Digital transmission:

Data can be represented either in analog or digital form. The computers used the digital form to
store the information. Therefore, the data needs to be converted in digital form so that it can be
used by a computer.

Signal conversion:

Digital to digital conversion:

 Data can be represented either in analog or digital form.

 The computers used the digital form to store the information.
 Therefore, the data needs to be converted in digital form so that it can be used by a
computer.
 This conversion can be done in 2 ways; line coding and block coding.
 Line coding: the process of converting digital data into digital signal is said to be line
coding. Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.

There are three types of line coding scheme available:

i. Unipolar Encoding
ii. Polar Encoding
iii. Bipolar Encoding

i. Unipolar Encoding:
 It is very simple and very primitive.
 Since it uses one polarity so that the name is unipolar.
 This polarity is assigned to one of the two binary states usually 1 and the other is
0 is represented by zero voltage.
 Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level. Here 1s are encoded as positive
value and 0s are encoded as zero value.
  The average amplitude of a unipolar encoding signal is non-zero. And it is also
called unipolar NRZ (on return to zero) because there is no rest condition i.e it
either represents 1 or 0.

Disadvantage: however unipolar encoding has at least two problems that make it
undesirable; a DC components and a self synchronization.

ii. Polar encoding:

 Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels: one is positive,
and another is negative.
 By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced, and the DC
component problem of unipolar encoding scheme is alleviated.

a) NRZ: NRZ stands for Non-return to zero. In NRZ encoding, the level of the
signal can be represented either positive or negative.
 NRZ-L (NRZ-level): Here the level of the signal depends on the types
of bit that it represents. Here positive voltage means bit 0 and negative
voltage means bit 1.
 NRZ-I (NRZ-invert): An inversion of the voltage represents a bit 1; it
is the transition between a positive and negative voltage. In this
 scheme, 0 bit represents no change and 1 bit represents a change in
voltage level.

NRZ-L

NRZ-I

: Next bit is 0
: Next bit is 1

Note: In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the
bit. In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the
value of the bit.
b) RZ:
 RZ stands for Return to zero.
 There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve synchronization.
However, to change with every bit, we need to have three values:
positive, negative and zero.
 RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values, positive voltage
represents 1, the negative voltage represents 0, and zero voltage
represents none.
 In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0 bit is
represented by negative-to-zero.
 Disadvantage: the main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires
two signal changes to encode one bit. But still it is most effective as it
contains the provision for synchronization.

c) Biphase:
Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the
bit interval but does not return to zero.
Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways:
 Manchester:
 The idea of RZ and the idea of NRZ-L combined into the
Manchester scheme.
 In this scheme the duration of the bit is divided into 2 halves.
 The voltage remains at one level during the first half move to the
other level in the second half.
 A negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1, and positive-
to-negative transition represents 0.
 Differential Manchester:
 This combines the idea of RZ and NRZ-I.
 There is always a transition at the middle of the bit but the bit
values are determined at the beginning of the bit.
 If the next bit is 0 then there is a transition else if the next bit is 1
then there is none.
iii. Bipolar encoding:
In this scheme there are three voltage levels positive, negative, and zero (sometimes
called multilevel binary). The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the
voltage level for the other element alternates between positive and negative.
It is of 2 types; AMI and Pseudoternary.
a) AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion):
 A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar AMI.
 In the term Alternate Mark Inversion, the word mark comes from
telegraphy it means 1. So AMI means alternate 1 inversion.
 A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary 1’s are represented
by alternating positive and negative voltages.
b) Pseudoternary:
The variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary.
Bit 1 is encoded as a zero voltage and the bit 0 is encoded as alternating
positive and negative voltages i.e., opposite of AMI scheme. Example:
Data = 010010.
Analog to digital conversion:

o When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an analog-to-digital conversion.

o Suppose human sends a voice in the form of an analog signal, we need to digitalize the
analog signal which is less prone to noise. It requires a reduction in the number of values
in an analog message so that they can be represented in the digital stream.

Techniques for Analog to digital conversion:

i. PAM (Pulse Amplitude modulation):

 This technique takes an analog signal, sample it and generate a series of pulses
based on the result of sampling.
 Sampling means measuring the amplitude of the signal at equal interval. PAM
uses a technique called sample and hold.
 PAM technique is not useful in data communication as it translates the original
wave form into pulses, but these pulses are not digital. To make them digital,
PAM technique is modified to PCM technique.
ii. PCM (Pulse Code modulation):
 PCM modify pulses created by PAM to create a completely digital signal.
 PCM is one of the most commonly used methods to convert analog data into
digital form. It involves four steps:
a) Sampling:
The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in
sampling is the rate at which analog signal is sampled. Analog signal when
transmitted through longer distance there is every possibility of introducing
of errors. So analog signal can be converted into digital signal by means of a
process known as sampling.

b) Quantization:
Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete
pattern shows the amplitude of the analog signal at that instance. The
quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value and the
minimum amplitude value. Quantization is approximation of the
instantaneous analog value.
 c) Encoding:
In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

d) Line coding:
Suitable line coding scheme is chosen to convert binary data to digital
signal.

Component of PCM encoder:

Transmission Modes:
 Transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode.
 In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock trick.
 In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
 While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses of serial
transmission.
 These subclasses are; asynchronous, synchronous and isochronous.
i. Parallel transmission:
 In parallel transmission, multiple bits (usually 8 bits or a byte/character) are sent
simultaneously on different channels (wires, frequency channels) within the same
cable, or radio path, and synchronized to a clock.
  The sender sends all the bits at once on all lines. Because the data lines are equal
to the number of bits in a group or data frame, a complete group of bits (data
frame) is sent in one go.
 Advantage: the speed is very high.
 Disadvantages: cost is high and limited to shorter distance.

ii. Serial transmission:

 In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue manner.
 Serial transmission requires only one communication channel.
 Advantage: reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n.
 Serial transmission occurs in one of two ways; asynchronous, synchronous

a) Asynchronous:
 It means timing of a signal is not important here. It is used to describe the
process where transmitted data is encoded with start and stop bits,
specifying the beginning and end of each character.
 There may be a gap between each byte.
 Information is transmitted and received by some agreed pattern.
 Eg- Email, Forums, Letters
 Advantage: it is cheap and effective.
 Disadvantage: transmission is slower due to the insertion of start and stop
bit.
b) Synchronous:
 The bit stream is combined into frames (blocks or packets) which consist
of multiple bytes.
 No gap is there in between bytes.
 Bits are transmitted without start or stop bit or gap.
 The receiver is responsible to group the bits.
 This transmission mode used when large amount of data must be
transferred very quickly from one sender to receiver.
 Eg- Chat Rooms, Telephonic Conversations, Video Conferencing
 Advantages: speed is much more or quite faster. It is more useful for high
speed applications such as the transmission of data from one computer to
another.

frame frame frame