Lecture 3

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

Lecture objectives
• Comparators

• Summing amplifiers

• Integrators and Differentiators

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

Comparator
• Operational amplifiers are often used as comparators to compare the amplitude
of one voltage with another, and produces an output that is always at either one
of two states, indicating the greater or less than relationship between the
inputs
• In this application, the op-amp is used in the open-loop configuration, with the
input voltage on one input and a reference voltage
• Comparators provide very fast switching times, and many have additional
capabilities (such as fast propagation delay or internal reference voltages) to
optimize the comparison function.
• Comparators are often used to interface between an analog and digital circuit
• In general, comparators cannot be used as op-amps, but op-amps can be used as
comparators in noncritical applications. Because an op-amp without negative
feedback is essentially a comparator

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 Comparator
Zero-Level Detection:
• One application of an op-amp used as a comparator is to
determine when an input voltage exceeds a certain level.
• In a zero-level detector, the inverting input is grounded to
produce a zero level and that the input signal voltage is applied
to the noninverting input.
• Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, a very small
difference voltage between the two inputs drives the amplifier
into saturation, causing the output voltage to go to its limit.
• For example, consider an op-amp having Aol 100,000. A voltage
difference of only 0.25 mV between the inputs could produce an
output voltage of (0.25 mV)(100,000) 25 V if the op-amp were The op-amp as a zero-level detector
capable.

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 Comparator
Zero-Level Detection:
Input signal very small difference
• However, since most op-amps have maximum output voltage between the two inputs
voltage limitations near the value of their dc supply
voltages, the device would be driven into saturation.
• Consider a situation when a sinusoidal input voltage
applied to the noninverting input of the zero-level Any output value above its
detector. maximum level will be
eliminated
• When the sine wave is positive, the output is at its
maximum positive level. When the sine wave crosses
0, the amplifier is driven to its opposite state and
the output goes to its maximum negative level.
• The zero-level detector can be used as a squaring
circuit to produce a square wave from a sine wave.

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Comparator
None zero-Level Detection:
• The zero-level detector can be modified to detect positive and negative
voltages by connecting a fixed reference voltage source to the inverting input
The positive op-amp dc supply voltage

𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝑹𝑬𝑭 = 𝑽𝑩𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝑽𝑹𝑬𝑭 = +𝑽 𝑽𝑹𝑬𝑭 = 𝑽𝒁
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

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Comparator
None zero-Level Detection:

• 𝑽𝒊𝒏 < 𝑽𝑹𝒆𝒇 → −𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕(𝒎𝒂𝒙)

• 𝑽𝒊𝒏 > 𝑽𝑹𝒆𝒇 → +𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕(𝒎𝒂𝒙)

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Comparator
Example 1: The input signal in the figure is applied to the
comparator. Draw the output showing its proper relationship to the
input signal. Assume the maximum output levels of the comparator
are ±14

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Comparator
Example 1 solution:
• The reference voltage is set by R1 and R2 as
follows:
𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝒌
𝑽𝑹𝒆𝒇 = +𝑽= +𝟏𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟑 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟖. 𝟐 𝒌 + 𝟏 𝒌

• Each time the input goes above +1.63 V, the output

voltage switches to its +14 V level

• Each time the input goes below +1.63 V, the output

switches back to its -14 V level
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 Comparator
Effects of Input Noise on
Comparator Operation: Sine wave with
superimposed noise
• In many practical situations,
noise (unwanted voltage
fluctuations) appears on the
input line.
• Noise makes input signal to flip
above and below zero several
times causing erratic output
voltage.
• This unstable condition occurs
when the input voltage hovers
around the reference voltage

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Comparator
Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis:
• In order to make the comparator less sensitive to noise, a technique incorporating
positive feedback, called hysteresis.

• Hysteresis means that there is a higher reference level when the input voltage goes from
a lower to higher value than when it goes from a higher to a lower value.

• Comparator with positive feedback for hysteresis uses two reference levels in order to
trigger the actual input voltage and reduce or remove the effect of the noise.

• The two reference levels are referred to as the upper trigger point (UTP) and the lower
trigger point (LTP)
Can you think of an application example of the Hysteresis?
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Comparator
Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis:

Upper Trigger Point Lower Trigger Point

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Comparator
Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis:
• A small amount of noise voltage has no effect on
the output voltage

• A comparator with built-in hysteresis is

sometimes known as Schmitt trigger

• The amount of hysteresis is defined by the

difference of the two trigger levels:

𝑽𝑯𝒀𝑺 = 𝑽𝑼𝑻𝑷 − 𝑽𝑳𝑻𝑷

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Comparator
Example 2: Determine the upper and lower trigger points for the
comparator circuit in the Figure. Assume that +Vout(max) = +5 V and -
Vout(max) = -5 V

𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌
• 𝑽𝑼𝑻𝑷 = (+𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕(𝒎𝒂𝒙) ) = (+𝟓) = +𝟐. 𝟓 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒌
• 𝑽𝑳𝑻𝑷 = −𝟐. 𝟓 𝑽

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Comparator
Output Bounding:
• In some applications, it is necessary to limit the output voltage levels of a comparator to a
value less than that provided by the saturated op-amp.
• A single zener diode can be used to limit the output voltage to the zener voltage in one
direction and to the forward diode voltage drop in the other.
• This process of limiting the output range is called bounding.
Recall

Comparator with output bounding

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Comparator
Output Bounding:
• When the output voltage reaches a positive value equal to the zener voltage, it limits at
that value.
• When the output switches negative, the zener acts as a regular diode and becomes forward-
biased at 0.7 V, limiting the negative output voltage to this value.

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Comparator
Output Bounding:
• The output voltage also can be limted to the zener voltage plus the forward voltage drop
(0.7 V) of the forward-biased zener, both positively and negatively by using Two zener
diodes arrangement.

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Comparator
Example 3: Determine the output voltage waveform for following circuit.

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Comparator
Example 3 solution:
First, we must understand each part in the configuration:
• The positive feedback is used to make the comparator less sensitive to noise (hysteresis),
which uses two reference levels in order to trigger the actual input voltage.
• The Zener diodes are used to limit the output voltage (Zener bounding). The voltage across
D1 and D2 in either direction is: 4.7 + 0.7 = 5.4 V
• This is because one Zener is always forward-biased with a drop of 0.7 V when the other one
is in breakdown.
• The voltage at the inverting op-amp input is: 𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 ± 5.4 𝑉.
• Since the differential voltage is negligible, the voltage at the noninverting op-amp input is
also approximately 𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 ± 5.4 𝑉.

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Comparator
Example 3 solution:
• In order to find the total output voltage, we need to find the voltage drops across the two
resistances and add this to the Zener bounding voltage ±5.4 𝑉. Therefore:
𝑽𝑹𝟏 = 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 ± 𝟓. 𝟒 = ±𝟓. 𝟒 𝑽

𝑽𝑹𝟏 ±𝟓. 𝟒 𝑽
𝑰𝑹𝟏 = = = ±𝟓𝟒 𝝁𝑨
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌
• Since the noninverting input current is negligible:
𝑰𝑹𝟏 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 = ±𝟓𝟒 𝝁𝑨 and 𝑽𝑹𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟒𝟕𝒌 ±𝟓𝟒 𝝁𝑨 = ±𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝑽
• Thus:
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝑹𝟏 + 𝑽𝑹𝟐 = ±𝟕. 𝟗𝟒 𝑽
• Now, we can find the UTP and the LTP:
𝑹𝟐 𝟒𝟕 𝒌
𝑽𝑼𝑻𝑷 = (+𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕(𝒎𝒂𝒙) ) = (+𝟕. 𝟗𝟒) = +𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝑽 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑽𝑳𝑻𝑷 = −𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟏𝟒𝟕 𝒌 Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Comparator
Example 3 solution:
• The output waveform for the given input voltage is:

Bonus mark!
Determine the output voltage, and
the upper and lower trigger points if
the Zener diodes are 3.3 V devices
and R1 = 150 kΩ, R2 = 68 kΩ. And
draw the input and output
waveforms with all respected
values.

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

Comparator
Comparator application:
• Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion:
• A/D conversion is a common interfacing process often used when a
linear analog system must provide inputs to a digital system.

• Many methods for A/D conversion are available.

• The simultaneous, or flash, method of A/D conversion uses parallel

comparators to compare the linear input signal with various
reference voltages developed by a voltage divider.

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Comparator
Comparator application:
• Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion:
• When the input voltage exceeds the reference voltage of a
given comparator, a high is produced on that comparator
output.
• This circuit shows an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) that
produces three-digit binary numbers on its output, which
represent the values of the analog input voltage as it changes.
• This converter combined by several comparators and a priority
encoder.
• The priority encoder is a digital device that produces a binary
number on its output representing the highest value input.

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

Comparator
Comparator application:
• Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion:
• The number of comparators required for conversion depends
on the number of digit binary number from the output of the
encoder. This can be calculated from the following simple
formula:
2𝑛 − 1
where n is the number of binary digits of the encoder
• For example, three-digit binary numbers on its output,
means that we need 23 − 1 = 7 comparators.
• The reference voltage for each comparator is set by the
resistive voltage divider circuit and VREF. The output of each
comparator is connected to an input of the priority encoder.

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Comparator
Comparator application:
• Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion:
• The encoder samples its input when a pulse occurs on the
enable line (sampling pulse), and a three-digit binary
number proportional to the value of the analog input
signal appears on the encoder’s outputs.

• The sampling rate determines the accuracy with which

the sequence of binary numbers represents the changing
input signal. The more samples taken in each unit of time,
the more accurately the analog signal is represented in
digital form.

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Comparator
Comparator application:
• Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion:
• The large number of comparators necessary for a reasonably sized binary
number is one of the drawbacks of the simultaneous ADC, but IC technology
has reduced the problem somewhat by combining multiple comparators and
associated circuits on a single IC chip.

• For example, 6- or 8-bit flash converters are readily available. These ADCs are
useful in applications that require the fastest possible conversion times, such
as video processing.

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Summing amplifiers
• The summing amplifier is an application of the inverting op-amp
configuration.

• The averaging amplifier and the scaling amplifier are variations of

the basic summing amplifier.

• A summing amplifier has two or more inputs, and its output

voltage is proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its
input voltages

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Summing amplifiers
Summing Amplifier with Unity Gain:
• Let’s first consider the two inputs configuration, VIN1 and
VIN2, are applied to the inputs and produce currents I1 and I2.
• At a summing point, A, the total current (IT), which goes
through Rf,is:
𝑰 𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
• Since the output is connected to the inverting terminal, the
output voltage will be:
𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 = −(𝑰𝑻 𝑹𝒇 )
• Now, if we expand this equation, we will have:
𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 = −(𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 )𝑹𝒇
• Therefore:
𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟏 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟐
𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 =− + 𝑹𝒇
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Summing amplifiers
• If all three of the resistors are equal (R1 = R2 = Rf = R):

𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟏 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟐
𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 =− + 𝑹 = −(𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟏 + 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟐 )
𝑹 𝑹
And this is called a unity-gain summing amplifier

• With n inputs:

𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 = −(𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟏 + 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟐 + 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝒏 )

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Summing amplifiers
Summing Amplifier with Gain Greater Than Unity:
• When Rf is larger than the input resistors, the amplifier has a
gain of Rf/R, where R is the value of each equal-value input
resistor. The general expression for the output is:

𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 = − (𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟏 + 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟐 + 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝒏 )
𝑹

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Summing amplifiers
Averaging amplifier:
• A summing amplifier can be made to produce the mathematical average of the
input voltages. This is done by setting the ratio Rf/R equal to the reciprocal of
the number of inputs (n):
𝑹𝒇 𝟏
=
𝑹 𝒏
Scaling adder:
• A different weight can be assigned to each input of a summing amplifier by
simply adjusting the values of the input resistors. The output voltage can be
expressed as:
𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟏 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟐 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟑 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝒏
𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 =− + + + ⋯+ 𝑹𝒇
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏
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Summing amplifiers
• Example 4: Name each type of the following amplifiers and
determine the output voltage for each one:

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Summing amplifiers
Example 4 solution:

• This is a summing amplifier with a unity gain, therefore:

• 𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑉𝐼𝑁1 + 𝑉𝐼𝑁2 + 𝑉𝐼𝑁3 = − 3 + 1 + 8 = −12 𝑉

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Summing amplifiers
Example 4 solution:

• This is a summing amplifier with gain greater than unity, therefore:

𝑹𝒇 𝟏𝟎𝒌
𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 = − 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟏 + 𝑽𝑰𝑵𝟐 = − 𝟎. 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓 = −𝟕 𝑽
𝑹 𝟏𝒌

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Summing amplifiers
Example 4 solution:

• This is Averaging amplifier since the ratio of the feedback resistor to the input
resistors is 1/n = 0.25, The output voltage is:
𝑅𝑓 25 𝑘
𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 =− 𝑉𝐼𝑁1 + 𝑉𝐼𝑁2 + 𝑉𝐼𝑁3 + 𝑉𝐼𝑁4 = − 10 = −2.5 𝑉
𝑅 100 𝑘

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Summing amplifiers
Example 4 solution:

• This is a scaling adder, since the resistor values are different, so we calculate
the weight for each input then calculate the output voltage:
• Weight of input 1: 10k/47k = 0.213
• Weight of input 2: 10k/100k = 0.1
• Weight of input 3: 10k/10k = 1.0
𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 = − 0.213𝑉𝐼𝑁1 + 0.1𝑉𝐼𝑁2 + 1.0𝑉𝐼𝑁3 = − 0.213 3 + 0.1 2 + 1 8 = −8.84 𝑉
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Summing amplifiers
Scaling adder application:
The resistors are inversely proportional
• An application of a scaling adder is the D/A
to the binary column weights
converter circuit shown here. D/A conversion is an
important interface process for converting digital
signals to analog (linear) signals.

• An example is a voice signal that is digitized for

storage, processing, or transmission and must be
changed back into an approximation of the original
audio signal in order to drive a speaker.

• This method is called binary-weighted-resistor DAC. A scaling adder as a four-digit digital-to-

analog converter (DAC)

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Summing amplifiers
Scaling adder application:
The resistors are inversely proportional
• The switch symbols represent transistor switches
to the binary column weights
for applying each of the four binary digits to the
inputs.

• The inverting input is at virtual ground, and so the

output voltage is proportional to the current
through the feedback resistor Rf (sum of input
currents).

• The lowest-value resistor R corresponds to the

highest weighted binary input (23 ). A scaling adder as a four-digit digital-to-
analog converter (DAC)

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Summing amplifiers
Example 5: Determine the output voltage of the DAC in the Figure. The
sequence of four digit binary codes represented by the waveforms
shown are applied to the inputs. A high level is a binary 1, and a low
level is a binary 0. The least significant binary digit is D0.

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

Summing amplifiers
Example 5 solution:
• First, determine the current for each of the weighted inputs. Since the inverting input of
the op-amp is at 0 V (virtual ground) and a binary 1 corresponds to a high level (+5 V), the
current through any of the input resistors equals 5 V divided by the resistance value:
𝟓
𝑰𝟎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑨
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒌

𝟓
𝑰𝟏 = = 0.05 mA
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌

𝟓
𝑰𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎𝑨
𝟓𝟎𝒌

𝟓
𝑰𝟑 = = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎𝑨
𝟐𝟓𝒌
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
Summing amplifiers
Example 5 solution:
• The output voltage is proportional to the current through the feedback resistor Rf,
therefore:
𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻(𝑫𝟎) = −𝑹𝒇 𝑰𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑨 𝟏𝟎𝐤 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐕

𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻(𝑫𝟏) = −𝑹𝒇 𝑰𝟏 = −0.05 mA 10k = −0.5 V

𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻(𝑫𝟐) = −𝑹𝒇 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎𝑨 𝟏𝟎𝒌 = −𝟏 𝑽

𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻(𝑫𝟑) = −𝑹𝒇 𝑰𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎𝑨 𝟏𝟎𝒌 = −𝟐 𝑽

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Summing amplifiers
Example 5 solution:
• Bu looking to input waveform, we can now the 4 binary input digits based on which switch
is on and which is off. This is shown in the following table:
Output
Input# D0 D1 D2 D3
voltage
0 0 0 0 0 0V
1 1 0 0 0 -0.25 V
2 0 1 0 0 -0.5 V
3 1 1 0 0 -0.75 V
4 0 0 1 0 -1 V
5 1 0 1 0 -1.25 V
6 0 1 1 0 -1.5 V
• And so on …. (You can complete the table in the same way up to the last input).
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Summing amplifiers
Example 5 solution: The complete output voltage corresponding to the input waveform:

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The Op-Amp Integrator
The Ideal Integrator:
• An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical integration,
which is basically a summing process that determines the
total area under the curve of a function.

• The Ideal Integrator has a capacitor as the feedback element

which is connected to the inverting terminal to form an RC
circuit with the input resistor.

• The key thing about using an op-amp with an RC circuit to

form an integrator is that the capacitor’s charging current is Ideal Op-amp integrator
made constant, thus producing a straight-line (linear) voltage
rather than an exponential voltage.

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

The Op-Amp Integrator
How a Capacitor Charges?
• Recall that the charge Q on a capacitor is proportional to the
charging current (IC) and the time (t):
𝑸 = 𝑰𝑪 𝒕
• In terms of the voltage, the charge on a capacitor is:
𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽𝑪
• Therefore:
𝑸 𝑰𝑪
𝑽𝑪 = = 𝒕
𝑪 𝑪
• Recall that the capacitor voltage in a simple RC circuit is not
linear but is exponential. This is because the charging current Ideal Op-amp integrator
continuously decreases as the capacitor charges and causes
the rate of change of the voltage to continuously decrease.

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

The Op-Amp Integrator
How a Capacitor Charges?
• In order to produce a straight-line (linear) voltage rather than
an exponential voltage, we use an op-amp with an RC circuit.
How?
• The inverting input of the op-amp is at virtual ground (0 V),
so the voltage across Ri equals Vin. Therefore, the input
current is: Constant
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑰𝒊𝒏 =
𝑹𝒊𝒏
• This makes all of the input current go through the capacitor:
𝑰𝒊𝒏 = 𝑰𝑪

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The Op-Amp Integrator
The capacitor voltage:
• Since Iin is constant, so is IC.
• The constant IC charges the capacitor linearly and produces a linear voltage across C.
• This voltage, VC, is called a negative ramp and is the consequence of a constant
positive input.

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The Op-Amp Integrator
The output voltage:
• Vout is the same as the voltage on the negative side of the capacitor.
• When a constant positive input voltage in the form of a step or pulse (a pulse has a
constant amplitude when high) is applied, the output ramp decreases negatively until
the op-amp saturates at its maximum negative level.

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

The Op-Amp Integrator
Rate of Change of the Output Voltage:
• The rate at which the capacitor charges, and therefore the slope of the output
ramp, is set by the ratio IC/C, as you have seen. Since IC = Vin/Ri, the rate of
change or slope of the integrator’s output voltage is ΔVout/ Δt

∆𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝒊𝒏
=−
∆𝒕 𝑹𝒊 𝑪
Or
𝟏
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 =− න 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑹𝒊 𝑪
• Integrators are especially useful in triangular-wave oscillators as we will see
next in course.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The Op-Amp Integrator
Example 6: Determine the rate of change of the output voltage in
response to the input square wave, as shown for the ideal
integrator in the figure. The output voltage is initially zero, and
the pulse width is 100 µS. Describe the output and draw the
waveform.

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

The Op-Amp Integrator
Example 6 solution:
• The rate of change of the output voltage during the time that the input is at
+2.5 V (capacitor charging) is:

∆𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒌𝑽
=− =− = −𝟐𝟓 = −𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑽/𝝁𝒔
∆𝒕 𝑹𝒊 𝑪 𝟏𝟎𝒌 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝝁 𝒔
The output is a negative-
going ramp

• The rate of change of the output voltage during the time that the input is at -
2.5 V (capacitor discharging) is: The output is a positive-
going ramp
∆𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒌𝑽
=+ =+ = +𝟐𝟓 = +𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝑽/𝝁𝒔
∆𝒕 𝑹𝒊 𝑪 𝟏𝟎𝒌 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝝁 𝒔
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The Op-Amp Integrator
Example 6 solution:
• During the time the input is at +2.5 V, the output will go from 0 to -5 V.
• During the time the input is at -2.5 V, the output will go from -5 V to 0.
• Therefore, the output is a triangular wave with peaks at 0 V and -5 V:
𝒎𝑽
∆𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = +𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟓 𝑽
𝝁𝒔
Bonus mark!
Modify the integrator to
make the output change
100 µs 100 µs 100 µs
from 0 to -5 V in 1𝟎𝟎 𝝁𝒔
with the same input.

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

The Op-Amp Integrator
The Practical Integrator:
• The ideal integrator does not work in practice. If Vin has
any small DC component, the output voltage will grow
until it “hits the rail”.

• This is because the capacitor is open for DC and the gain

will be the open loop gain.

• Practically, we add a resistance in parallel to the

capacitor to limit the gain for DC.

• The feedback resistor, Rf, should be large compared to

the input resistor Rin, in order to have a negligible effect
on the output waveform. In addition, a compensating
resistor, Rc, may be added to the noninverting input to
balance the effects of bias current.
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The Op-Amp Differentiator
• An op-amp differentiator simulates mathematical
differentiation, which is a process of determining the
instantaneous rate of change of a function
• An ideal differentiator is shown in the figure. Notice how
the placement of the capacitor and resistor differ from
the integrator. The capacitor is now the input element,
and the resistor is the feedback element. A differentiator
produces an output that is proportional to the rate of
change of the input voltage
𝑽𝑪
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 =− 𝑹𝒇 𝑪
𝒕
The ideal differentiator
• Or
𝒅𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝒕
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = −𝑹𝒇 𝑪
𝒅𝒕
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The Op-Amp Differentiator
• The output is negative when the input is a positive-going ramp and positive
when the input is a negative-going ramp
• During the positive slope of the input, the capacitor is charging from the input
source and the constant current through the feedback resistor is in the direction
shown. During the negative slope of the input, the current is in the opposite
direction because the capacitor is discharging

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

The Op-Amp Differentiator
• Example: To determine the output voltage of the ideal op-amp differentiator in
the figure for the triangular-wave input shown

• Starting at t = 0, the input voltage is a positive-going ramp ranging from -5 to +5

V (a 10 V change) in 5 µs. Then it changes to a negative-going ramp ranging
from +5 to -5 V (a -10 V change) in 5 µs
Dr. ESAM ZAFAR
The Op-Amp Differentiator
• The slope or rate of change (VC/t) of the positive-going
ramp and calculate the output voltage as follows:

𝑽𝑪 𝟏𝟎 𝑽
= = 𝟐 𝑽/µ𝒔
𝒕 𝟓µ

𝑽𝑪 𝑽
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 =− 𝑹𝒇 𝑪 = −𝟐 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏µ = −𝟒. 𝟒 𝑽
𝒕 µ𝒔
• Therefore, the output voltage for the negative-going
ramp is +4.4 V

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR

The Op-Amp Differentiator
• The Practical Differentiator:
• Again, the ideal differentiator is only a textbook
circuit. In practice, it is very noisy and unstable
• This is because the capacitor is short for high
frequency signal and the gain will be the open loop
gain
• Practically, the solution to this problem is simply to
add a resistor, Rin, in series with the capacitor to act as
a low-pass filter and reduce the gain at high
frequencies
• The resistor should be small compared to the feedback
resistor in order to have a negligible effect on the
desired signal
• A bias compensating resistor may also be used on the
noninverting input

Dr. ESAM ZAFAR