1.

Definitions:
 Logic: The study of arguments and the principles and methods of right reasoning.
 Truth: The property of being in accord with fact or reality.
 Fallacy: Errors in reasoning that undermine the logic of an argument.
 Creativity: The use of imagination or original ideas to create something.
 Validity: The quality of an argument being logically sound, where the conclusion follows from the
premises.
b) Characteristics of a Good Argument:
1. Clarity: The argument is clear and understandable.
2. Relevance: The premises are directly related to the conclusion.
3. Consistency: The argument does not contain contradictions.
4. Sufficiency: The premises provide enough support for the conclusion.
5. Soundness: The argument is both valid and the premises are true.
c) Causes of Fallacies in Reasoning:
1. Emotional appeal: Letting emotions influence reasoning.
2. Ignorance: Lack of knowledge or information.
3. Miscommunication: Misunderstanding or misinterpreting information.
4. Bias: Prejudices or personal biases affecting judgment.
5. Complexity: Difficulty in understanding complex issues.
2. Uses of Critical Thinking in Kenyan Society:
1. Decision Making: Making informed and rational decisions in governance.
2. Education: Enhancing teaching methods and learning processes.
3. Healthcare: Improving diagnosis and treatment plans.
4. Business: Developing strategic plans and solving problems.
5. Judiciary: Ensuring fair and just legal decisions.
3. Significance of Elements of Thought to University Research:
1. Purpose: Clarifies the goal of the research.
2. Question: Defines the problem or issue being investigated.
3. Information: Provides the data and evidence needed for analysis.
4. Interpretation: Helps in understanding and making sense of the data.
4. Ways of Promoting Creativity:
1. Encouraging Curiosity: Fostering a questioning mindset.
2. Providing Resources: Offering tools and materials for creative work.
3. Creating a Supportive Environment: Encouraging risk-taking and experimentation.
4. Offering Training: Providing workshops and courses on creative thinking.
5. Types of Fallacies and Their Effects:
1. Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of the argument; undermines the opponent’s credibility.
2. Straw Man: Misrepresenting an argument to make it easier to attack; leads to false conclusions.
 3. Appeal to Authority: Relying on the opinion of an authority instead of evidence; can lead to incorrect
conclusions.
4. False Dilemma: Presenting two options as the only possibilities; limits the scope of the argument.
5. Slippery Slope: Arguing that one action will lead to a series of negative events; exaggerates the
consequences.
TEST 2
1. Definitions and Distinctions
a) Definitions:
 Critical Thinking: The process of actively analyzing, interpreting, evaluating, and synthesizing
information.
 Logic: The study of principles of valid reasoning and argumentation.
 Argument: A set of statements where some statements (premises) support another statement (conclusion).
 Statement: A declarative sentence that is either true or false.
 Principle of Charity: Interpreting an argument in its strongest, most persuasive form before evaluating it.
b) Valid Arguments vs. Validity of Arguments:
 Valid Arguments: Arguments where if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
 Validity of Arguments: The property of an argument being logically structured so that the truth of the
premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.
c) Explanation vs. Argument:
 Explanation: Provides reasons for why something is the case.
 Argument: Provides reasons to persuade that something is the case.
d) Deductive vs. Ampliative Arguments:
 Deductive Argument: The conclusion necessarily follows from the premises. Example: All humans are
mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
 Ampliative Argument: The conclusion goes beyond the premises. Example: The sun has risen every day
in recorded history. Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.
e) Questions for Analyzing Arguments:
 Are the premises true?
 Does the conclusion logically follow from the premises?
2. What Critical Thinking Involves
Critical thinking involves the ability to think clearly and rationally, understanding the logical connection between
ideas. It includes:
 Analysis: Breaking down complex information into simpler parts.
 Evaluation: Assessing the credibility and logical strength of evidence and arguments.
 Inference: Drawing reasonable conclusions from available information.
 Explanation: Clearly and concisely explaining reasoning and conclusions.
 Self-Regulation: Reflecting on one’s own beliefs, values, and thought processes.
3. Characteristics of a Critical Thinker
 Open-mindedness: Willingness to consider different viewpoints.
  Analytical Nature: Ability to dissect problems and arguments.
 Systematic Approach: Organized and methodical in thinking.
 Inquisitiveness: Curiosity and eagerness to acquire knowledge.
 Judiciousness: Ability to make sound judgments based on evidence.
4. Fallacies Explained with Examples
 Argument from Authority: Asserting a claim is true because an authority says so. Example: “Dr. Smith
says climate change is not real, so it must be false.”
 Genetic Fallacy: Judging something as good or bad based on its origin. Example: “You can’t trust his
argument because he comes from a poor background.”
 Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of the argument. Example: “You can’t trust his opinion on
politics; he’s not even educated.”
 Equivocation: Using a word with multiple meanings in different parts of the argument. Example: “A
feather is light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore, a feather cannot be dark.”
5. Aim of Critical Writing
The aim of critical writing is to present a well-reasoned argument that is clear, concise, and supported by evidence.
It involves:
 Clarity: Ensuring the argument is understandable.
 Coherence: Logical flow and connection between ideas.
 Evidence: Supporting claims with credible sources.
 Objectivity: Presenting arguments fairly without bias.
6. Key Questions in Critical Thinking
 What is the main point or conclusion?
 What evidence supports the conclusion?
 Are there any assumptions?
 Are the sources credible?
 Is the argument logically consistent?
 Are there any logical fallacies?
 What are the counterarguments?
 What is the context of the argument?
 What are the implications?
 How does this information compare with other sources?
TEST 3
1. a) Differentiate between critical thinking and creative thinking. (6 Marks)
 Critical Thinking: Involves analyzing and evaluating information to form a reasoned judgment. It focuses
on logic, clarity, and rationality.
 Creative Thinking: Involves generating new and innovative ideas. It focuses on imagination, originality,
and divergent thinking.
b) List any 7 informal fallacies. (4 Marks)
1. Ad Hominem
 2. Straw Man
3. Appeal to Ignorance
4. False Dilemma
5. Slippery Slope
6. Circular Reasoning
7. Hasty Generalization
c) Explain the four branches of philosophy. (8 Marks)
1. Metaphysics: Studies the nature of reality and existence1.
2. Epistemology: Studies the nature and scope of knowledge23.
3. Axiology: Studies values, including ethics and aesthetics.
4. Logic: Studies the principles of valid reasoning and argumentation.
d) Analyze 7 importance of critical thinking and logic in social integration. (12 Marks)
1. Promotes Rational Decision-Making: Helps individuals make well-reasoned decisions.
2. Enhances Problem-Solving Skills: Improves the ability to solve complex problems.
3. Encourages Open-Mindedness: Fosters tolerance and understanding of different perspectives.
4. Improves Communication: Enhances clarity and effectiveness in communication.
5. Supports Democratic Processes: Encourages informed and rational participation in democratic processes.
6. Reduces Conflict: Helps in resolving conflicts through reasoned dialogue.
7. Fosters Innovation: Encourages creative and logical approaches to innovation.
2. Discuss the major steps in problem solving. (20 Marks)
1. Identify the Problem: Clearly define the problem.
2. Gather Information: Collect relevant data and information.
3. Generate Possible Solutions: Brainstorm potential solutions.
4. Evaluate Alternatives: Assess the feasibility and implications of each solution.
5. Choose the Best Solution: Select the most effective solution.
6. Implement the Solution: Put the chosen solution into action.
7. Review and Reflect: Evaluate the outcome and reflect on the process.
3. Explain any four theories of truth. (20 Marks)
1. Correspondence Theory: Truth is what corresponds to reality.
2. Coherence Theory: Truth is what is consistent with a set of beliefs or propositions.
3. Pragmatic Theory: Truth is what works or has practical effects.
4. Constructivist Theory: Truth is constructed by social processes and interactions.
4. In detail and by giving examples, differentiate between deductive and inductive reasoning. (20 Marks)
 Deductive Reasoning: Starts with a general statement and reaches a specific conclusion. Example: All men
are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
 Inductive Reasoning: Starts with specific observations and reaches a general conclusion. Example: The
sun has risen in the east every day. Therefore, the sun will rise in the east tomorrow.
5. What is the relevance of critical thinking to an individual and the society? (20 Marks)
 Individual Level: Enhances decision-making, problem-solving, and personal growth.
 Societal Level: Promotes informed citizenship, reduces conflict, and fosters social progress
TEST 4
QUESTION ONE
a) Relevance of Logic in Day-to-Day National Transactions (10 Marks)
Logic is crucial in national transactions for several reasons:
 Policy Making: Ensures policies are based on sound reasoning and evidence.
 Legal System: Helps in constructing valid arguments and identifying fallacies in legal cases.
 Economic Decisions: Aids in making rational economic policies and decisions.
 Public Discourse: Enhances clarity and coherence in public debates and discussions.
b) Functions of Critical Thinking (5 Marks)
1. Problem Solving: Identifying and solving problems efficiently.
2. Decision Making: Making informed and rational decisions.
3. Analysis: Evaluating arguments and evidence critically.
4. Creativity: Generating innovative solutions and ideas.
5. Communication: Articulating thoughts clearly and logically.
c) Define Syllogism and Describe Its Major Types (15 Marks)
 Definition: A syllogism is a form of reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed
propositions (premises).
 Major Types:
o Categorical Syllogism: Involves statements that begin with “all,” “no,” or “some.”
o Conditional Syllogism: Based on “if-then” statements.
o Disjunctive Syllogism: Involves “either-or” statements.
QUESTION TWO
Reflective and Independent Thinking (20 Marks) Reflective thinking involves analyzing and evaluating one’s
own thoughts and actions. Independent thinking means forming opinions and making decisions based on one’s
own reasoning and judgment. For example, a student reflecting on their study habits to improve performance or a
citizen independently evaluating political candidates before voting.
QUESTION THREE
Basic Steps in Evaluating Moral Arguments (20 Marks)
1. Identify the Argument: Determine the main claim and supporting reasons.
2. Analyze the Premises: Assess the truth and relevance of the premises.
3. Evaluate the Logic: Check for logical consistency and validity.
4. Consider Counterarguments: Reflect on possible objections and responses.
5. Draw a Conclusion: Formulate a reasoned judgment based on the analysis.
QUESTION FOUR
Essentiality of Formal Logic for Critical Thinking (20 Marks) Formal logic provides the structure for clear and
consistent reasoning. It helps in:
 Identifying Fallacies: Recognizing errors in reasoning.
 Constructing Arguments: Building coherent and persuasive arguments.
 Analyzing Arguments: Breaking down complex arguments into simpler components.
 Enhancing Clarity: Ensuring precision and clarity in thought and communication.
QUESTION FIVE
Importance of Three Laws of Thought (20 Marks)
1. Law of Identity: Ensures consistency by stating that an entity is identical to itself (A is A).
2. Law of Non-Contradiction: Prevents contradictions by stating that contradictory statements cannot both
be true (A cannot be both A and not A).
3. Law of Excluded Middle: Asserts that a statement is either true or false, with no middle ground (A is
either A or not A).
TEST 5
QUESTION ONE
a) Define the following concepts used in critical and creative thinking:
 Logic (2 Marks): Logic is the study of arguments and the principles and methods of right reasoning1. It
involves the development of standard methods and principles of arguments2.
 Argument (2 Marks): An argument is a set of statements or propositions, where some statements
(premises) are intended to support another statement (conclusion).
 Fallacies (2 Marks): Fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the logic of an argument. They can
be formal (structural) or informal (content-based).
 Rhetoric Expressions (2 Marks): Rhetoric expressions are the use of language to persuade or influence
others, often through the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques.
b) Define the following branches of philosophy:
 Epistemology (3 Marks): Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, scope,
meaning, and possibility of knowledge34. It deals with issues of knowledge, opinion, truth, and belief5.
 Axiology (3 Marks): Axiology is the branch of philosophy that studies values, including ethics and
aesthetics. It examines what is good, valuable, and worthwhile.
c) List the characteristics of creative thinking. (7 Marks)
1. Originality
2. Flexibility
3. Fluency
4. Elaboration
5. Risk-taking
6. Complexity
7. Curiosity
d) Identify and discuss any THREE concepts used in philosophy. (9 Marks)
1. Metaphysics: The study of the ultimate nature of reality or existence67.
2. Ethics: The study of moral values and principles.
 3. Logic: The study of principles of valid reasoning and argumentation.
QUESTION TWO
a) Using relevant examples, explain the importance of critical thinking. (10 Marks) Critical thinking is
essential for evaluating the credibility of claims, making informed decisions, and solving problems effectively. For
example, in everyday life, critical thinking helps individuals assess the reliability of news sources and avoid being
misled by false information.
b) Identify and briefly discuss important aspects of critical thinking according to Beyer. (10 Marks)
1. Clarity: Ensuring that the meaning of statements is clear and unambiguous.
2. Accuracy: Ensuring that information is true and free from errors.
3. Precision: Providing sufficient detail to understand the issue fully.
4. Relevance: Ensuring that information is directly related to the issue at hand.
5. Depth: Addressing the complexities of an issue.
6. Breadth: Considering multiple perspectives.
7. Logic: Ensuring that reasoning is sound and conclusions follow from premises.
QUESTION THREE
Discuss the FOUR aims of an argument. (10 Marks)
1. To Persuade: Convincing others to accept a particular viewpoint.
2. To Explain: Providing reasons to understand a concept or phenomenon.
3. To Inquire: Investigating and exploring ideas to gain deeper understanding.
4. To Resolve Disputes: Settling disagreements through reasoned discussion.
QUESTION FOUR (20 Marks)
Describe any FOUR phases of decision making.
1. Identifying the Problem: Recognizing and defining the issue that requires a decision.
2. Gathering Information: Collecting relevant data and information to inform the decision.
3. Evaluating Alternatives: Assessing different options and their potential outcomes.
4. Making the Decision: Choosing the best course of action based on the evaluation.
QUESTION FIVE (20 Marks)
“A creative person is sensitive to a problem, but instead of complaining about the problems, he/she opts for
new possibilities.” Discuss. A creative person approaches problems with a positive mindset, seeking innovative
solutions rather than dwelling on the issues. They use their imagination and critical thinking skills to explore new
possibilities and develop unique approaches to overcome challenges. This proactive attitude leads to progress and
innovation, as creative individuals are not limited by conventional thinking and are willing to take risks to achieve
their goals.
TEST 6
QUESTION ONE
a) Relevance of Critical Thinking in Education:
1. Enhances Problem-Solving Skills: Helps students analyze and solve complex problems.
2. Promotes Independent Thinking: Encourages students to think for themselves.
3. Improves Decision Making: Aids in making well-informed decisions.
 4. Encourages Curiosity: Fosters a questioning attitude.
5. Develops Analytical Skills: Enhances the ability to evaluate arguments1.
6. Boosts Creativity: Encourages innovative thinking.
7. Strengthens Communication: Improves clarity and effectiveness in communication.
b) Types of Syllogisms:
1. Categorical Syllogism: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
2. Hypothetical Syllogism: If it rains, the ground will be wet. It is raining. Therefore, the ground is wet.
3. Disjunctive Syllogism: Either it is day or night. It is not day. Therefore, it is night.
c) Characteristics of a Critical Thinker:
1. Open-Mindedness: Willing to consider new ideas.
2. Analytical Nature: Ability to break down complex information.
3. Skepticism: Questions the validity of statements.
4. Creativity: Thinks outside the box.
5. Curiosity: Always seeks to learn more.
QUESTION TWO
a) Steps of Evaluating Arguments:
1. Identify the Argument: Determine the main claim and supporting premises.
2. Analyze the Structure: Check the logical flow.
3. Evaluate the Evidence: Assess the quality and relevance of the evidence.
4. Check for Fallacies: Identify any logical fallacies.
5. Consider Counterarguments: Evaluate opposing viewpoints.
b) Pre-Conventional Thinking:
 Definition: Moral reasoning based on personal benefits and avoiding punishment.
 Examples: A child obeys rules to avoid being scolded.
QUESTION THREE
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge in Education:
1. Empiricism: Learning through sensory experience.
2. Rationalism: Gaining knowledge through reasoning.
3. Constructivism: Building knowledge through experiences.
4. Pragmatism: Learning through practical application.
5. Intuition: Understanding through instinctive insight.
QUESTION FOUR
Roles of Critical Thinking in Education:
1. Enhances Learning: Encourages deeper understanding.
2. Promotes Engagement: Makes learning more interactive.
3. Improves Academic Performance: Leads to better grades.
 4. Encourages Lifelong Learning: Fosters a love for learning.
5. Develops Citizenship: Prepares students for active participation in society.
QUESTION FIVE
Propaganda Techniques in Faulty Logic:
1. Bandwagon: Encouraging people to act because others are doing it.
2. Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of the argument.
3. Straw Man: Misrepresenting an argument to make it easier to attack.
4. Appeal to Emotion: Using emotions rather than logic to persuade.
5. False Dilemma: Presenting two options as the only possibilities.
TEST 7
QUESTION ONE
a) Define and explain the following concepts:
1. Argument (2 Marks): An argument is a set of statements or propositions, where some statements
(premises) are intended to support another statement (conclusion).
2. Fallacy (2 Marks): A fallacy is a flaw or error in reasoning that weakens an argument.
3. Validity (2 Marks): Validity refers to a property of deductive arguments where if the premises are true, the
conclusion must also be true.
4. Critical Thinking (2 Marks): Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information or
arguments in a disciplined and systematic way.
5. Creative Thinking (2 Marks): Creative thinking involves generating new, original, and useful ideas or
solutions.
b) Explain the following critical and creative thinking tools of transformation:
1. Intellectual Humility: Recognizing the limits of one’s knowledge and being open to new ideas.
2. Intellectual Courage: Willingness to challenge popular beliefs and take risks in the pursuit of truth.
3. Intellectual Empathy: Understanding and appreciating others’ viewpoints and reasoning.
4. Intellectual Integrity: Consistently applying the same standards of evidence and reasoning to oneself as to
others.
5. Fair-mindedness: Treating all viewpoints equally without bias.
c) Explain any FIVE qualities of a critical thinker:
1. Open-mindedness: Willingness to consider different perspectives.
2. Analytical Skills: Ability to break down complex information into manageable parts.
3. Logical Reasoning: Ability to reason consistently and draw valid conclusions.
4. Curiosity: Eagerness to learn and seek out new information.
5. Skepticism: Questioning the validity of information and arguments.
QUESTION TWO
a) Explain any five main branches of philosophy:
1. Metaphysics: Study of the nature of reality and existence1.
2. Epistemology: Study of knowledge and belief2.
 3. Axiology: Study of values, including ethics and aesthetics.
4. Logic: Study of principles of valid reasoning and argumentation.
5. Political Philosophy: Study of government, justice, rights, and the state.
b) Discuss five general uses of philosophy:
1. Critical Thinking: Enhances the ability to think clearly and rationally.
2. Problem Solving: Provides tools for analyzing and solving complex problems.
3. Ethical Decision Making: Helps in making moral and ethical decisions.
4. Understanding Human Experience: Offers insights into human nature and the human condition.
5. Interdisciplinary Connections: Bridges gaps between different fields of study.
QUESTION THREE
Discuss the characteristics and essential aspects of critical and creative thinking:
 Critical Thinking: Involves analysis, evaluation, and synthesis of information. It is systematic, logical,
and evidence-based.
 Creative Thinking: Involves imagination, innovation, and originality. It is open-ended, flexible, and often
involves thinking outside the box.
QUESTION FOUR
a) Distinguish between fallacies of relevance and ambiguity:
 Fallacies of Relevance: Errors in reasoning where the premises are not logically relevant to the
conclusion.
 Fallacies of Ambiguity: Errors in reasoning due to ambiguous language or terms.
b) Examples:
 Fallacies of Relevance:
1. Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of the argument.
2. Appeal to Emotion: Using emotions to persuade rather than logical reasoning.
 Fallacies of Ambiguity:
1. Equivocation: Using a word with multiple meanings in different senses.
2. Amphiboly: Ambiguity due to poor sentence structure.
QUESTION FIVE
Explain any five barriers to critical and creative thinking:
1. Egocentrism: Viewing everything in relation to oneself.
2. Sociocentrism: Conforming to the beliefs of a group.
3. Confirmation Bias: Favoring information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.
4. Emotional Influence: Allowing emotions to cloud judgment.
5. Over-reliance on Authority: Accepting information from authority figures without questioning.
TEST 8
QUESTION ONE
a) Definitions:
 1. Fallacy: A mistaken belief, especially one based on unsound arguments.
2. Syllogism: A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions
(premises).
3. Modus Tollens: A form of argument where the denial of the consequent leads to the denial of the
antecedent.
b) Difference between Rhetoric and Argument:
 Rhetoric: The art of persuasion using language effectively and persuasively.
 Argument: A set of statements or reasons making a case for or against something.
c) Truth vs. Opinion:
 Truth: A fact or reality that is universally accepted (e.g., “The Earth orbits the Sun”).
 Opinion: A personal belief or judgment (e.g., “Chocolate is the best ice cream flavor”).
d) Type of Syllogism:
 Categorical Syllogism: This is a categorical syllogism because it involves statements about categories or
classes (e.g., “You are sad” and “I can make you happy”).
e) Three Kinds of Categorical Syllogisms:
1. Universal Affirmative: All A are B.
2. Universal Negative: No A are B.
3. Particular Affirmative: Some A are B.
QUESTION TWO
Relevance of Hypothetical Syllogism in Degree Area:
1. If-Then Statements: Used in programming (e.g., If a user clicks a button, then a function is executed).
2. Conditional Reasoning: Applied in legal studies (e.g., If a law is broken, then there are consequences).
3. Scientific Hypotheses: Used in research (e.g., If a chemical is added, then a reaction occurs).
QUESTION THREE
Qualities to Look for When Evaluating an Argument:
1. Clarity: The argument should be clear and understandable.
2. Relevance: The premises should be relevant to the conclusion.
3. Consistency: The argument should be free from contradictions.
4. Evidence: There should be sufficient evidence supporting the premises.
5. Logical Structure: The argument should follow a logical sequence.
QUESTION FOUR
Indicators of a Critical Thinker:
1. Curiosity: Always asking questions and seeking new information.
2. Open-mindedness: Willing to consider different viewpoints.
3. Analytical Skills: Ability to break down complex information.
4. Skepticism: Not taking information at face value.
5. Reflectiveness: Thinking about one’s own thinking process.
QUESTION FIVE
Types of Premises with Examples:
1. Factual Premise: Based on facts (e.g., “Water boils at 100°C”).
2. Value Premise: Based on values (e.g., “Honesty is important”).
3. Policy Premise: Based on policies (e.g., “Students should wear uniforms”).
4. Hypothetical Premise: Based on hypothetical situations (e.g., “If it rains, the event will be canceled”).