Department of

 Introduction to Signal Communication & Types-

Automation and Robotics
Synchronous, Asynchronous, Serial, Parallel
 Bit width,
Subject: Signal Processing and Conditioning  Sampling theorem, Aliasing

 Sample and hold circuit, Sampling frequency

Unit No.3:
 Interfacing of Sensors / Actuators to Data Acquisition
Data Acquisition system
 4 bit Successive Approximation type ADC

 4 bit R- 2R type DAC

Presented by: Prof. D. P. Patil  Current and Voltage Amplifier

Signal means ?
 Any quantity that can vary over space or time can
be used as a signal to share messages between
observers
 A signal may also be defined as any observable
Introduction to Signal Communication change in a quantity over space or time, even if it
does not carry information

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  In human engineering, signals are typically provided
 In nature, signals can be actions done by an
by a sensor, and often the original form of a signal is
organism to alert other organisms, ranging from the
converted to another form of energy using
release of plant chemicals to warn nearby plants of
a transducer.
a predator
 For example, a microphone converts an acoustic
 To sounds or motions made by animals to alert
signal to a voltage waveform, and a speaker does
other animals of food. the reverse.
 Signaling occurs in all organisms even at cellular
 A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current
levels, with cell signaling.
that is used for carrying data from one system or
 Signaling theory, in evolutionary biology, proposes network to another. The signal is a function that
that a substantial driver for evolution is the ability of conveys information about a phenomenon. In
animals to communicate with each other by electronics and telecommunications, it refers to any
developing ways of signaling. time-varying voltage that is an electromagnetic wave
which carries information.

What is an Analog Signal?

Analog signal is a continuous signal in which one time-
varying quantity represents another time-based variable.
These kind of signals works with physical values and natural
phenomena such as earthquake, frequency, volcano, speed
of wind, weight, lighting, etc.

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What is a Digital Signal?
A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a
sequence of separate values at any point in time. It can only
take on one of a fixed number of values. This type of signal
represents a real number within a constant range of values.

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Signal Communication
Types- Synchronous,
Asynchronous, Serial, Parallel

 Electronic data (0s and 1s) can be transmitted by

two different methods:

 Serial transmission: data bits are sent one bit at

a time over a single wire. Serial transmission
used in networks, phones, keyboard and mouse.
 Parallel transmission: data bits are sent over
multiple wires at the same time. It is faster but
only works well over a short distance such as
several meters. Buses inside a computer use
parallel transmission. Printers are also can be
connected via parallel cables within a limited
distance.

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 • Serial transmission is cheaper than parallel for two
main reasons:
• less wires needed
• much less complex and size in transmitting and
receiving interfaces
• Serial transmission is much more reliable over long
distance without suffering from "skew". "Skew" can develop
in parallel transimission due to slightly different properties in
each parallel wire, which could result in different bits travel
at different speeds.
• In parallel transmission, a signal transmitted on one wire
could create an undesired effect in another wire, resulting in
the phenomenon called "crosstalk". This is particularly
prominent when using high frequency.
• Serial transmission can transmit data at a higher
frequency (high bit rate) without suffering "crosstalk".

• Define:  bit rate

• baud rate The number of bits can be transmitted serially per

• bit rate
second.
• bandwidth
• latency  baud rate
• protocol  The number of symbols/signals per second transferred.
A symbol/signal may encode more than one bit.
 For example, using 4 different frequencies, 4 different 2-
bit patterns can be encoded with each frequency
encoding either 00, 01, 10, or 11
 It is also called symbol rate
 Since one symbol can have more than one bit, bit rate
will be higher than baud rate

 bit rate = (baud rate) X (number of bits per symbol)

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 Bandwidth
Protocol
 The amount of data that can be transmitted from one point to another
in a given time period (usually a second).
 Bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second (bps)
•Protocol is a set of standardized rules used for governing
 Modern networks typically have speeds measured in the millions of
communications between devices.
bits per second (megabits per second, or Mbps) or billions of bits per •Standardized rules allow communications between
second (gigabits per second, or Gbps). different devices possible.
•Those rules can include:
Latency •speed
 Latency is the delay from the start of the transmission to the time the •data format
data transmitted arrive at the destination. •error detection and correction
 Latency is the wait time introduced by the signal travelling the •mode of transmission
geographical distance as well as over the various pieces of •physical connections, cabling
communications equipment.
 Even fiber optics are limited by more than just the speed of light, as
the refractive index of the cable and all repeaters or amplifiers along
their length introduce delays.

Synchronous Transmission

• A process where data is transferred in regular

intervals that are timed by a clocking signal
• It allows for a constant and reliable transmission
for time-sensitive data, such as real-time video
or voice.
• Parallel transmission typically uses synchronous
transmission.

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 Asynchronous Transmission
• Signals are sent in an agreed pattern of bits and if both ends are
agreed on the pattern then communication can take place.
• Bits are grouped together and consist of both data and control
bits.
• If the signal is not synchronized, the receiver will not be able to
distinguish when the next group of bits will arrive. To overcome
this the data is preceded by a start bit, usually binary 0, the byte
is then sent and a stop bit or bits are added to the end.
• In addition to the control data, small gaps are inserted between
each chunk to distinguish each group.
• Each bit remains timed in the usual way. Therefore, at bit level
the transmission is still synchronous (timed).
• Asynchronous transmission is relatively slow due to the
increased number of bits and gaps. It is a cheap and effective
form of serial transmission and is particularly suited for low speed
connections such as keyboard and mouse.

Bit width Sampling theorem

 The number of binary digits or bits in each word is known as  A signal has three properties like voltage
the bit width or amplitude, frequency, phase.
 The signals are represented only in an analog form
 Bit-length or bit width is the number of binary digits,
where the digital form of technology is not available.
called bits, necessary to represent an integer as a binary
 Analog signals are continuous in time and difference in
number.
voltage levels for different periods of the signal.
 Formally, the bit-length of a natural number n>0 is a  Here, the main drawback of this is, the amplitude keeps
function, bitLength(n), of the binary logarithm of n: on changing along with the period of the signal.
 This can be overcome by the digital form of signal
representation.
 Here conversion of an analog form of the signal into
 Thus the bit-length of the number 0 is 1, and the bit-length
digital form can be done using the sampling technique.
of 100 is 7 The output of this technique represents the discrete
version of its analog signal.

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 A continuous signal or an analog signal can be represented in
the digital version in the form of samples. Here, these samples
are also called as discrete points.
 In sampling theorem, the input signal is in an analog form of
signal and the second input signal is a sampling signal, which is
a pulse train signal and each pulse is equidistance with a period
of “Ts”.
 This sampling signal frequency should be more than twice of the
input analog signal frequency. If this condition satisfies, analog
signal perfectly represented in discrete form else analog signal
may be losing its amplitude values for certain time intervals.
 How many times the sampling frequency is more than the input
analog signal frequency, in the same way, the sampled signal is
going to be a perfect discrete form of signal. And these types of
discrete signals are well performed in the reconstruction process
for recovering the original signal.

Sampling Theorem Definition

Sampling Theorem Statement
 The sampling theorem can be defined as the
conversion of an analog signal into a discrete form by
 Sampling theorem states that “continues form of
taking the sampling frequency as twice the input
analog signal frequency. Input signal frequency a time-variant signal can be represented in the
denoted by Fm and sampling signal frequency discrete form of a signal with help of samples and
denoted by Fs. the sampled (discrete) signal can be recovered to
 The output sample signal is represented by the original form when the sampling signal frequency
samples. These samples are maintained with a gap, Fs having the greater frequency value than or
these gaps are termed as sample period or sampling equal to the input signal frequency Fm.
interval (Ts). And the reciprocal of the sampling period
is known as “sampling frequency” or “sampling
rate”. The number of samples is represented in the
sampled signal is indicated by the sampling rate.
 Sampling frequency Fs=1/Ts

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 Sampling Output Waveforms
 If the sampling frequency (Fs) equals twice the
input signal frequency (Fm), then such a
condition is called the Nyquist Criteria for
sampling. When sampling frequency equals twice
the input signal frequency is known as “Nyquist
rate”.
Fs=2Fm

 If the sampling frequency (Fs) is less than twice

the input signal frequency, such criteria called an
Aliasing effect.
Fs<2Fm

Proper and Improper Sampling

Sampling

As per Nyquist
Theorem :
fs  2 fc

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 Aliasing

Figure: Sampling of a sinusoidal signal of frequency f at different sampling

Reconstructed rates fS. With dashed lines are shown the alias frequencies, occurring
Signal Actual when fS/f <2.
Signal

Sampling Rate and Nyquist Frequency Limit

 For a given highest frequency B, we get the lower bound on

the sampling frequency : 2B or Nyquist rate.
For instance : for a signal whose maximum frequency is 16
KHz, we need a 32 KHz sampling rate.
 For a given sampling rate, we get the upper bound for
frequency components : B<fs/2, or Nyquist frequency or Fmax.
For instance : for a signal whose sampling rate is 48 KHz, we
can sample signals up to 24 KHz.
 In practice, a signal can never be perfectly bandlimited. Even
if an ideal reconstruction could be made, the reconstructed
signal would not be exactly the original signal. The error that
corresponds to the failure of band limitation is referred to
as aliasing. The blue sampled signal is insufficiently bandlimited. The overlapping edges of
the green images are added and creating a spectrum.

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  If a signal is sampled with a 32 KHz sampling rate, any
frequency components above 16 KHz – Nyquist frequency,
create an aliasing.
 Any frequency component above SR/2 is indistinguishable from
a lower-frequency component, called an alias, associated with
one of the copies.
 The Fourier transfom of the signal creates a symetrical image.
The energy above the Nyquist frequency is transfered below this
frequency.

The blue signal is bandlimited and properly sampled. The images do not overlap.

Sample and Hold Operation Analog - Digital Converter

• SHA is used in ADC, to stabilize the voltage while it is being converted to a
• Engineering signals are continuous: voltage that varies over time; a chemical
digital value reaction rate that depends on temperature, etc.
• Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) and Digital-to-Analog Conversion
• SHA consists of a voltage holding capacitor and a voltage follower
(DAC) allow digital computers to interact with these signals.
• When the switch is closed, the output voltage is equal to the input voltage
• When the switch is open, capacitor holds the voltage corresponding to the last
sampled value

Sample and Hold Circuit Analog-Digital Conversion Process

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Data acquisition system (DAS)  The data acquisition system can be divided into two types:
• Analog data acquisition system
• Digital data acquisition system
 Data acquisition system (DAS) is a computerized system that
collects data from the real world, converts it into the form of  The analog data acquisition system gives an analog output
electrical signals and do required processing on it for storage, whereas the digital data acquisition system gives a digital output.
and presentation on computers.  Analog DAS is used when wide frequency width is required or
 The complete system is controlled and operated by a software when lower accuracies can be tolerated.
application. This software application is developed by using  Digital DAS is used when physical quantity being monitored has
general-purpose high-level programming languages like C, C++, a narrow bandwidth (i.e. when the quantity varies slowly). Also,
java, etc. high accuracy and low per channel cost are required. These are
 These systems are used in industrial and commercial fields. more complex than analog DAS.
They are used for collecting, storing and processing of data.

 The digital data have more advantages over analog

data. Some of those are:
• easy and fast processing,
• easy and fast transmission,
• easy display,
• less storage space is required,
• more accurate.
 Due to these advantages, mostly the digital data
acquisition system is preferred.

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The function of each block of DAS:  Signal Conditioning Unit: The signal produced by the
transducers may or may not be very suitable for our
 Transducers: They are converting physical quantities (such as
temperature, pressure, etc.) into electrical quantities, or measuring
system to work properly. It may be very weak, very strong
electrical quantities directly. They collect data from the physical or may have some noise.
world.

The most commonly used transducers are:  To convert this signal into the most suitable form,
• RTDs, thermocouples, and thermistors for temperature measurements.
amplification, and filtration is done respectively by signal
• Photosensors for light measurements.
conditioning unit. So the signal conditioning unit converts
electrical signals in the most suitable form.
• Strain gauges, piezoelectric transducers for force and pressure
measurements.
• Microphone for sound measurements.
• Potentiometer, LVDT, optical encoder for position and displacement
measurements.

 Multiplexer: The multiplexer receives multiple analog inputs and Objectives of Data Acquisition System
provides a single output signal according to the requirements.
 If a separate channel is used for each quantity, the cost of installation, • It must collect the necessary data at the correct speed.
maintenance, and periodic replacement becomes high. Therefore, a • It must use all the data efficiently to inform the operator about the
single channel is used which is shared by various quantities. state of the system.
• It must monitor the complete system operation to maintain on-line
 Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters: The data is converted into digital optimum and safe operations.
form by A/D converters. • It must be able to summarize and store data for the diagnosis of
 After the conversion of data into digital form, it is displayed with the operation and record purpose.
help of oscilloscopes, numerical displays, panel meters to monitor the • It must be flexible for future requirements.
complete system. • It must be reliable and not have a downtime of more than 0.1%.
 Also, the data can be either permanently or temporarily stored or • It must provide an effective communication system.
recorded according to the requirement. The data is recorded on
optical, ultraviolet, stylus or ink recorders for future use.

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Applications of Data Acquisition System Interfacing of Sensor / Actuator to DAQ

 The data acquisition system is used in industrial and

scientific fields like aerospace, biomedical and
telemetry industries. Mechanical Amplifying
Sensors
System Electronics

Data Acquisition
Actuators System

Amplifying Data Acquisition Control System

Electronics System Micro-controller or
Computer

Interfacing of Sensor / Actuator to DAQ Interfacing of Sensor / Actuator to DAQ

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 Steps in DAQ Important in DAQ

• The sensor measures behavior of system • Resolution (bits) & bit width
• The output from the sensor is conditioned (amplified, filtered, etc.).
• Precision of ANALOG to DIGITAL conversion process is
• The conditioned analog signal is digitized using an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) dependent upon the number (n) of bits the ADC of DAQ is
• The digital information is acquired, processed and recorded by the used.
computer.
• The computer may then modify the system by outputting control • The higher the resolution, the higher the number of division
signals. The digital control signals are converted to analog signals
the voltage range is broken into (2n), and therefore, the
using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
• The analog signals are conditioned (e.g. amplified and filtered) smaller detectable voltage changes.
appropriately for an actuator
• The actuator interacts with the system to give desired response

Resolution Example
1-bit analog to
digital conversion

2-bit analog to
digital conversion

3-bit analog to
digital conversion

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 How does ADC Work?
 Analog to digital conversion is a two-step process:

 Quantization: transformation of a continuous analog input into a set

of data represented by discrete output states

 Coding: assignment of a digital code word or number to each output

state

Quantization Successive Approximation Register type Analog -

Digital Converter
 The analog quantization size (or resolution) Q is defined as the full
scale range of the ADC divided by the number of output states: • The SAR is initialized so that the MSB is
equal to a 1.

Vmax  Vmin • This code is fed into the DAC, which then
Q supplies the analog equivalent of this
2n digital code into the comparator circuit for
comparison with the sampled input
where
voltage.
 (Vmax – Vmin) is range of the ADC
• If this analog voltage exceeds Vin the
comparator causes the SAR to reset this
bit; otherwise, the bit is left a 1.
 n is bit of ADC
• Then the next bit is set to 1 and the same
test is done, continuing this until every bit
in the SAR has been tested.
• The resulting code is the digital
approximation of the sampled input
SAR type ADC voltage

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 SAR ADC 1) Successive approximation is one of the most widely and popularly
used ADC technique. It uses an efficient “code search” strategy to
complete n-bit conversion in just n-clock periods. Thus it takes much
shorter conversion time than counter type ADC.
2) Figure 1 shows the block diagram of successive approximation DAC.
An four bit converter would require eight clock pulses to obtain a digital
output.
3) To start conversion “SOC” input is made 1. As soon as “SOC” input is
1, SAR will set MSB to 1 and all other bits to 0 so that trial code output
of SAR is D1,D2,D3,D4 = 1000.
4) The output of SAR is then applied to DAC. The corresponding output
DAC VDVD is applied to comparator.
5) If VD< Va i.e trial code is less than the correct digital representation
then output goes high which is applied to SAR.
6) In response to high comparator output, MSB D1 is maintained at 1
and the next bit D2 is made 1. The trial code at the SAR output now
becomes 1100. The corresponding DAC output is compared with Va and
the process continues.

7) However for the first trial code, VD>Va, then the comparator output will go
low i.e. 0. The SAR will respond to it by reseting its MSB bits D1 to 0 and next bit
D2=1 so that the new trial code is 0100.
8) The procedure is repeated for all the subsequent bit one at a time, until all bit
position are tested. When all the bit positions are tested, end of conversion
(EOC) output goes high to indicate conversion is over.
9) The complete conversion sequence for 4-bit successive approximation ADC is
shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that the DAC output voltage becomes
successively closer to the actual analog input voltage. It requires n pulses
equivalent to n bits to establish the accurate output regardless of the value of
the analog input.

•The conversion time is equal to “n” clock cycle period for n-bit ADC. Thus
conversion time is very short for example, for 12-bit ADC with clock frequency
of 1MHz, the conversion time will be 12×1µs=12µs only.

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 R-2R Digital -Analog Conversion Digital - Analog Converter

 Properly weighted voltages are

summed together to yield the
analog output.

 Three weighted voltages are

summed. The three-bit binary
code is represented by the
switches.

Thus, if the binary number is 1102, the center

and bottom switches are on, and the analog
output is 6 volts. In actual use, the switches are
electronic and are set by the input binary code.
4 Bit Digital-Analog Converter using R-2R Approach

Example
An 8-bit DAC has a Vref of 10 V. The binary input is
10011011. Find the analog output voltage.

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 Voltage Amplifier
• A non-inverting type voltage amplifier
• Amplified output voltage
• Voltage input is applied to non-inverting terminal
• Gain is positive and greater than unity
• Consists of feedback resistor, Rf, to give stable, self-correcting and un-
saturated output

 R 
Vout  Vin 1  f 
 R2 

Non-inverting Operational Amplifier Gain

 In non-inverting operational amplifier configuration,
the input voltage signal, ( VIN ) is applied directly to the
non-inverting ( + ) input terminal which means that the
output gain of the amplifier becomes “Positive” in
value
 Feedback control of the non-inverting operational
amplifier is achieved by applying a small part of the
output voltage signal back to the inverting ( – ) input
terminal via a Rƒ – R2 voltage divider network, again
producing negative feedback.

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 Current Amplifier  A current amplifier circuit is a circuit which amplifies the input current
by a fixed factor and feeds it to the succeeding circuit.
 A current amplifier is somewhat similar to a voltage buffer but the
• Amplifies current in a step by step process
difference is that an ideal voltage buffer will try to deliver whatever
current required by the load while keeping the input and output
• Realized using multiple transistors
voltages same, where a current amplifier supplies the succeeding stage
with a current that is a fixed multiple of the input current.
• β is the gain of the transistor= collector current / base current = IC/IB
 A current amplifier can be realized using transistors. The schematic of a
• Output current is the product of input current and the gain, β current amplifier circuit using transistors is shown in the above figure.
Two transistors are used in this circuit. β1 and β2 are the current gains
of transistors Q1 and Q2 respectively. Iin is the input current, Iout is the
output current and +Vcc is the transistor T2’s collector voltage The
equation for the output current is Iout=β1β2Iin

Thank You

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