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classroom discussions, level of student participation in classroom discussions, cognitive

challenge of the lesson activities, and quality of instructional feedback. The second

factor measured qualities such as: classroom management, the level of student

engagement in the lesson, the clarity of the learning goals, and alignment of the goals and

lesson activities. After further analysis Clare (2001) found that the first observation

factor, constructivist practice was associated with the quality of classroom assignments

(r=0.57, p<0.01) (p.27). In contrast, the quality of lesson implementation did not

significantly associate with classroom assignments (r=0.03) (p. 27). This data suggests

that while planning, teachers need to start with a clear objective and then, when planning

the lesson activity and assignments, focus on the quality of the elements and not the

implementation.

Koh and Luke (2009) collected 4,097 samples of teacher’s assignments or

assessment tasks for students from Grade 5 and Grade 9 lessons in English, social studies,

mathematics, and science in 59 Singapore schools. The researchers used discriminant

function analyses on the authentic intellectual quality criteria to examine the quality of

teachers’ assignment tasks between the four subject areas for both grade levels. The

findings at Grade 5 were significant with two discriminant functions accounting for 67%

and 24% of the variance, respectively. Function 1 consisted of: connections to the real

world beyond the classroom, knowledge criticism, knowledge manipulation, depth of

knowledge, and student control. Function 2 consisted of: supportive task framing

explicit performance standards/marking criteria, and sustained writing. Based on these

results, Koh and Luke (2009) found that the differences between social studies and the
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other three subject areas were significant on “connections to the real world beyond the

classroom, student control, and sustained writing” (p. 300). In Grade 9 it was found that

English assessments demanded students to apply and generate knowledge that were

related to the real world, social studies tasks required students to engage in more critique

of knowledge and sustained writing as well as giving students control over the tasks.

These results give educators at each grade level something to think about when creating

assignments for students. Teachers need to ensure that the assignment aligns with the

goal and outcome, and that it is appropriate for the developmental age of students in the

class.

Research findings about Creating Quality Assignments include:

• In quality classrooms there were connections made across the curriculum and that

on a daily basis there was an intense involvement of literacy activities with

academic engagement Pressley et. al (1998).

• Highly qualified teachers integrate many goals into a single lesson and that highly

qualified classrooms are filled with high quality reading and writing experiences.

Wharton-McDonald et. al (1998).

• There is a relationship between quality of classroom assignments and student

work (Clare 2001; Koh & Luke 2009).

• The qualities of the elements in the activity have more impact than the

implementation (Clare, 2001).

• When planning activities, different subjects need different types of intellectual

quality (Koh & Luke, 2009).

Logically Structured Lessons

Lambert (1988) stated, the best objectives of teachers and students are worthless

if they are not properly implemented—therefore “the skillful orchestration of the

objectives, strategies, materials, and equipment and the careful organization,

development ,and sequencing of the lesson are absolutely crucial to successful teaching”

(p. 4). Zahorik et al. (2003) agreed, finding that carefully planned activities had clear

goals and a logical structure with a step-by-step content progression. Davis and Thomas

(1989) emphasized logically structuring lessons because “organizing and structuring

teaching activities to improve learning is not independent of maintaining high academic

engagement” (p 132).

Sequence. Sequencing is an important aspect of logically structuring lessons.

The teacher sets students up for success by identifying a sequence and ensuring the

knowledge gained is based in grounded ideas and building from that point, which, in their

review of extent research, Good and Brophy (2003), found effective teaching requires

that teachers plan sequences of lessons and do not plan in isolation. Jones et al. (2011)

found many novice teachers do not show evidence of idea development in their lesson

planning. A lack of sequential planning then causes students to be taught concepts in

isolation which leaves students to try and connect ideas and form understanding on their

own. Students may then develop misconceptions and misunderstandings about how

concepts relate.

In addition to examining the sequencing of lessons, effective teachers need to be

flexible when the sequence must be altered. Wharton-McDonald et al. (1998) found that
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high-achieving teachers were skilled at incorporating mini-lessons into on-going lessons

as opportunities came around. This small adaptation of sequence made by the teacher

can positively impact student achievement. Similarly, Pressley et al. (1998) found that

the most effective teachers used “opportunistic teaching and re-teaching.. .with the

teacher consistently monitoring students as they read and wrote and offering mini­

lessons” (p. 15). Pressley et al. (1998) also found that, within teacher planning, the most

effective classrooms had a balance of skill instruction thus sequencing skills can have

consequences on student achievement.

In addition to ensuring that multiple lessons are sequenced appropriately, it is also

important that components of individual lessons are sequenced appropriately. This gives

order and familiarity to students as they know what to expect during the lesson. Having a

sequential lesson also ensures that all aspects of the lesson are covered and in order.

Omstein and Lasley (2004) noted two different views for lesson sequencing depending

on the lesson objective: the transmission view and the constructivist view. The

transmission view can be used when the teacher’s goal is to teach discrete processes; it

follows a typical sequence of “explanations and lectures, demonstrations and

experiments, questioning to check for understanding, and practice and drill” (p. 174).

Within the first step, explanations and lectures, it is important for the teacher to follow a

planned sequence which will minimize diversions or tangential discussions (Omstein &

Lasley, 2004). In addition, during a lecture explanations of concepts should be included

in the proper place to maintain the sequence of knowledge building discussed previously.
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Rosenshine (1986) stated that researchers have found that when effective teachers teach

concepts and skills explicitly they:

• Begin a lesson with a short statement of goals;

• Begin a lesson with a short review of previous, prerequisite learning;

• Present new material in small steps, with student practice after each step;

• Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations;

• Provide active practice for all students;

• Ask many questions, check for student understanding, and obtain responses from

all students;

• Guide students during initial practice;

• Provide systematic feedback and corrections;

• Provide explicit instruction and practice for seatwork exercises and, where

necessary, monitor students during seatwork; and

• Continue practice until students are independent and confident (p. 61-62).

Similarly, Zahorik et al. (2003) found that the “more effective teachers’ primary

teaching method was explicit, step-by-step instruction” (p. 76). This allowed the teacher

to give clear directions, explain concepts in a logical manner, use modeling of the

concepts, provide feedback, and adapt the information as necessary.

The constructivist view is used when students are co-creating concepts with the

teacher (Omstein & Lasley, 2004). The different nature of this type of lessons requires a

different sequence for the lesson presentation. The constructivist view according to