conservation of Linear momentum If the total force F is zero then the linear momentum (p) is conserved. Explanation: (mv) _ dp = =2oo0 di dt p =constant 1.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum ‘The angular momentum (L) is conserved when the absence of an external torque (N). Explanation: Angular momentum of particle is given by L=rxp and the torque written as a dt The second term is zero, because both vectors are parallel. aL dt (r x p) —v X mv a al xP = where L =r x pIf absence of external torque N = 0, then aL gus L_ =constant. 1.3 Conservation of Energy If the particle is acted upon by the forces which are conservative; that is, if the £ forces derivable from a scalar potential energy function in the manner F=-W then the total energy (kinetic + potential) of the particle is conserved. Explanation: Suppose, under the action of such a force, a particle moves from position 1 to position 2. The work done by the particle will be 2 Wo [ Pedr 1 2 dp -f ane But p= mi and dr = ft Pd Wa= i alms) Fat @ we know oa) ee ee (3 ) aaa" a ala) al)? ‘Then equation (1) becomes 2 d/l. Jo= | —(5 dt a= [ E(5m") =h-T, (2) where T), T; denote the kinetic energy of the particle at position 2 and 1 respectively. Since F=-VVwe can write (3) From eqs. (2) and (3) we get %-T= T+Vo=T+Vi T +V = constant. 2 Mechanics of a System of Particles When a mechanical system consists of two or more particles, we must consider internal forces arising on account of the interaction between particles of system themselves in addition to external force acting on whole system of particles. 2.1 Conservation of Linear Momentum If the total external force vanishes, the total linear momentum is conserved. Explanation: Newton’s second law for a general system of N particles SF i= 1,2,..N ii =F mia; = where, FO - external force acting on it* particle Fi - internal force the #" particle due to j"* particle. From Newton’s third law, any combination of mutual force must be zero. i anf So, the sum of internal forces becomes zero. Now we obtain the equation of motion of the system as a whole -# =-S ro D= mn = A 3The vector R, which locate the centre of mass, is defined as the average of the radio vectors of the particles, weighted in proportion to their mass. Lmiri Dem N where M(= > mj) is total mass of the system. R Eq.(3) simply becomes, . P=MR=F® If F® = 0, P = constant. 2.2 Conservation Theorem for Angular Momentum If total external torque is zero, the total angular momentum is constant in time or conserved. Explanation: ‘The total angular momentum L of the system of particles by forming the cross prod- uct (r; x pi) for ith particle and summing over all particles. Sum of external torque is written as db ed NO == (tex Pd = Vii x w+ ni x pi = (ri xB) (because 1, x p; = 0) =onx A+) i ig = > "x FO The second term in above equation denote the sum of internal torque vanishes. 1fN©=0, db/dt =0 xB L =constant5 Classification of Constraints 1. (a) Scleronomic : if constraint relations do not explicitly depend on time e.g., in case of a rigid body. (b) Rheonomic : if constraint relations depend explicitly on time e.g., a bead sliding on a moving Wire. 2. (a) Holonomic : if constraint relations are or can be made independent of velocity e.g., a cylinder rolling without sliding down an inclined plane. (b) Non-holonomic : if constraint relations are not holonomic; that is, these relations are irreducible functions of velocities e.g., a sphere rolling without sliding down an inclined plane. 3. (a) Bilateral : if the constraint relations are in the form of equations e.g. , in case of rigid body. (b) Unilateral ; if the constraint relations are expressed in the form of in- equalities e.g, , motion of molecules in a gas container, or motion of a particle on the surface of a sphere under the action of gravity-one time rolling on the surface of sphere and other time leaving the surface (r? > a2). 4. (a) Conservative : if forces of constraint do not do any work and total mechan- ical energy of the system is conserved while performing the constraint motion e.g. , simple pendulum with rigid support. (b) Dissipative : if the forces of constraint do work and the total mechanical energy is not conserved e.g., pendulum with variable length. Principle of virtual work ” A system of particles is in equalibrium only if the total virtual work of the actual or applied force is zero”. This is known as principle of virtual work. Thus the total force F on the system given by F=f+F=0 where f is the sum of the constraint forces and F') is the the applied forces. The virtual work is given by 6W =F -6r=0 If the virtual work done by the constraint forces also vanishes, that is, f-sr=0 then the virtual work done by the applied force on a system in static equilibrium also vanishes. W, =F). 6r =0 ansystem of n particles we should have 6Wy = > FO. ory = i=0 The above equation states that the necessary condition for static equilibrium. 6 D’Alembert’s Principle Statement: The sum of the differences between the forces acting on a system of particles and the time derivatives of the momenta of the system itself projected onto any virtual displacement consistent with the constraints of the system is zero. Mathematically written as, Mz (Hn) n= where F®) - is the total applied force (excluding constraint forces) on the é* particle fi - is the rate of change of momentum of the i” particle, 6r; - is the virtual displacement of the i” particle, consistent with the constraints. Explanation: For the é* particle in such a system, Newton’s equation of motion reads as FO +h () where f; is the constraint force, A is the applied force and p; is the linear momen- tum, all pertaining to the i* particle. Now the system also satisfies by requirement of vanishing virtuel work done by all constraint forces. OW = 30 fie dri = 0. (2) Taking the scalar product of each term in Eq.(1) with the infinitesimal virtual dis- placement of the i” particle dr; and summing over all particles of the system, we get after accounting for Eq.(2) Ss (2 - A) -6 0 (3) where —p; appears as an effective force called the reverse force of inertia on the i!” particle,8 on Important properties of D’Alembert’s principle . Unlike Newton’s 3N equations of motion, D’Alembert’s principle is just one equation of motion. . D’Alembert’s principle does not involve the forces of constraints in any way. So it is sufficient to specify all the applied fore only. . The constraint relations is not explicitly required except for determining ér;. . Its validity extends to all rheonomic and scleronomic systems that are either holonomic or homogeneous nonholonomic. . In this principle, the inertial force 7; is introduced to reduce the problem of dynamics to one of statics. . This principle gives a complete solution to the problems of mechanics. . This principle is more elementary than the variational principles on another account; it requires no integration with respect to time. Lagrangian The Lagrangian function (£) defined as the difference between kinetic energy (T) and potential energy (V). L=T-V Important properties of Lagrangian . £ in a scalar function of gi,4; and t. The q; variables constitute the basis vectors of an abstract n-dimensionnl configuration space. Any point in this space along with a tangent direction (q; at that point) completely determines the state, and the future of the dynamical system is determined by Euler- Lagrange's equations of motion. . £ is not unique in its functional form because it is possible to preserve the form of the Euler-Lagnnge equations of motion for a variety of choices of the Lagrangian. In fact, given a Lagrangian, it is possible to construct any number of other equivalent Lagrangian. . For any classical holonomic system L can be constructed from T—V, D’Alembert’s principle and Newton’s laws are valid, However, it may be noted that in the special relativistic dynamics, the classical definition of £ = T'— V is no longer valid.3. Definitions 3.1 Degrees of freedom ‘The minimum number of independent variables required to fix the position and the configuration of a dynamical system which are compatible with the given constraints is celled the degrees of freedom (DOF). 3.2 Generalised co-ordinates To describe the configuration of a system, the smallest possible number of variables are required. These variables are called generalised co-ordinates of the system. 3.3 Constraints The limitations (or geometrical restrictions) on the motion of a particle or system are generally known as constraints. 3.4. Constrained Motion A constrained motion is a motion which cannot proceed arbitrarily in any manner. Motion along a specified path is the simplest example of a constrained motion. 3.5 Force of Constraints Constraints are always associated with the force by virtue of which they restrict the motion of the system. Such the forces are called force of constraints. 3.6 Virtual Displacement Any imaginary displacement which is consistent with the constraint relation at given instant (that is, without allowing the real time to change) is called a virtual dis- placement. The virtual infinitesimal displacement is mathematically representedby Ger; = de; |a= 010 Cyclic (or) Ignorable coordinates The Lagrangian of any physical system is generally expected to have explicit depen- dence on all the generalised coordinates q; all the generalised velocities qj; and time t, that is, LL qin; Gi---Gns t) where n is the total number of generalised coordinates. If some of the generalised coordinates do not appear explicitly in the expression for the Lagrangian, then coor- dinates are called cyclic or ignorable coordinates. Any change in these coordinates cannot affect the Lagrangian 11 Lagrange’s equation from D’Alembert’s Prin- ciple D’Alembert’s principle is given by VA -B) + sr, =0 (1) The co-ordinate transformation equations are 15 = Ti( My G25 --+5 Inst), Ore Ore 4 Or dt Og! t Iq? * + Oe hs ara 54 . +o @) Now we calculate virtual displacement, dr; ar; b= 5 = i ars “Le 5q; + RE ot “Lae a (3) 7 iy +. + 2 6 ry ont 4 on OL Substitute eq.(3) in (1) De- 1) Toy =0 7 7 "G5 or, ory > F,+ 5+ 6g; — > bi z— Oqy = 0 * 84; 5 7 Pi ag 5rR = _ where, Q; (- DA a) is called generalised force. Leis - Lag 5 ou = 0 (a) Now we evaluate the second term of = (4) 2 a mii ae Further a . o (ar; = aan)! oa Pat a4; ttt mae) yd (an), , a (ar ~ Dinan) a (Ge) Pr. Pr; ~ x qud9; IK O09; tq; Pr; 4 Pr; =d 94;09% a 8g; 3 dri © 84; (@ ) Ou; r 3a, (6) Differentiating Eq. (2) with respect to gj, we get Ov, Or; 2G 7 OG (7) Putting eqs. (6) and (7) in eq. (5), we get eon Po eee Soa Bay 5 Ema B8) — me Bo Jeha-eh ele ele ele 4With this substitution, eq. (2) becomes ar 2% 505- > a(S; > [a (a5) ~~ 2] =" ar a al 5q = 0, a (ar) ar [as(ai) ~ 3a] = % io For conservative system, the generalised force can be expressed as | on Q= x Fe ay __ Dy. yor Og; _ --r OV | Or; Or; Og; wv Og Equation (8) are now Fa [ai(ai) - “ae | (I~ since v is not function of 4; dal) ac . [& (sr) - ial =0 j=1,2...40 which are known as Lagrange’s equation of motion for conservative system. 12 Simple Pendulum If the string is of length / and the angle between rest position and deflected position is 6, then kinetic energy is 1 1 Ay T = mv? = 5m(16)? ly. SS giml’e,where m is the mass of the bob. In coming from position B to A, the mass fallen freely through a vertical distance CA. Thus potential energy is V =mg(OA - 00) = mg(I — Leos) = mgl(1— cos 6), Lagrangian is L=T-V Ent’? — mgl(1 — cos), so that Be = = ml?6 a6 and Ae 3g = ~mglsind Putting in Lagrange’s equation d (aL) al _ diab) 30 we get 4 (ma ml?6 + mglsind = 0 ) + mglsin 9 6+ 4sin0=0 If the amplitude of motion is very small,that is sin @ = 0, then The period of oscillation is 13 Atwood’s Machine Atwood’s machine is holonomic conservative system with one degree of freedom and if the pulley is frictionless, constraints are scleronomous. The length os string PQ = 1, mass of P = m, and mass of Q = m2.Kinetic energy of mass m, = amit? Kinetic energy of mass mz = 3m? Total kinetic energy of system T = 3(m + me). Potential energy of mass m, = Potential energy of mass m2 = mygx maog(l — 2) Total potential energy of system V = —migx — mog(l — 2). .. The Lagrangian, Ci Ve 5m + m2)é? + migx + mg(l — x) So that OL 5 = (mm — ma)g a OL a7 (my + m2)é The Lagrange’s equation interms of generalised co-ordinate «x is aac) oe _, dt \ 0% Ox “tom + ma)é] — (mi — ma)g = 0 (my + mg)é — (m1 — m2)g = 0 *, The acceleration is m1 — M2 my + mg"What Is Minkowski Space? Minkowski space or spacetime is used in mathematical physics and special relativity. It combines 3-dimensional Euclidean Space and time into a 4- dimensional manifold, where the interval of spacetime that exists between any two events is not dependent on the inertial frame of reference. This concept was initially developed by the Scientist Hermann Minkowski for Maxwell’s equation of electromagnetism. BYJUS OT Teale ree hi OBSERVER '~-=~ Suites YMinkowski Diagrams The scientist used a separate graphing system called Minkowski diagrams to properly demonstrate the properties of Lorentz transformation and relate the Newtonian mechanics to relativistic mechanics using proper graphical methods.Mathematical Definition Minkowski spacetime is a 4-dimensional coordinate system in which the axes are given by (x, y, z, ct) We can also write as (x", x2, x3, x4). Here we have written ct as x4, time is measured in units of speed of light times the time coordinates this is because the unit of time should be same as the unit for space. The differential for arc length in spacetime is given by the equation: ds? = —c'dt? + dx® + dy? + dz” This equation has a metric tensor of spacetime given by: -1 00 0 0 10 0 Juv = 0 01 0 0 001 As stated before, spacetime is a flat everywhere.What is Lorentz Transformation? Lorentz transformation is the relationship between two different coordinate frames that move at a constant velocity and are relative to each other. The name of the transformation comes from Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz. There are two frames of reference, which are: 1. Inertial Frames — Motion with a constant velocity 2. Non-Inertial Frames — Rotational motion with constant angular velocity, acceleration in curved pathsLorentz Transformation Formula Following are the mathematical form of Lorentz transformation: t= y(t — 2 )a! = (a —vt)y' = y2! =z Where, e (t,x,y,z) and (t’.x’,y’,z’) are the coordinates of an event in two frames. ¢ vis the velocity confined to x- direction ¢ cis the speed of light.What does the Poisson bracket tell us? A TLDR — The Poisson bracket tells how a quantity changes under a transformation generated by another. It also tells us the state count of a cell of phase space identified by the two variables. 25-Nov-2017Alpha Scattering Geometry The scattering of the alpha particle by the central repulsive Coulomb force leads to a hyperbolic trajectory. From the scattering angle and momentum, one can calculate the impact parameter and closest approach to the target nucleus.Hamilton's Canonical Equations of Motion the differential equations of motion of a mechanical system in which the variables are the generalized momenta pj, as well as the generalized coordinates qj the q; and p;, are called canonical variables. Hamilton's canonical equations of motion have the form a dt op;’ dt ~ 3g; @ = 1,2,..., 5)where H (qj, pj, t) is the Hamiltonian function, which when the constraints are not time-dependent and the acting forces are potential is equal to the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the system expressed in terms of canonical variables, and s is the number of degrees of freedom of the system. By integrating this system of ordinary first-order differential equations it is possible to find all the q; and p; as functions of the time t and 2s constants, which are determined from the initial conditions. Hamilton's equations have the important property that they make it possible, using canonical transformations, to transform from the q; and p; to new canonical variables Q; (qj Pj, t) and P; (qj, pj, t ) that also satisfy Hamilton's equations, but with a different function H (Q,, P;, t). In this manner, Hamilton's equations can be reduced to a form that simplifies the process of integration. Hamilton's equations are used in statistical physics, quantum mechanics, electrodynamics, and other branches of physics, as well as in classical mechanics.Hamilton used the Principle of Least Action to derive the Hamilton-Jacobi relation (chapter 15.3) H(q,p,t) + 3 =0 (15.4.1) where q, p refer to the 1 < i < n variables Gi, pi and S(qj(t1), th, q;(t2), tz) is the action functional. Integration of this first- order partial differential equation is non trivial which is a major handicap for practical exploitation of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation. This stimulated Jacobi to develop the mathematical framework for canonical n. Jacobi's new Hamiltonian #1(Q, P, t) that equals zero. H(Q,P,1) = Hla,p,t) +> =¢ The generating function for solving the Hamilton-Jacobi equation then equals the action functional S.