PUTNAM PROBLEMS

SEQUENCES, SERIES AND RECURRENCES

Notes

1. xn+1 = axn has the general solution xn = x1 an−1 .

2. xn+1 = xn + b has the general solution xn = x1 + (n − 1)b.
3. xn+1 = axn + b (with a 6= 1) can be rewritten xn+1 + k = a(xn + k) where (a − 1)k = b and so reduces
to the recurrence 1.
4. xn+1 = axn + bxn−1 has different general solution depending on the discriminant of the characteristic
polynomial t2 − at − b.
(a) If a2 − 4b 6= 0 and the distinct roots of the characteristic polynomial are r1 and r2 , then the general
solution of the recurrence is
xn = c1 r1n + c2 r2n
where the constants c1 and c2 are chosen so that

x1 = c1 r1 + c2 r2 and x2 = c1 r12 + c2 r22 .

(b) If a2 − 4b = 0 and r is the double root of the characteristic polynomial, then

xn = (c1 n + c0 )rn

where c1 and c0 are chosen so that

x1 = (c1 + c0 )r and x2 = (2c1 + c0 )r2 .

5. xn+1 = (1 − s)xn + sxn−1 + r can be rewritten xn+1 − xn = −s(xn − xn−1 ) + r and solved by a previous
method for xn+1 − xn .
6. xn+1 = axn + bxn−1 + c where a + b 6= 1 can be rewritten (xn+1 + k) = a(xn + k) + b(xn−1 + k) where
(a + b − 1)k = c and solved for xn + k.
7. The general homogeneous linear recursion has the form

xn+k = ak−1 xn+k−1 + · · · + a1 xn+1 + a0 .

Its characteristic polynomials is

tk − ak−1 tk−1 − · · · − a1 t − a0 .

Let r be a root of this polynomial of multiplicity m; then the nth term of the recurrence is a linear
combination of terms of the type

(cm−1 rm−1 + · · · + c1 r + c0 )rn .

Putnam questions

2018-B-4. Given a real number a, we define a sequence by x0 = 1, x1 = x2 = a, and xn+1 =

2xn xn−1 − xn−2 for n ≥ 2. Prove that, if xn = 0 for some n, then the sequence is periodic.

2017-A-3. Let a and b be real numbers with a < b, and let f and g be continuous functions from [a, b]
Rb Rb
to (0, ∞) such that a f (x) dx = a g(x) dx but f 6= g. For every positive integer n, define
b
(f (x))n+1
Z
In = dx.
a (g(x))n

1
Show that I1 , I2 , I3 , . . . is an increasing sequence with limn→∞ In = ∞.
P∞
2017-B-3. Suppose that f (x) = i=0 ci xi is a power series for which each coefficient ci is 0 or 1. Show
that, if f (2/3) = 3/2, then f (1/2) must be irrational.

2017-B-4. Evaluate the sum

∞  
X ln(4k + 2) ln(4k + 3) ln(4k + 4) ln(4k + 5)
3· − − −
4k + 2 4k + 3) 4k + 4 4k + 5
k=0

ln 2 ln 3 ln 4 ln 5 ln 6 ln 7 ln 8
=3· − − − +3· − −
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ln 9 ln 10
− +3· − ···.
9 10
(As usual, ln x denotes the natural logarithm of x.

2016-B-1. Let x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . be the sequence such that x0 = 1 and for n ≥ 0,

xn+1 = ln(exn − xn )

(as usual, the function ln is the natural logarithm). Show that the infinite series

x0 + x1 + x2 + · · ·

converges and find its sum.

2016-B-6. Evaluate
∞ ∞
X (−1)k−1 X 1
n+1
.
k n=0
k2
k=1

2015-A-2. Let a0 = 1, a1 = 2, and an = 4an−1 − an−2 for n ≥ 2. Find an odd prime factor of a2015 .

2015-B-5. Let Pn be the number of permutations π of {1, 2, . . . , n} such that

|i − j| = 1 implies |π(i) − π(j)| ≤ 2

for all i, j in {1, 2, . . . , n}. Show that for n ≥ 2, the quantity

Pn+5 − Pn+4 − Pn+3 + Pn

does not depend on n, and find its value.

2014-A-1. Prove that every nonzero coefficient of the Taylor series of

(1 − x + x2 )ex

about x = 0 is a rational number whose numerator (in lowest terms) is either 1 or a prime number.

2014-A-3. Let a0 = 5/2 and ak = a2k−1 − 2 for k ≥ 1. Compute

∞  
Y 1
1−
ak
k=0

2
in closed form.

2013-B-1. For positive integers n, let the number c(n) be determined by the rules c(1) = 1, c(2n) =
c(n), and c(2n + 1) = (−1)n c(n). Find the value of
2013
X
c(n)c(n + 2).
n=1

2010-B-1. Is there an infinite sequence of real numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . such that am m m

1 + a2 + a3 + · · · = m
for every positive integer m?

2009-B-6. Prove that for every positive integer n, there is a sequence a0 , a1 , . . . , a2009 with a0 = 0 and
a2009 = n such that each term after a0 is either an earlier term plus 2k for some nonegative integer k or of
the form b mod c for some earlier positive terms b and c. (Here b mod c denotes the remainder when b is
divided by c, so 0 ≤ (bmodc) < c.)
√
2007-B-3. Let x0 = 1 and for n ≥ 0, let xn+1 = 3xn + bxn 5c. In particular, x1 = 5, x2 = 26,
x3 = 136, x4 = 712. Find a closed-form expression for x2007 . (bac means the largest integer ≤ a,)

2006-A-3. Let 1, 2, 3, · · · , 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012, 2016, · · · be a sequence defined by xk = k for
k = 1, 2, · · · , 2006 and xk+1 = xk + xk−2005 for k ≥ 2006. Show that the sequence has 2005 consecutive terms
each divisible by 2006.

2006-B-6. Let k be an integer greater than 1. Suppose ak > 0, and define

1
an+1 = an + √
k a
n

for n ≥ 0. Evaluate
ank+1
lim .
n→∞ nk

2004-A-3. Define a sequence {un }∞

n=0 by u0 = u1 = u2 = 1, and thereafter by the condition that
 
un un+1
det = n!
un+2 un+3
for all n ≥ 0. Show that un is an integer for all n. (By convention, 0! = 1.)

2002-A-5. Define a sequence by a0 = 1, together with the rules a2n+1 = an and a2n+2 = an + an+1 for
each integer n ≥ 0. Prove that every positive rational number appears in the set
   
an−1 1 1 2 1 3
:n≥1 = , , , , ,··· .
an 1 2 1 3 2

√
2001-B-3. For any positive integer n let hni denote the closest integer to n. Evaluate
∞
X 2hni + 2−hni
.
n=1
2n

2001-B-6. Assume that {an }n≥1 is an increasing sequence of positive real numbers such that lim an /n =
0. Must there exist infinitely many positive integers n such that
an−1 + an+i < 2an

3
for i = 1, 2, · · · , n − 1?
P∞
2000-A-1. Let A be a positive real number. What are the possible values of j=0 x2j , given that
P∞
x0 , x1 , x2 , · · · are positive numbers for which j=0 xj = A?

2000-A-6. Let f (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. Define a sequence a0 , a1 , · · · of integers
such that a0 = 0 and an+1 = f (an ) for all n ≥ 0. Prove that if there exists a positive integer m for which
am = 0, then either a1 = 0 or a2 = 0.

1999-A-3. Consider the power series expansion

∞
1 X
= an xn .
1 − 2x − x2 n=0

Prove that, for each integer n ≥ 0, there is an integer m such that

a2n + a2n+1 = am .

1999-A-4. Sum the series

∞ X
∞
X m2 n
.
m=1 n=1
3m (n3m + m3n )

1999-A-6. The sequence {an }n≥1 is defined by a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 24, and for n ≥ 4,

6a2n−1 an−3 − 8an−1 a2n−2

an = .
an−2 an−3

Show that, for all n, an is an integer multiple of n.

1999-B-3. Let A = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x, y ≤ 1}. For (x, y) ∈ A, let

X
S(x, y) = xm y n ,
1 m
2 ≤ n ≤2

where the sum ranges over all pairs (m, n) of positive integers satisfying the indicated inequalities. Evaluate

lim{(1 − xy 2 )(1 − x2 y)S(x, y) : (x, y) −→ (1, 1), (x, y) ∈ A} .

1998-A-4. Let A1 = 0 and A2 = 1. For n > 2, the number An is defined by concatenating the
decimal expansions of An−1 and An−2 from left to right. For example, A3 = A2 A1 = 10, A4 = A3 A2 = 101,
A5 = A4 A3 = 10110, and so forth. Determine all n such that 11 divides An .

1998-B-4. Find necessaary and sufficient conditions on positive integers m and n so that
mn−1
X
(−1)bi/mc+bi/nc = 0 .
i=0

1997-A-6. For a positive integer n and any real number c, define xk recursively by x0 = 0, x1 = 1, and
for k ≥ 0,
cxk+1 − (n − k)xk
xk+2 = .
k+1

4
Fix n and then take c to be the largest value for which xn+1 = 0. Find xk in terms of n and k, 1 ≤ k ≤ n.

1994-A-1.PSuppose that a sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · satisfies 0 < an ≤ a2n + a2n+1 for all n ≥ 1. Prove
∞
that the series n=1 an diverges.

1994-A-5. Let (rn )n≥0 be a sequence of positive real numbers such that limn→∞ rn = 0. Let S be the
set of numbers representable as a sum
ri1 + ri2 + · · · + ri1994
with i1 < i2 < · · · < i1994 . Show that every nonempty interval (a, b) contains a nonempty subinterval (c, d)
that does not intersect S.

1993-A-2. Let (xn )n≥0 be a sequence of nonzero real numbers such that

x2n − xn−1 xn+1 = 1

for n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·. Prove that there exists a real number a such that xn+1 = axn − xn−1 for all n ≥ 1.

1993-A-6. The infinite sequence of 20 s and 30 s

2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, · · ·

has the property that, if one forms a second sequence that records the number of 30 s between successive 20 s,
the result is identical to the given sequence. Show that there exists a real number r such that, for any n,
the nth term of the sequence is 2 if and only if n = 1 + brmc for some nonnegative integer m. (Note: bxc
denotes the largest integer less than or equal to x.

1992-A-1. Prove that f (n) = 1 − n is the only integer-valued function defined on the integers that
satisfies the following conditions
(i) f (f (n)) = n, for all integers n;
(ii) f (f (n + 2) + 2) = n for all integers n;
(iii) f (0) = 1.

1992-A-5. For each positive integer n, let


0, if the number of 1’s in the binary representation of n is even,
an =
1, if the number of 1’s in the binary representation of n is odd.

Show that there do not exist integers k and m such that

ak+j = ak+m+j = ak+2m+j

for 0 ≤ j ≤ m − 1.

1991-B-1. For each integer n ≥ 0, let S(n) = n − m2 , where m is the greatest integer with m2 ≤ n.
Define a sequence (ak )∞
k=0 by a0 = A and ak+1 = ak + S(ak ) for k ≥ 0. For what positive integers A is this
sequence eventually constant?

1990-A-1. Let
T0 = 2, T1 = 3, T2 = 6,
and for n ≥ 3,
Tn = (n + 4)Tn−1 − 4nTn−2 + (4n − 8)Tn−3 .
The first few terms are
2, 3, 6, 14, 40, 152, 784, 5168, 40576, 363392.
Find, with proof, a formula for Tn of the form Tn = An +Bn , where (An ) and (Bn ) are well-known sequences.

5
 P∞
1988-B-4. Prove that if n=1 an is a convergent series of positive real numbers, then so is

∞
X
(an )n/(n+1) .
n=1

1985-A-4. Define a sequence {ai } by a1 = 3 and ai+1 = 3ai for i ≥ 1. Which integers between 00 and
99 inclusive occur as the last two digits in the decimal expansion of infinitely many ai ?

1981-B-1. Find " #

n n
1 XX 4 2 2 4
lim (5h − 18h k + 5k ) .
n→∞ n5
h=1 k=1

1979-A-3. Let x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · be a sequence of nonzero real numbers satisfying

xn−2 xn−1
xn = for n = 3, 4, 5, · · · .
2xn−2 − xn−2

Establish necessary and sufficient conditions on x1 and x2 for xn to be an integer for infinitely many values
of n.

1976-B-5. Evaluate
n  
X n
(−1)k (x − k)n .
k
k=0

1975-B-6. Show that, if sn = 1 + 21 + 1

3 + · · · + n1 , then
(a) n(n + 1)1/n < n + sn for n > 1, and
(b) (n − 1)n−1/(n−1) < n − sn for n > 2.

1962-I-5. Evaluate in closed form

n  
X n
k2 .
k
k=1

1962-II-1. Let x(n) = x(x − 1) · · · (x − n + 1) for n a positive integer and let x(0) = 1. Prove that
n  
X n
(x + y)(n) = x(k) y (n−k) .
k
k=0