Chapter 1

LECTURE 01 - INTRODUCTION TO
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Chapter 1: Signals and Systems ...................................................... 2

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 2
1.2 Signals................................................................................ 3
1.2.1 Sampling....................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Periodic Signals .......................................................... 10
1.2.3 Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals ................................ 12
1.2.4 Real Exponential Signals ............................................. 15
1.2.5 Complex Exponential Signal ....................................... 16
1.2.6 The Unit Impulse ........................................................ 17
1.2.7 Simple Manipulations of Discrete-Time Signals........... 20
1.3 Systems ............................................................................ 21
1.4 Summary .......................................................................... 24
Chapter 1: Problem Sheet 1

Chapter 1 1
Chapter 1: Signals and Systems

1.1 Introduction
The terms ‘signals’ and ‘systems’ are given various
interpretations. For example, a system is an electric network
consisting of resistors, capacitors, inductors and energy sources.

Signals are various voltages and currents in the network. The

signals are thus functions of time and they are related by a set of
equations.

Example:
i(t) R
C +
+
vC(t)
- i(t) -

Figure 1.1: An electric circuit

The objective of system analysis is to determine the behaviour

of the system subjected to a specific input or excitation. It is
often convenient to represent a system schematically by means
of a box as shown in Figure 1.2.

Input System Output

Figure 1.2: General representation of a system.

Chapter 1 2
1.2 Signals
There are two types of signals:

(a) Continuous – time signals

(b) Discrete – time signals

In the case of a continuous-time signal, x(t), the independent

variable t is continuous and thus x(t) is defined for all t (see
Figure 1.3).

t – Continuous time -independent variable (- < t < )

On the other hand, discrete-time signals are defined only at

discrete times and consequently the independent variable takes
on only a discrete set of values (see Figure 1.3). A discrete-time
signal is thus a sequence of numbers.

n – discrete time - independent variable (n = … -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,…)

Examples:

1. A person’s body temperature is a continuous-time signal.

2. The prices of stocks printed in the daily newspapers are
discrete-time signals.
3. Voltages & currents are usually represented by continuous-
time signals. They are represented also by discrete-time
signals if they are specified only at a discrete set of values of
t.

Chapter 1 3
 Figure 1.3: Above: An example of continuous-time signals.
Below: An example of discrete-time signals.

1.2.1 Sampling

A discrete-time signal is often formed by sampling a continuous

-time signal x(t). If the samples are equidistant then

xn  xt  t nT  xnT  (1.1)

Square brackets [ ]  Discrete time signals
Round Brackets ( )  Continuous signals

Digital signal
Analogue
Signal xt 
1 xnT   xn
fs 
T

The constant T is the sampling interval or period and the

sampling frequency. f s  1 Hz.
T

Chapter 1 4
 Figure 1.4: An example of acquiring discrete-time signals by sampling
continuous-time signals.

x[n] = { 3.5, 4, 3.25, 2, 2.5, 3.0 }

n=-1 n=0 n=2 n=4

It is important to recognize that x[n] is only defined for integer

values of n. It is not correct to think of x[n] as being zero for n
not an integer, say n=1.5. x[n] is simply undefined for non-
integer values of n.

Chapter 1 5
1.2.1.1 Sampling Theorem
If the highest frequency contained in an analogue signal x(t) is
fmax and the signal is sampled at a rate fs  2 fmax then x(t) can be
exactly recovered from its sample values using an interpolation
function.

Example:

Audio CDs use a sampling rate, fs, of 44.1 kHz for storage of the
digital audio signal. This sampling frequency is slightly more
than 2fmax [fmax = 20kHz], which is generally accepted upper
limit of human hearing and perception of music sounds.

Example:

1 t  0
u(t )   (1.2)
0 t  0
A continuous-time unit step function u(t) is defined by Figure
1.5.

Note that the unit step is discontinuous at t = 0. Its samples

u[n] = u(t)|t=nT form the discrete-time signal and defined by

1 n  0
u[ n]   (1.3)
0 n  0

Chapter 1 6
 Analogue Signal

Discrete - time
Signal

Figure 1.5: Top: Continuous-time unit step function.

Bottom: Discrete-time unit step function.

Chapter 1 7
Example: Sketch the wave form: yn  un  un  1

u[n] (a) u[n-1] (b)

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 n 0 n
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y[n] (c)
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 n
-2 -1 0 1 2 3

Example: Sketch the waveform for

yt   ut  1  2ut   ut  1

Chapter 1 8
 Example:
Analogue Signal Discrete-time signal

1. x(t) = eat x[n] = eanT

t=nT
time 1 sampling
Sample number Sampling fs  Hz frequency
[0,1,2,3,…] Period (T) T

2. x(t) = 10e-t – 5e- 0.5 t x[n] = 10-nT – 5e- 0.5 nT

t=nT
sample number

3. x(t) = Acos( at) x[n] = A cos( a nT)

t=nT
Analogue 1
frequency
 A cos(2f a  n  )
fs
in radians
a = 2fa fa
 A cos(2  n)  A cos(n )
fs
 = digital frequency
fa
  2
fs

=aT

Chapter 1 9
 1.2.2 Periodic Signals

An important class of signals is the periodic signals. A periodic

continuous-time signal x(t) has the property that there is a
positive value of P for which

xt   xt  P  (1.4)

for all values of t. In other words, a periodic signal has the

property that is unchanged by a time shift of P. In this case we
say x(t) is periodic with period P.

Example

x(t) period = P

-P 0 P 2P t
Figure 1.6: An example of periodic signals

Periodic signals are defined analogously in discrete time. A

discrete-time signal x[n] is periodic with period N, where N is a
positive integer, if for all values of n.

xn  xn  N  (1.5)

Chapter 1 10
Example:

Figure 1.7: x[n] with Period = 3 samples

Chapter 1 11
 1.2.3 Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals

A continuous-time sinusoidal signal is given by

xt   Asinat   Asin2f at  (1.6)

fa = analogue frequency

A discrete - time sinusoidal signal may be expressed as

x[n] = x(t)|t=nT = x(nT)

fa
x[n]  A sin( n aT )  A sin( 2 n)
fs (1.7)
x[n]  A sin( n )

1
Sampling frequency fs 
T
f
 - Digital frequency   2 a  aT (1.8)
fs

A discrete-time signal is said to be periodic with a period length

N, if N is the smallest integer for which

xn  N   xn
 A sin n  N    A sin n 

which can only be satisfied for all n if

N=2k (where k is an arbitrary integer)

2k 2k
N  
 f
2 a
fs see eq. (1.8)
Chapter 1 12
 fs
N k (1.9)
fa

So if fa = 1000Hz and fs = 8000 Hz then

8000
N  8 samples
1000
An example of a sinusoidal sequence is shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8: An example of sinusoidal sequences.

 2n 
The period, N, is 12 samples. x[n]  cos 
 12 

Chapter 1 13
Example: Determine the fundamental period of x[n],

 2 
x [n]  10 cos  n 
 15 5

2
digital frequency  
15

The fundamental period is therefore (see equation (1.9))

2k
N


where k is the smallest integer for which N has an integer value.

This is satisfied when k = 1.

2  1
N  15 samples
2
15
Example:

The sinusoidal signal x[n] has fundamental period N=10

samples. Determine the smallest  for which x[n] is periodic:

2k 2
  k
N 10
Smallest value of  is obtained when k = 1

2 
   radians / cycle
10 5

Chapter 1 14
 1.2.4 Real Exponential Signals

The continuous-time complex exponential signal is of the form

xt   ceat (1.10 )

where c and a are, in general complex numbers. Depending

upon the values of these parameters, the complex exponential
can exhibit several different characteristics.

x(t)
Growing exponential
a>0.

c
t

x(t)
Decaying exponential
a<0

Figure 1.9: Characteristics of real exponential signals in terms of time, t.

Top: For a>0, the signal grows exponentially.
Bottom: For a<0, the signal decays exponentially.

Chapter 1 15
 1.2.5 Complex Exponential Signal

Consider a complex exponential, ceat where c is expressed in

polar form, c  c e , and a in rectangular form, a  r  j 0
j

. Then

ce at | c | e j e( r  j0 )t | c | e rt  e j (0t  )
| c | e rt cos(0t   )  j | c | e rt sin(0t   ) (1.11)

Thus, for r = 0, the real & imaginary parts of a complex

exponential are sinusoidal.

For r > 0  Sinusoidal signals multiplied by a growing

exponential

For r < 0  Sinusoidal signals multiplied by a decaying

exponential [ damped sinusoids]

x(t) x(t)

r >0 r<0

t t

Growing sinusoidal signal Decaying sinusoidal signal

Figure 1.10: Characteristics of complex exponential signals.

Chapter 1 16
In discrete time, it is common practice to write a real
exponential signal as

x[n] = cn (1.12)

If c and  are real and if ||>1 the magnitude of the signal grows
exponentially with n, while if ||<1 we have decaying
exponential.

Figure 1.13: Examples of discrete-time exponential signals.

1.2.6 The Unit Impulse

An important concept in the theory of linear systems is the

continuous time unit impulse function. This function, known
also as the Dirac delta function is denoted by (t) and is
represented graphically by a vertical arrow.

Chapter 1 17
 Magnitude
(t)
1
1

0 t
Frequency

Figure 1.11: Characteristic of the continuous-time impulse function and

the corresponding magnitude response in the frequency domain.

The impulse function (t) is a signal of unit area vanishing

everywhere except at the origin.

  (t )dt  1

(t)=0 for t0 (1.12)

The impulse function (t) is the derivative of the step function

u(t).

du (t )
 (t )  (1.13)
dt

du (t )
u(t)  (t ) 
dt
1 1

t t

The discrete-time unit impulse function [n] is defined in a

manner similar to its continuous time counterpart. We also refer
[n] as the unit sample.

Chapter 1 18
 1 n  0
 [ n]   (1.14)
0 n  0
Figure 1.12: Characteristic of discrete-time impulse function.

Chapter 1 19
 1.2.7 Simple Manipulations of Discrete-Time Signals

A signal x[n] may be shifted in time by replacing the

independent variable n by n-k where k is an integer.

If k>0  the time shift results in a delay of the signal by k

samples [ie. shifting a signal to the right]

If k<0  the time shift results in an advance of the signal by k

samples.

x[n-2]

x[n+1]
k=2

k=-1

Figure 1.13: Top left: Original signal, x[n]. Top right: x[n] is delayed by 2
samples. Bottom left: x[n] is advanced by 1 sample.

Advance: Shifting the signal to the left

Delay: Shifting the signal to the right

Chapter 1 20
1.3 Systems
A continuous-time system is one whose input x(t) and output y(t)
are continuous time functions related by a rule as shown in
Figure 1.14.

x(t) y(t)
x(t) Continuous y(t)
Time
t System t
Figure 1.14: General representation of continuous-time
systems.

A discrete system is one whose input x[n] and output y[n] are
discrete time function related by a rule as shown in Figure 1.15.

x[n] x[n] y[n] y[n]

Discrete
Time System
n n

Figure 1.15: General representation of discrete-time systems.

An important mathematical distinction between continuous-time

and discrete-time systems is the fact that the former are
characterized by differential equations whereas the latter are
characterized by difference equations.

Chapter 1 21
Example: The RC circuit shown in Figure 1.16 is a continuous-
time system

output
i(t)
R +
e(t) + C vC(t)
- i(t) -
input

Figure 1.16: A diagram of RC circuit as an example of continuous-time systems.

If we regard e(t) as the input signal and vc(t) as the output

signal, we obtain using simple circuit analysis

dvC (t ) 1 1
 vC (t )  e(t ) (1.15)
dt RC RC

From equation (1.15), a discrete -time system can be developed as

follows: If the sampling period T is sufficiently small,

dvC (t ) v ( nT )  vC ( nT  T )
 C (1.16)
dt t  nT T

Chapter 1 22
 vC(t) vC(nT)

P
vC(nT)-vC(nT-T)

nT-T nT t

Backward Euler approximation

[Assuming T is sufficiently small]

Figure 1.17: An approximation of discrete-time systems from the continuous-time

systems.

By substituting equation (1.16) into (1.15) and replacing t by nT,

we obtain:

vC nT   vC nT  T  1
vC nT   enT 
1

T RC RC
The difference equation is:

vC [n]  vC [n  1] 1 1
 vC [n]  e[n]
T RC RC

e[ n] (1.17) difference
RC T
vC [ n]  vC [ n  1] 
RC  T RC  T equation

output previous output input

Chapter 1 23
Summary:
Continuous-Time System

Analogue input Differential

Equations Analogue output

Difference
Digital input Digital output
Equations

Discrete-Time System

1.4 Summary
At the end of this chapter, it is expected that you should know:

 The difference between signals and systems

 The sampling theorem, its limitations (e.g. aliasing), and the
sampling frequency (fs)
 How to distinguish between continuous (analog) and discrete
time (digital) signals
 How to distinguish between differential and difference
equations
 Continuous and discrete periodic signals and their definitions
 The relationship between analog and digital frequency
2 f a

fs
2 k fsk
 The number of samples in a period: N  ,
 fa
 = Digital frequency
 Manipulation of discrete-time signals
 The unit impulse and its properties

Chapter 1 24