Middle East Technical University Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering Department

PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

2.2 PIPELINES

2.2.1 General
It is assumed that at commencement of the planning works the start and end points as well as the
approximate line pipe diameter have been fixed up. The pipeline is the essential part dominating the
construction costs, but there is not the only one component of the transportation system. Therefore,
during the planning and routing the possible interference with other system components
(particularly with the stations) shall be considered. The information on necessary site requirement
for the construction (working stripe width) and on the geometry at direction changes (bending
radius) which are required for the routing works will be derived from the line pipe diameter. The
connection line between the starting point, enforced points prescribed by the system as well as the
end point of the pipeline defines the ideal line of the route (Fig. 2.2-1).

FIGURE 2.2-1: View on a pipeline (Transalaska Crude Oil Pipeline)

2.2.2 Selection of the Roughly Pipeline Route

The fixing of the roughly route is an optimization task, whereas beside of the technical and
economical also other aspects have to be taken into consideration. These “other” aspects are defined
in Europe mostly in context with regional planning and the environmental protection. It is quite
imaginable that also strategically or politically reasons can have influence on the route selection.

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

The following steps are recommendable:

(a) The thinkable possibilities for the route alignment will be incorporated in an overview map.
On this occasion it is to check for first time whether in wider route corridor other pipelines,
high voltage lines or traffic roads are running, which are suitable for a parallel arrangement.
This thought of “route bundling” is already realized in many cases and can perform a real
contribution for landscape protection in case of a reasonable application (forest aisle) and
will normally be advocated by the public authorities.
(b) Flying over and travelling along the “map route”. First advance selection. Procurement of
maps in smaller scale (1: 25,000 to 1: 50,000), of geological documents and aerial views.
Preparation of preliminary profile for hydraulic calculations.
(c) Visiting of the key locations and enforced points in the nature. First authority contacts.
Survey of the protection areas, regional planning concepts, other projects and possible right
of way problems.
(d) Fixing, analysis and comparison of the route alternatives which are available for the
narrowing selection.

This methodology is related to the large pipeline projects. For smaller projects (short pipeline with
many clear defined enforced points) different steps can be avoided. In the practice the exact
compliance with the recommended sequence is mostly not possible, and chronological parallel
working out of the planning steps are necessary.

The technical-economical comparison shall comprise to some extent the following steps:

• Assessment of the technical quality of route under particular consideration of safety for the
pipeline.
• Analysis of the construction costs under particular consideration of topography, conditions of
soil, accessibility of the route during construction implementation and the necessary special
points (crossings, tunnels, etc.).
• Analysis of the impacts on the operation costs under particular consideration of energy costs
(elevation profile, pipeline length) and maintenance cost (route accessibility, maintenance
intensive sections, authority instructions).
• Assessment of the expected authority instructions and the possible difficulties for acquisition of
the right of way inclusive of the estimation of combined costs and delays.

The technical-economical comparison has the target to reduce further the number of alternatives or,
wherever it is possible to propose one of the alternatives as being the most favorable solution.

Upon availability of the results the investigation of the selected route(s) will be deepened both in
field works (commencement of the detailed routing) as well as throughout the further negotiations
with the regional and supra-regional authorities, until sufficient basics are existing for the final
decision.

The selected route will be illustrated in an overview map and in the route maps (1: 25,000 to 1:
50,000). The overview map shows the location of the individual route maps beside of political
structure of the planning area. For the elevation profile the scales will be chosen in such a manner
that both the terrain as well as line hydraulic can be visualized clear and expressively.

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

2.2.3 Detailed Pipeline Routing

In order to be able carrying out the detailed routing efficiently and to reduce extensively the risk of
rerouting, the following preconditions must be fulfilled at the commencement of this work:

• The roughly route is coordinated with all responsible authorities and with all pressure groups or
lobbies who are participating in the approval procedure.

• In area of key locations (where there are no or technically very costly alternatives existing) the
negotiations with the responsible bodies let recognize that the right of ways can be acquired on
a basis of acceptable conditions.

First, the enforced points which are derived from the roughly route will be visited in the nature
using route maps and aerial photographs, and the possible connecting lines will be studied in detail
through uninterrupted walking.

The aspects as described for the roughly routing are valid also for the detailed routing:

• The route must make possible the laying of the pipeline.

• The connection between the enforced points of the roughly route shall be traversing linear as
much as possible.

• Simultaneously, it is aimed to keep the construction costs as lowest as possible.

It is of decisive importance to have the correct selection of the crossing locations with water runs
and traffic roads taking into account the requirements of authorities. This optimization task requires
the use of an expert, who has enough routing experience and knows the technology and cost
structure of the pipeline construction.

The thought of route bundling and parallel alignment which has been described in frame of the
roughly route selection is to be taken into account also in context with the detailed routing.

The detailed route as it is defined will be marked in the nature by using of the angle-point picket.
The position of the angle-points will be fixed up through preparation of survey sketches and
through preliminary incorporation in the agricultural land register or general parcelling maps.

2.2.4 Route Surveys and Route Maps

It is the task of this activity to create reliable and definitive documents for the approval procedure,
the acquisition of the right of way and the construction of the pipeline.

2.2.4.1 Land Surveys

Due to missing accuracy the existing agricultural land maps and land register maps as being survey-
technical reference system are not suitable for the detailed routing in most cases. Therefore, the

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

thought has prevailed nowadays extensively that for the total survey a structure must be created
which is rigid and independent from the agricultural land maps. For that purpose a traverse will be
surveyed almost parallel to the pipe axis in sufficient distance (so that the points can not be affected
adversely anymore by the construction activity) and connected with the public coordination
network. As reference system for the elevation profile the existing elevation fix points are used. The
angle points and the axis of the pipeline must be surveyed indeed additionally with regards to
recognizable land borders in order to fit the route alignment into the land maps with highest
possible accuracy. In course of both the detailed routing and land survey, all factors which are
essential for the detailed planning, approval procedure, right of way acquisition and construction of
the pipeline have to be identified and surveyed on the traverse. The objects belonging to these
factors are such as waterways and rivers, fishponds, water sources or springs, water wells, traffic
areas, above and underground foreign plants and agricultural areas (farm lands, meadows, forests).
For the special points (crossings) which require a detailed planning or for which a particular
approval procedure is requested, a detailed land survey has to be carried out. Such cases refer
mostly to the construction of crossings within the areas of major waterways or rivers.

2.2.4.2 Route Maps

Normally, the following design engineering documents shall be prepared for planning of pipelines:

(A) OVERVIEW ROUTE MAPS in scale of 1: 25,000 (or 1: 50,000) with the following contents:

• Map section,
• Route, stations and line block valves,
• Key plan of plot plans,
• Essential crossings,
• Information on geology and soil characteristics, and
• Political structure in route section (states, municipalities, districts, communities).

(B) OVERVIEW LONGITUDINAL PROFILE with the same longitudinal scale like the
overview route maps and corresponding excessive increase.

(C) PLOT PLANS: The route will normally be fitting into the corresponding agricultural land map
section (scale 1: 1,000; 1: 2,000; 1: 2,500 or 1: 2,880), whereas the result of all surveys will be
supplemented. The plot plan shall contain all information which is essential for construction of
the pipeline such as:

• Survey data (angle points, distances, kilometer points);

• Pipe diameter, wall thickness, pipe material, coating;
• Indication on detailed plans and typical drawings;
• Special construction measures (water depths, buoyancy protection), and
• Information regarding cathodic protection as well as marker posts.

(D) RIGHT OF WAY DRAWINGS: These drawings will be prepared in the same scale and with
the same sheet arrangement like the technical plot plans. They shall contain only such
information which is necessary for the right of way acquisition and create the context with the
registers. The right of way strip and contruction strip will be incorporated in land register maps

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

in addition to the route, whereas not only the intersection points of tangents but also the
alignment of the bended pipe string is to be considered at direction changes of the large
pipelines.

(E) LONGITUDINAL PROFILE: Generally, the drawing of longitudinal profiles in scale of

technical plot plans can be avoided during the planing phase, if the survey result is presentable
in the overview longitudinal profiles having the quality and accuracy suitable for hydraulic
design calculation and wall thickness definition. The detailed longitudinal profile shall be
produced in the course of as-built documentation (inventory control) and contain beside ground
level elevation also the pipe top level, all internals as well as weld numbers (correlation
possibility with the pipe book).

(F) DETAILED CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS: For construction of water and road crossing
the survey results will be outlined both in a plot plan and a longitudinal profile using pipe axis.
Depending upon object size the scales of these drawings are varying between 1: 500 up to 1:
1,000. The result of pipeline design including all information necessary for pipeline
construction will be incorporated in those detailed drawings as well. In order to facilitate the
preparation and subsequent handling of the drawings, a particular attention shall be paid to a
clear allocation of overview, plot and detailed drawings by means of both reasonable drawing
numbering system (register) and sufficient remarks or references.

2.2.4.3 Registers

The drawing registers and lists are to be prepared with a clear reference to drawing documentation
in order to ensure an efficient execution of the approval procedure and right of way acquisition. For
that prurpose some examples are covering items such as:

• list of landowners and beneficiaries,

• register of the responsible authorities and the concerned corporate bodies or legal entities,
• schedule of crossings with water bodies or rivers, roads and foreign objects including
indication of responsible locations.

These registers are also valuable for construction works at a later stage (communication, special
precautions, acceptance tests and inspections).

2.2.5 Pipeline Design

2.2.5.1 Scope

It is assumed that the following preconditions are fulfilled at the beginning of this design step:

• Pipeline diameter is defined, line pipe material and nominal wall thickness taken into
account are selected.
• Longitudinal profile of pipeline is determined.
• Hydraulic design calculations including pressure surge analysis are carried out so that
expected operation pressures are known for the entire pipeline.

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

• Safety factor to be maintained is known.

This section is dealing thus only with design engineering of the pipe string and the related
crossings.

2.2.5.2 Distribution of Line Pipe Wall Thickness

If the lines of maximum allowable operation pressure (MAOP) calculated according to the Boiler-
Formula (Hoop-Stress) for different nominal pipe wall thickness are plotted into the hydraulic
profile containing the gradients of the normal operation and line of maximum achievable pressure
levels under unsteady or transient flow conditions, then there will be obtained such points for which
a wall thickness change is necessary (Fig. 2.2-2):

For difficult profile it is recommendable to plot additionally the pressure line, under which the pipe
will be strained up to the yield strength. By means of this line the hydrostatic pressure test can be
taken into account for wall thickness distribution.

Also the selection of the minimum wall thickness needs to be verified for pipelines of large
diameter. The possible cost savings through reduction of steel quantity can be absorbed again
through increased construction costs, if the wall thickness falls below by ca. 1 % of pipe diameter.
Below this value there is existing an increased risk of dents particularly in rocky soils. Upon
determination of wall thickness values according to the Boiler-Formula the line sections at crossing
locations are to be checked with regards to additional strains which might be caused by soil cover
(height of above ground soil, traffic road loads, installation or clamp forces, bend output forces,
etc.) and to correct at these points, if necessary.

2.2.5.3 Water Crossings

Generally, the water bodies such as rivers, streams, watercourses and lakes will be crossed below
water level laying pipeline on bottom of these water bodies. Exceptions are the deeply incised
canyons, channels with high heaped-up dams or similar stored cases, which make the construction
of pipe bridges as being necessary.

In most cases or selection of crossing location and design of special construction points the
technological aspects related to water-construction are more important than the aspects of pipe-
construction in most cases.

The water-construction related technological concepts are covering particularly the following
aspects:

• suitable position of the crossing location in longitudinal profile of the watercourse (without
erosion or recess tendency),
• stability of the river bed and bank,
• soil property (rock, suitability for excavation works), furthermore for large crossings the
underground soil investigations are necessary, and

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

• hydrograph of the water course for estimation of the flood water risk and for determination
of appropriate time for construction activity.

1: Line of allowable pressure level for different nominal wall thickness values
2: Line of maximum reachable pressure level for unsteady or transient flow conditions during operation

FIGURE 2.2-2: Schematic illustration to calculation of wall thickness

distribution
(TRANSLATIONS: Höhe = Elevation, Entfernung = Distance, Gradient – stationaer = Gradient – steady state flow, Gelaendepfrofil = Ground profile)

Already at stage of decision process for definition of water crossing location the construction work
has to be taken into account covering the following aspects:

• space demand for preparation and construction of water crossing (welding area and launch
way), as well as
• temporary storage of excavation material.

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

In case of river crossings the wall thickness of crossing pipe section within the river bed will be
increased mostly. For safety against buoyancy the crossing pipe section obtains a concrete coating,
which also protects the insulated pipeline on mechanical basis. The stresses during pipe laying
activity caused in the pipe string of crossing section are to be taken into consideration, and the
sufficient buoyancy safety has to be proven.

2.2.5.4 Road Crossings

If the circumstances allow this and the method of construction work represents the most economical
solution, then the road will be slotted and the product pipe will be laid within the open trench.
Should this not be posssible or not economical under subsoil conditions the product pipe (which
must have in this case a mechanically resistant and robust coating, e.g. polyethylene) will be
pressed beneath the road surface. In both cases (open-cut or pressing) a stress verification is
required for the product pipe considering the earth and road traffic loads. For pipe laying without
installation pipe the cathodic corrosion protection of the product pipe will not be damaged, and
furthermore the problem known as ”protection pipe contact“ will be avoided. Should the particular
circumstances or statutory regulations of the authorities as being responsible for the traffic roads be
asking for use of installation pipe, steel shouldn’t be used in order to avoid the above described
difficulties.

As alternative material the concrete or asbestos cement can be used. The internal diameter of
installation pipe is 150 to 200 mm bigger than external diameter of the product pipe. The centering
is ensured by plastic centering pieces or runners and the ends of the annulus on installation pipe
ends are closed mostly by the corresponding sealing member sleeves.

2.2.5.5 Other Special Construction Points

The following examples can be listed up as being other special construction points:

• construction measures for protection of pipeline within the sphere of watercourse’s

influence with erosion or recess tendency,
• stability assurance for laying of the pipeline in extremely side-slope location,
• laying of pipeline in a tunnel,
• enforced aboveground line alignment, and
• protection and safety of the pipe and fill in of the pipe trench in extreme steeply sloping
sections.

The design and planning of such special construction locations will be carried out independently
and by appropriate contributions of skillfully experts.

2.2.5.6 Cathodic Corrosion Protection Facilities

The survey of soil resistivity values required for design and planning of facilities for cathodic
corrosion protection will be carried out at stage of detailed pipeline route investigations. Planning

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

and design of these facilities and equipment are described in detailed manner within the Chapter 5.2
– “Corrosion Protection”.

The outcome of these activities (delivery points, anode fields, measurement locations) will be
incorporated in the route alignment drawings.

2.2.5.7 Specifications and Typical Drawings

For the most important construction parts of the pipeline (pipes including coating, valves, fittings,
flanges) there will be prepared and compiled in the documentation ”delivery conditions“ or so
called “specifications” the following documents:

• requirements for materials,

• tests and inspections to be carried out during pipeline construction, and
• factory acceptance test conditions.

The quantities and contents of these specifications can be reduced significantly so far as there are
available relevant codes and standards on topics of those project documents. Besides of material
specifications there will be prepared also the specification for pipeline construction which forms an
important part of the construction agreement.

For crossings with insignificant watercourses and traffic roads as well as for other construction
measures which are occurring along the pipeline route repeatedly the method of construction
activity will be indicated in the so called “typical drawings” for supporting and shortening of
specifications. Some examples of typicals are covering the following items as shown in the referred
typical construction drawings:

• Construction strip (Fig. 2.2-3),

• Pipeline crossing method (Fig. 2.2-4),

• Construction details of pipeline installation in protection pipe (Fig. 2.2-5),

• Pipe cover (Fig. 2.2-5),

• Pipe trench dimensions (Fig. 2.2-5),

• Concrete pipe coating (Fig. 2.2-6),

• Pipe bending rules (Fig. 2.2-7),

• Ground water lowering (Fig. 2.2-8),

• Buoyancy safety with concrete slaps or anchores (Fig. 2.2-9), and

• Hydrostatic pressure testing (Fig. 2.2-10).

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

FIGURE 2.2-3: Distribution of working strip along the pipeline right of way
used during construction activity

FIGURE 2.2-4: Crossing by horizontal drilling and pressing method

(TRANSLATIONS: Bohrgrube = Drilling pit, Fremdleitungen = Foreign lines, Strasse = Road, Bach = Watercourse or water stream, WS = Wasserspiegel = Water level, Schutzrohr = Protection pipe,
Betonsohle = Concrete floor level, Bohrpressanlage = Drilling and pressing equipment, Erdbohrer = Earth drilling machine, Förderschnecken = Screw conveyors)

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

A - Crossing without casing pipe:

B - Crossing with casing pipe:

C - Line alignment in casing pipe (left) and cable alignment in pipe trench (right):

D - Line alignment in rocky soil (left) and crossing with foreign cables (right):

FIGURE 2.2-5: Crossing profiles and line alignments

(TRANSLATIONS: Betonplatte = Concrete slab, Nach Genehmigungsbescheid = According to approval notice, Kabelschutzrohr = Cable protection pipe, Sandsaecke nach Bodenbeshaffenheit =
Sand bags according to ground soil conditions, Mantelrohr = Casing pipe, Auflagerschale = Bearing jacket, Rohrisolierung = Pipe coating, Rohrleitung = Pipeline, Isolierter Abstandhalter = Insulated
spacer, Nach Teilverfüllung = After partly fill-in, Vor Wiederverfüllung = Before backfilling, Verdichtetes Aushubmaterial = Consolidated or compressed excavation material, Sandbett = Sand bed,
Vorhandenes Kabel = Existing cable, Kunststoff-Isolierplatte = Plastic insulating slab)

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

A – Reinforcement details:

B – Cage reinforcement details:

FIGURE 2.2-6: Concrete coating of pipeline

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

FIGURE 2.2-7: Principle structure of a line pipe bending machine

(TRANSLATIONS: Feststehender Formschuh = Stationary shaping shoe, Biegeschale = Bending jacket, Klemmschuh = Clamp shoe, Innen-Hydraulikzylinder = Internal hydraulic cylinder, Aussen-
Hydraulikzylinder = External hydraulic cylinder, Hydraulikzylinder = Hydraulic cylinder, Keil = Wedge, Bewegungsrichtung des Rohres = Direction of pipe movement)

FIGURE 8: Method of ground water lowering - Left: Bilateral washed filter

lances, Right: Drainage tube milled beneath the trench center
(TRANSLATIONS: Sammelleitungen = Gathering lines, Filterrohre = Filter pipes, Natürlicher Grundwasserspiegel = Normal groundwater level, GW = Grundwasser = Groundwater, Abgesenkter
Wasserspiegel = Lowered groundwater level, Drainagerohr = Drainage pipe)

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PI PELI N E T RAN SPORT AT I ON SY ST EM S

CHAPTER 2: Planning and Designing of Pipeline Systems - SECTION 2.2: Pipelines
Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

A – Earth anchore (left) and concrete clamp rider (right):

B – Dry cement concrete in Jute bags (left) and poor concrete bars (right):

FIGURE 2.2-9: Safety against buoyancy and free-washing or water erosion

(TRANSLATIONS: Schutzmatte = Protection mat, Kunststoffseile = Plastic wires, Beton = Concrete, Felschutzmatte = Rock protection mat, Rohrisolierung = Pipe coating, Rohrleitung = Pipeline,
Drainagerohr in Filterkies = Drainage pipe in filter gravel, Kabel mit Schutzrohr = Cable with protection pipe, Drainagerohr im Schutzrohr = Drainage pipe in protection pipe)

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Dr.-Eng. Orhan DEGERMENCI

1 Suction cage 9 Pigs

2 Suction tube 10 Plunger pressure weighing machine
3 Flowmeter 11 Manometer
4 Manometer (underpressure) 12 Pressure recorder
5 Manometer 13 Temperature recorder
6 Centrifugal pump 14 Manometer
7 Inlet line 15 Outlet line
8 Gate valve 16 Pipe wall temperature measurement

FIGURE 2.2-10: Equipment to fill pipeline for hydrostatic pressure testing

(TRANSLATIONS: Empfangsstation = Receiving station, Sendestation = Launching station)

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