Reverse Breakdown : Zener and Avalanche effect

A p-n junction biased in the reverse direction exhibits a small, essentially voltage-independent
saturation current. This is true until a critical reverse bias is reached, for which reverse breakdown
occurs. At this critical voltage (Vbr) the reverse current through the diode increases sharply, and
relatively large currents can flow with little further increase in voltage. The existence of a critical
breakdown voltage introduces almost a right-angle appearance to the reverse characteristic of most
diodes. There is nothing inherently destructive about reverse breakdown. If the current is limited to
a reasonable value by the external circuit, the p-n junction can be operated in reverse breakdown as
safely as in the forward-bias condition. For example, the maximum reverse current which can flow in
the device is (E - Vbr)>R; the series resistance R can be chosen to limit the current to a safe level for
the particular diode used. If the current is not limited externally, the junction can be damaged by
excessive reverse current, which overheats the device as the maximum power rating is exceeded. It
is important to remember, however, that such destruction of the device is not necessarily due to
mechanisms unique to reverse breakdown; similar results occur if the device passes excessive
current in the forward direction.

Reverse breakdown can occur by two mechanisms, each of which requires a critical electric field in
the junction transition region. The first mechanism, called the Zener effect, is operative at low
voltages (up to a few volts reverse bias). If the breakdown occurs at higher voltages (from a few volts
to thousands of volts), the mechanism is avalanche breakdown.

Zener Breakdown :

When a heavily doped junction is reverse biased, the energy bands become crossed at relatively low
voltages (i.e., the n-side conduction band appears opposite the p-side valence band). As shown in
Fig. the crossing of the bands aligns the large number of empty states in the n-side conduction band
opposite the many filled states of the p-side valence band. If the barrier separating these two bands
is narrow, tunneling of electrons can occur. Tunneling of electrons from the p-side valence band to
the n-side conduction band constitutes a reverse current from n to p; this is the Zener effect.

The basic requirements for tunneling current are a large number of electrons separated from a large
number of empty states by a narrow barrier of finite height. Since the tunneling probability depends
upon the width of the barrier, it is important that the junction be sharp and the doping high, so that
the transition region W extends only a very short distance from each side of the junction.

In the simple covalent bonding model , the Zener effect can be thought of as field ionization of the
host atoms at the junction. That is, the reverse bias of a heavily doped junction causes a large
electric field within W; at a critical field strength, electrons participating in covalent bonds may be
torn from the bonds by the field and accelerated to the n side of the junction. The electric field
required for this type of ionization is on the order of 106 V/cm.
Avalanche Breakdown:

For lightly doped junctions electron tunneling is negligible, and instead, the breakdown mechanism
involves the impact ionization of host atoms by energetic carriers. Normal lattice-scattering events
can result in the creation of EHPs if the carrier being scattered has sufficient energy. For example, if
the electric field ℰ in the transition region is large, an electron entering from the p side may be
accelerated to high enough kinetic energy to cause an ionizing collision with the lattice. A single such
interaction results in carrier multiplication; the original electron and the generated electron are both
swept to the n side of the junction, and the generated hole is swept to the p side. The degree of
multiplication can become very high if carriers generated within the transition region also have
ionizing collisions with the lattice. For example, an incoming electron may have a collision with the
lattice and create an EHP; each of these carriers has a chance of creating a new EHP, and each of
those can also create an EHP, and so forth. This is an avalanche process, since each incoming carrier
can initiate the creation of a large number of new carriers.
Zener Diode :

A normal p-n junction diode does not operate in breakdown region because the excess current
permanently damages the diode. Normal p-n junction diodes are not designed to operate in reverse
breakdown region. When a diode is designed for a specific breakdown voltage, it is called a
breakdown diode. Breakdown diodes can be used as voltage regulators in circuits with varying
inputs.

A zener diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device designed to operate in the reverse breakdown
region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is carefully set by controlling the doping level during
manufacture. Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode. Hence, it has very
thin depletion region. Therefore, zener diodes allow more electric current than the normal p-n
junction diodes. Zener diodes acts like normal p-n junction diodes under forward biased condition.
When forward biased voltage is applied to the zener diode it allows large amount of electric current.
The name zener diode was named after the American physicist Clarance Melvin Zener who
discovered the zener effect.

When forward biased voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works like a normal diode. However,
when reverse biased voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works in different manner. When
reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small amount of leakage current
until the voltage is less than zener voltage. When reverse biased voltage applied to the zener diode
reaches zener voltage, it starts allowing large amount of electric current. At this point, a small
increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increases the electric current. Because of this sudden rise in
electric current, breakdown occurs called zener breakdown. However, zener diode exhibits a
controlled breakdown that does damage the device.

The zener breakdown voltage of the zener diode is depends on the amount of doping applied. If the
diode is heavily doped, zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltages. On the other hand, if the
diode is lightly doped, the zener breakdown occurs at high reverse voltages. Zener diodes are
available with zener voltages in the range of 1.8V to 400V. The symbol of zener diode is similar to
the normal p-n junction diode, but with bend edges on the vertical bar.