4.

1 Neuromuscular function
4.1.1 Label a diagram of a motor unit

4.1.2 Explain the role of neurotransmitters in

stimulating skeletal muscle contraction

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used for

communication between a neuron at the synapse and
another cell. Acetylcholine is the primary
neurotransmitter for the motor neurons that innervate
skeletal muscle and for most parasympathetic neurons. It
is generally an excitatory neurotransmitter, but it can
have inhibitory effects at some parasympathetic nerve
endings, such as the heart. In biochemistry,
cholinesterase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis
of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into choline and
acetic acid, a reaction necessary to allow a neuron to
return to its resting state after activation.

4.1.3 Explain how skeletal muscle contracts by the

sliding filament theory

4.1.4 Explain how slow and fast twitch fibre types

differ in structure and function
Slow-twitch, or type I, fibres have more mitochondria,
store oxygen in myoglobin, rely on aerobic metabolism,
have a greater capillary to volume ratio and are
associated with endurance; these produce ATP more
slowly.

Fast-twitch, or type II, fibers have fewer mitochondria,

are capable of more powerful (but shorter) contractions,
metabolize ATP more quickly, have a lower capillary to
volume ratio, and are more likely to accumulate lactic
acid.

4.2 Joint and movement type

4.2.1 Outline the types of movement of synovial joints

Axes
An axis is a straight line around which an object rotates.
Movements at joints take place in a plane about an axis.
The three axis of rotation are:

Sagittal axis - passes horizontally from posterior to

anterior and its formed by the intersection of the
sagittal and transverse planes.
Frontal axis - passes horizontally from left to right
and is formed by the intersection of the frontal and
transverse planes.
Vertical axis - passes vertically from inferior to
superior and is formed by the intersection of the
frontal and sagittal planes.

4.2.2 Outline the types of muscle contraction

Isometric Contraction
In general in this form of contraction the muscle length
remains constant. It occurs when muscle force balances
resistance and no joint movement occurs

there is generally no movement resulting from this

type of contraction
pushing against a fixed object
planking
 Isotonic contraction
an increase in tension (load) results in
changes in skeletal muscle length. i.e.
lengthening and shortening of the muscle.

Concentric contraction
Concerns muscle actions that produce a
force to overcome the load being acted upon.
The work done is referred to as positive work.

Eccentric contraction
Refers to muscle action in which the muscle
force yields to the imposed load. The work
done during a concentric contraction is
referred to as negative

Isokinetic contraction
The term is used in two contexts. First, as a
specific muscle contraction and second as a
testing and rehabilitation machine. When a
muscle contracts so that the body segment
to which it is attached moves at a constant
speed around the joint, rarely found in sport.

4.2.3 Explain the concept of reciprocal inhibition

When an agonist contract to move a body segment, it is

usual for the antagonist (the muscle with the opposite
concentric contraction action) to relax. This means that
the agonist is not being opposed by any muscle torque
acting in the opposite direction of the motion. This is an
automatic action controlled by neurons. When the
agonist motoneuron is stimulated the motoneuron to the
antagonist is inhibited preventing it from contacting
strongly

4.2.4 Analyze movements in relation to joint action

and muscle contraction
4.2.5 Explain delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)
in relation to eccentric and concentric muscle
contractions

The pain and stiffness felt in muscles several hours to

days after unaccustomed or strenuous exercise.
*brought on by eccentric contractions of the muscle
causing pressure at the nerve endings.

DOMS results primarily from eccentric muscle action

and is associated with structural muscle damage,
inflammatory reactions in the muscle, overstretching
 and overtraining.
DOMS is prevented/minimized by reducing the
eccentric component of muscle actions during early
training, starting training at a low intensity and
gradually increasing the intensity, and warming up
before exercise, cooling down after exercise.

4.3 Fundamentals of biomechanics

4.3.1 Define the terms:
force: a push or pull on an object
speed: maximum rate at which a person is able to move
their body
velocity: rate at which an object changes position
displacement: distance measured in a stated direction
acceleration: rate of change of velocity (speed/direction)
per second
momentum: the amount of motion possessed by a
moving object
impulse: force x time. The motion (momentum) of a body
depends not only on the force, but also the duration
(time) the force is applied

Scalar Vector

length displacement
mass dirrection
area velocity
volume acceleration
speed momentum
density force
pressure impulse
 weight

4.3.2 Analyze velocity-time, distance-time, and

force-time graphs of sporting actions

4.3.3 Define the term center of mass

the point at which the body is balanced in all directions

4.3.4 Explain that a change in body position during

sporting activities can change the position of the
center of mass

The center of mass can change when the

body is moving dynamically. The center of
mass is not always inside the body, it can
be outside of the body depending on
position.

Sporting Example: High Jump

1. The Scissor Kick

The center of mass is within the pelvic

girdle. The center of mass is within
the body
The action involves clearing the bar
one leg at a time
As the center of mass is within the
body, it is more likely that the bar will
be hit and the jump will be invalid.

2. Frosbery Flop

The center of mass in this jump is

 externally placed.
The arch in the back allows the mass
to be shifted to the outside of the
body, and there is greater opportunity
for clearance.
The greater the arch of the back the
lower the center of mass is

4.3.5 Distinguish between first, second and third

class levers
4.3.6 Label anatomical representations of levers

Fulcrum = the joint

Resistance = body part to be moved
Effort = muscle pull at the muscle insertion

123 FRE (referring to what is in the middle)

First class lever: this lever has the fulcrum in the

middle, the effort and the load are equally apart
from the fulcrum and both push in the same way,
in order to balance the object. eg. the head

Second class lever: this lever has its fulcrum on

one side. The downward resistance or load is
central and the force acting in the opposite
direction is furthest away from the fulcrum. eg.
standing on the tip toes

Third class lever: in this lever the fulcrum again

is located on one side. The effort (force) now is
closest to the fulcrum and the load is farther
away. The effort and resistance are opposing
direction. eg. the contracting of the bicep in a
curl.
4.3.7 Define Newton's three laws of motion
4.3.8 Explain how Newton's three laws of motion
apply to sporting activities

First Law (Law of Inertia)

An object will remain at rest or constant velocity unless
acted upon by an external force.
Example: An athlete at a starting block will not move
unless a force acts upon them. The external force comes
from the block and this propels the sprinter out of the
blocks when they exert a downward and backward force
against the blocks.

Second Law (Law of Acceleration)

The rate of change of acceleration of an object is
proportional to the force applied and acts in the direction
of the force.
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to
the force causing it and is inversely proportional to the
mass of the object.
Example: Two athletes at a starting block both push off,
one is lighter (and has a lesser mass) and therefore
accelerates quicker. Two athletes at a starting block of
the same mass both push off, the one who applied
greater force accelerates faster.

Third Law (Law of Reaction)

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Example: The sprinter applied downward and backward
force on the immovable starting blocks, they exert back
with a forwards and upward reaction force on the
sprinter, pushing the sprinter forwards. The harder the
sprinter pushes, the greater the reaction force will be.

4.3.9 State the relationship between angular

momentum, moment of inertia and angular
velocity

Angular momentum: the product of the body's

moment of inertia, and its angular velocity. M=I*V
Moment of inertia: It determines the torque
(force that causes rotation) needed for a desired
angular acceleration about a rotational axis. It
depends on the mass of the object, its shape and
its relative point of rotation.
Angular velocity: is a ratio of the change of
angular displacement and the time during which
the change occurred. The rate of which a body
spins/rotates/turns through an angle.
Angular velocity = angular displacement ÷ time

4.3.10 Explain the concept of angular momentum in

relation to sporting activities
4.3.11 Explain the factors that affect projectile motion
at take-off or release

Projectiles are: objects or athletes that are propelled in

the air

Influences

height of release

1. the higher the release = the greater distance

covered
2. the higher the release = the longer spent in the air
3. the higher the release = the longer the horizontal
component will be acting

angle of release

1. ideal angle of release is 45 degrees

2. the angle changes the relationship between the
horizontal and vertical components of projectile
 speed of release (most influential)

1. speed is directly related to the distance

2. greater the speed = greater the distance
3. initial vertical velocity increases the height of the
trajectory, creating a longer flight path
4. initial horizontal velocity will increase the length of
flight time and distance

4.3.12 Outline the Bernoulli principle with respect to

projectile motion in sporting activities