Political communication is the exchange of information between political actors, media,

and the public. It shapes perceptions and influences public opinion through various
theories like agenda-setting, framing, and priming. These concepts explain how media
coverage impacts political discourse and voter behavior. The field has evolved with
technological advancements, from face-to-face interactions to social media campaigns.
Media plays a crucial role in setting the agenda, framing issues, and holding power
accountable. Campaign strategies now involve data-driven targeting and digital
engagement to reach and persuade voters effectively.

Key Concepts and Theories

• Political communication involves the exchange of information, ideas, and messages

between political actors, media, and the public

• Agenda-setting theory suggests media influences public perception by prioritizing

certain issues (Watergate scandal)

• Framing theory posits media frames shape how the public interprets and
understands political events and issues

o Episodic framing focuses on specific events or individuals (a politician's

scandal)

o Thematic framing places issues in a broader context (systemic corruption in

politics)

• Priming theory proposes media coverage can alter the criteria by which the public
evaluates political figures and issues

• Cultivation theory argues long-term exposure to media shapes people's perceptions

of social reality (portrayal of politics in TV shows)

• Two-step flow model suggests opinion leaders mediate the influence of media on
the general public

• Spiral of silence theory proposes individuals are less likely to express opinions they
perceive as minority views due to fear of isolation

Historical Context

• Political communication has evolved alongside advancements in technology and

media (radio, television, internet)

• Early political campaigns relied heavily on face-to-face interactions, rallies, and

printed materials (pamphlets, posters)
 • Radio broadcasts allowed politicians to reach larger audiences and deliver
messages directly to voters (FDR's fireside chats)

• Television transformed political campaigns by emphasizing visual imagery and

candidate appearances (Kennedy-Nixon debates)

• Cable news and 24-hour news cycles increased the demand for constant political
content and analysis

• Internet and social media have democratized political communication, enabling

direct engagement between politicians and the public

o Candidates can bypass traditional media gatekeepers and reach voters

directly (Twitter, Facebook)

o Grassroots movements and activism have been facilitated by digital

platforms (Arab Spring, #MeToo)

• Globalization has expanded the reach and impact of political communication

across borders

Media's Role in Politics

• Media serves as a conduit between political actors and the public, shaping
perceptions and opinions

• News media sets the agenda by determining which issues and events receive
coverage and prominence

• Media frames political issues and events, influencing how the public understands
and evaluates them

• Investigative journalism can expose political scandals and hold those in power
accountable (Watergate, Panama Papers)

• Media provides a platform for political debates, interviews, and town halls, allowing
candidates to present their views

• Political advertising, both positive and negative, is disseminated through various

media channels (TV ads, social media)

• Media's editorial decisions and biases can impact political discourse and public
opinion

o Allegations of media bias from both ends of the political spectrum (liberal
bias, conservative bias)
 o Echo chambers and filter bubbles can reinforce existing beliefs and limit
exposure to diverse viewpoints

Campaign Strategies and Tactics

• Campaigns develop strategies to persuade and mobilize voters, often tailored to

specific demographics and regions

• Message development involves crafting a candidate's core themes, policies, and

vision (hope and change, make America great again)

• Opposition research is used to identify and exploit weaknesses in political

opponents (voting records, personal scandals)

• Micro-targeting utilizes data analytics to deliver personalized messages to specific

voter segments (Facebook ads)

• Get-out-the-vote (GOTV) efforts aim to increase voter turnout among a candidate's

supporters

o Door-to-door canvassing, phone banking, and text messaging are common

GOTV tactics

• Negative campaigning involves attacking opponents' character, record, or positions

(attack ads, mudslinging)

• Debates provide opportunities for candidates to showcase their policies and

contrast themselves with opponents

• Surrogate campaigning enlists high-profile supporters to campaign on behalf of a

candidate (celebrities, politicians)

Public Opinion and Polling

• Public opinion refers to the collective attitudes and beliefs of the public on political
issues and figures

• Polls are conducted to measure public opinion, often used to gauge a candidate's
standing or an issue's popularity

o Sampling methods aim to ensure a representative sample of the population

(random sampling, stratified sampling)

o Margin of error indicates the level of uncertainty in poll results due to

sampling (typically 3-5%)
 • Approval ratings measure the public's overall satisfaction with a political leader's
performance

• Issue polling assesses public support for specific policies or positions (healthcare,
immigration, gun control)

• Exit polls are conducted on election day to gain insights into voter demographics
and decision-making

• Polls can influence public perception and media coverage, potentially creating
bandwagon or underdog effects

• Challenges in polling include response bias, undecided voters, and the increasing
difficulty of reaching representative samples

Message Framing and Rhetoric

• Framing involves selecting and emphasizing certain aspects of an issue to shape

public understanding and opinion

• Rhetorical devices are used to persuade and engage audiences (metaphors,

anaphora, rhetorical questions)

o Metaphors compare two dissimilar things to create a vivid image or

understanding (drain the swamp, political theater)

o Anaphora involves repeating a word or phrase at the beginning of successive

clauses for emphasis (we shall fight on the beaches)

• Emotional appeals aim to evoke feelings such as fear, anger, or hope to influence
voters (fear of crime, hope for change)

• Storytelling and narratives are used to simplify complex issues and create relatable
connections with voters

• Spin involves presenting information in a way that favors a particular interpretation

or viewpoint

• Dog whistles are coded language or phrases that appeal to specific groups without
explicitly stating the message (states' rights, law and order)

• Political slogans and catchphrases are used to encapsulate a candidate's message

and create memorable branding (yes we can, I'm with her)

Digital and Social Media Impact

 • Digital and social media have transformed political communication by enabling
direct, real-time engagement

• Candidates use social media to bypass traditional media filters and communicate
directly with voters (Twitter, Facebook, Instagram)

• Social media allows for rapid dissemination of information and news, both accurate
and inaccurate (viral content, fake news)

• Online activism and grassroots movements have been facilitated by digital

platforms (Black Lives Matter, #MeToo)

o Hashtag activism involves using hashtags to raise awareness and mobilize

support for causes

• Data analytics and targeted advertising enable campaigns to deliver personalized

messages to specific voter segments

• Echo chambers and filter bubbles can form on social media, reinforcing existing
beliefs and limiting exposure to diverse viewpoints

• Concerns about privacy, data misuse, and foreign interference in elections have
emerged with the rise of digital campaigning (Cambridge Analytica scandal)

• Digital divide refers to the gap between those with access to technology and those
without, potentially impacting political participation

Ethical Considerations

• Political communication raises ethical concerns about truth, transparency, and

fairness

• Misinformation and disinformation can spread rapidly through media and social
networks, misleading the public

o Deepfakes use AI to create convincing fake videos or audio of politicians,

blurring the line between reality and manipulation

• Negative campaigning and attack ads can lower the level of political discourse and
discourage participation

• Campaign finance laws aim to regulate the influence of money in politics and
ensure transparency (Citizens United decision)

• Media bias and partisan reporting can undermine trust in journalism and contribute
to political polarization
• Microtargeting and data-driven campaigning raise privacy concerns and questions
about voter manipulation

• Unequal access to media platforms and resources can create disparities in political
influence and representation

• Ethical codes and standards, such as fact-checking and disclosure of conflicts of

interest, aim to promote responsible political communication
1.1 Definition and scope of political communication

3 min read•Last Updated on August 16, 2024

Political communication shapes our democratic processes and policy decisions. It

involves strategic messaging between political actors, media, and the public to influence
opinions and mobilize support.

From campaign speeches to social media posts, political communication spans diverse
contexts. It draws on multiple disciplines like political science, sociology, and media
studies to analyze how messages impact individuals and society.

Political communication defined

Core elements and processes

Top images from around the web for Core elements and processes

Berlo - Praxis Framework View original

Is this image relevant?

Systems theory in political science - Wikipedia View original

Is this image relevant?

Key Components of Communication | Organizational Behavior / Human Relations View

original

Is this image relevant?

Berlo - Praxis Framework View original

Is this image relevant?

 •

Systems theory in political science - Wikipedia View original

Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Political communication creates, transmits, receives, and processes messages with

significant direct or indirect impact on politics

• Involves key components

o Sender (political actors)

o Message (political content)

o Medium (communication channels)

o Receiver (audience or public)

• Encompasses verbal and non-verbal forms

o Speeches

o Debates

o Advertisements

o Social media posts

o Symbolic actions (flag-burning protests)

• Operates strategically to influence public opinion, shape policy agendas, and

mobilize political support
 • Functions within complex ecosystem of stakeholders

o Politicians

o Media outlets

o Interest groups

o Citizens

Academic study and analysis

• Examines production, dissemination, and effects of political messages

• Analyzes impact on individuals, groups, and societies

• Explores how political communication shapes democratic processes

• Investigates role in policy formation and implementation

• Studies evolution of communication technologies and their influence on political

discourse

Contexts of political communication

Electoral and governmental settings

• Electoral campaigns serve as primary context

o Candidate messaging

o Debates

o Rallies

o Voter outreach strategies (door-to-door canvassing)

• Governmental institutions utilize in policy-making

o Legislative debates

o Executive addresses (State of the Union)

o Judicial opinions

Media and public sphere

• Traditional media environments shape public discourse

o Newspapers
 o Television news broadcasts

o Radio talk shows

• Digital platforms enable new forms of political engagement

o Social media discussions

o Online petitions

o Viral campaign videos

• Grassroots and social movements employ communication tactics

o Mobilize support for causes (climate change activism)

o Challenge existing power structures

o Advocate for social and political change

International and crisis contexts

• International diplomacy fosters communication between nations

o United Nations General Assembly speeches

o G20 summit negotiations

o Bilateral trade talks

• Global governance forums facilitate multinational dialogue

o World Economic Forum discussions

o International climate change conferences (COP26)

• Crisis situations necessitate specific communication approaches

o Natural disaster response messaging

o National security threat briefings

o Pandemic public health guidelines

Interdisciplinary nature of political communication

Social science foundations

• Political science contributes theories and concepts

o Governance models
 o Power dynamics

o Institutional behavior

• Sociology offers insights into group dynamics and social structures

o Social movement formation

o Collective action processes

o Impact of inequality on political participation

• Psychology informs understanding of individual responses

o Cognitive processing of political messages

o Attitude formation and change

o Behavioral responses to campaigns

Communication and language studies

• Communication studies provide analytical frameworks

o Message creation strategies

o Media effects theories

o Audience reception models

• Rhetoric and linguistics contribute to discourse analysis

o Argumentation strategies in political debates

o Metaphor use in campaign speeches

o Language framing in policy discussions

Media and technological perspectives

• Media studies examine news framing and agenda-setting

o Analysis of political news coverage

o Impact of media ownership on political messaging

o Evolution of political advertising techniques

• Data science applies computational methods

o Social network analysis of political discussions

 o Natural language processing of political texts

o Predictive modeling of voting behavior

Political vs other communication

Unique characteristics and focus

• Centers on distribution and exercise of power within society

• Potential for significant societal impact distinguishes it

o Influences governance

o Shapes policy-making

o Affects collective decision-making processes

• Subject to higher level of scrutiny and analysis

o Academic research on political messaging effectiveness

o Media fact-checking of political claims

o Public debate over interpretation of political statements

Strategic and competitive nature

• Often adversarial, crafted to compete with opposing viewpoints

o Point-counterpoint in political debates

o Negative campaign advertising

o Rebuttals to policy proposals

• Operates on multiple levels simultaneously

o Addresses immediate tactical goals (winning a debate)

o Pursues long-term strategic objectives (shifting party ideology)

Legal and ethical considerations

• Subject to unique regulations and requirements

o Campaign finance laws

o Equal time rules for broadcast media

o Transparency requirements for political advertising

 • Ethical considerations play significant role

o Truth in political messaging

o Responsible use of political rhetoric

o Fairness in media coverage of political issues

Intro to Political Communications Unit 2 – Political Comm Theories & Models

Political communication is a dynamic field that explores how information flows between
political actors, media, and the public. It encompasses various forms of messaging, from
speeches to social media posts, and involves key concepts like agenda-setting, framing,
and priming. The study of political communication has evolved alongside technological
advancements, from ancient face-to-face interactions to the digital age of social media.
Major theories and models, such as agenda-setting and framing, help explain how political
messages shape public opinion and influence political processes.

Study Guides for Unit 2

2.1

Propaganda model

3 min read

2.2

Agenda-setting theory

3 min read

2.3

Framing theory

4 min read
2.4

Priming theory

4 min read

2.5

Cultivation theory

5 min read

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Political communication involves the exchange of information, ideas, and messages

between political actors, media, and the public to influence political processes and
outcomes

• Includes various forms of communication such as speeches, debates,

advertisements, social media posts, and news coverage related to politics

• Key actors in political communication are politicians, political parties, interest

groups, media organizations, and citizens

• Agenda-setting refers to the media's ability to influence which issues are considered
important by the public and policymakers

• Framing involves the selection and emphasis of certain aspects of an issue to shape
public perception and understanding

• Priming is the process by which media coverage of an issue can activate related
concepts and considerations in the minds of the audience

• Political socialization is the lifelong process by which individuals acquire political

knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors through interactions with various agents
(family, schools, media)

• Public opinion encompasses the collective views and attitudes of the public on
political issues and can be shaped by political communication
Historical Context of Political Communication

• Political communication has evolved alongside technological advancements and

societal changes throughout history

• In ancient times, political communication primarily occurred through face-to-face

interactions, public speeches, and written documents (Plato's dialogues, Cicero's
orations)

• The invention of the printing press in the 15th century revolutionized political
communication by enabling the mass production and dissemination of political
texts (pamphlets, newspapers)

• The emergence of mass media in the 20th century, such as radio and television,
transformed political communication by allowing politicians to reach larger
audiences simultaneously

o Franklin D. Roosevelt's fireside chats during the 1930s demonstrated the

power of radio in political communication

o The 1960 televised presidential debates between John F. Kennedy and

Richard Nixon highlighted the importance of visual appearance in the
television era

• The rise of the internet and social media in the 21st century has further transformed
political communication by enabling direct, interactive, and decentralized
communication between political actors and the public

o Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign successfully leveraged social

media platforms to engage and mobilize supporters

o The 2016 U.S. presidential election showcased the impact of social media in
spreading misinformation and polarizing the electorate

Major Political Communication Theories

• Agenda-setting theory, developed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw, posits

that the media influences public perception of issue importance by selectively
covering certain topics

o The media may not tell people what to think, but it tells them what to think
about

o The public tends to assign greater importance to issues that receive

extensive media coverage
 • Framing theory, advanced by Robert Entman, suggests that the way media presents
and frames issues can shape public understanding and opinions

o Framing involves selecting and emphasizing certain aspects of an issue while

downplaying others

o Different frames can lead to different interpretations and evaluations of the

same issue

• Cultivation theory, developed by George Gerbner, argues that long-term exposure to

media messages can shape individuals' perceptions of reality

o Heavy television viewers may develop a distorted view of the world that
aligns with the media's portrayal

o Political communication through mass media can cultivate certain beliefs

and attitudes over time

• Uses and gratifications theory focuses on how individuals actively seek and use
media to satisfy their needs and goals

o People may consume political media for various reasons, such as

information seeking, entertainment, or social interaction

o The theory emphasizes the audience's agency in selecting and interpreting

political messages

Models of Political Communication

• The transmission model, also known as the sender-message-receiver model, views

communication as a linear process of information transfer from a sender to a
receiver

o In political communication, the sender can be a politician or political

organization, the message is the political content, and the receiver is the
public

o This model assumes a passive audience and does not account for feedback
or contextual factors

• The interaction model recognizes communication as a two-way process involving

feedback and mutual influence between participants

o In political communication, this model acknowledges the role of public

opinion, voter feedback, and media-politician interactions
 o It emphasizes the dynamic and reciprocal nature of political communication

• The transaction model views communication as a complex, continuous process in

which participants simultaneously create and interpret meaning

o In political communication, this model considers the social, cultural, and

historical contexts that shape the construction and interpretation of political
messages

o It recognizes the active role of individuals in making sense of political

information based on their experiences, values, and beliefs

• The network model, influenced by the rise of digital media, conceptualizes political
communication as a web of interconnected actors and information flows

o In this model, political actors, media outlets, and citizens are nodes in a
network, and communication occurs through multiple channels and
directions

o The network model highlights the decentralized and participatory nature of

political communication in the digital age

Media's Role in Political Communication

• The media serves as a crucial intermediary between political actors and the public,
shaping the flow and content of political information

• Media outlets act as gatekeepers by deciding which political stories and issues to
cover, how much attention to give them, and how to frame them

o Media's editorial decisions can influence public perception of political

priorities and shape the political agenda

o The media's gatekeeping role has been challenged by the rise of alternative
and citizen media in the digital age

• The media provides a platform for political actors to communicate their messages,
policies, and positions to the public

o Politicians rely on media coverage to gain visibility, build their image, and
persuade voters

o Media interviews, debates, and press conferences enable politicians to

directly address the public and respond to criticism
 • The media plays a watchdog role by scrutinizing political actors, exposing
wrongdoing, and holding them accountable

o Investigative journalism can uncover political scandals, corruption, and

abuses of power

o The media's watchdog function is essential for maintaining transparency and

democratic accountability

• The media can influence public opinion and political attitudes through its coverage
and framing of political issues

o Media's portrayal of political events, actors, and issues can shape public
perceptions and evaluations

o Biased or partisan media coverage can contribute to political polarization

and the formation of echo chambers

Digital Age and Political Communication

• The internet and social media have transformed political communication by

enabling direct, interactive, and decentralized communication between political
actors and the public

• Social media platforms (Twitter, Facebook, Instagram) allow politicians to bypass

traditional media gatekeepers and directly engage with constituents

o Politicians can use social media to share messages, rally supporters, and
respond to criticism in real-time

o Social media has become an essential tool for political campaigns, enabling
targeted advertising and grassroots mobilization

• The digital age has democratized political communication by empowering citizens

to participate in political discourse and activism

o Citizens can use social media to express opinions, share information, and
organize collective action

o Online forums and discussion boards facilitate political deliberation and the
formation of virtual communities

• The proliferation of online news sources and alternative media has challenged the
dominance of traditional media in political communication
 o Citizens can access a wide range of political information and perspectives
beyond mainstream media outlets

o The abundance of information online has also raised concerns about the
spread of misinformation, fake news, and echo chambers

• Big data and targeted advertising have become powerful tools in political
communication, enabling personalized and data-driven campaigning

o Political campaigns can use data analytics to identify and target specific
voter segments with tailored messages

o Microtargeting techniques can exploit individuals' personal data and online

behavior for political persuasion, raising privacy concerns

Case Studies and Real-World Applications

• The 2008 U.S. presidential campaign of Barack Obama demonstrated the effective
use of social media and grassroots organizing in political communication

o Obama's campaign leveraged social media platforms to engage and mobilize

young voters, raise funds, and build a strong volunteer network

o The campaign's use of data analytics and targeted messaging helped Obama
secure victory and set a new standard for digital campaigning

• The 2016 U.S. presidential election highlighted the impact of social media, fake
news, and foreign interference in political communication

o The election saw the widespread circulation of misinformation and

conspiracy theories on social media platforms

o Russian interference through social media campaigns and targeted

advertising aimed to influence voter attitudes and sow discord

• The Arab Spring uprisings in 2011 showcased the role of social media in facilitating
political communication and mobilization

o Protesters used social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter) to organize

demonstrations, share information, and bypass government censorship

o Social media played a crucial role in spreading the message of the uprisings
and garnering international support

• The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the importance of effective political

communication during public health crises
 o Political leaders have used various communication channels (press
conferences, social media) to inform the public about the pandemic and
implement response measures

o The pandemic has also highlighted the challenges of combating

misinformation and ensuring clear, consistent messaging from political
authorities

Critical Analysis and Future Trends

• Political communication theories and models have evolved to account for the
changing media landscape and the rise of digital technologies

o Traditional models (transmission, interaction) may not fully capture the

complexity and multidirectionality of political communication in the digital
age

o New models, such as the network model, are needed to understand the
decentralized and participatory nature of contemporary political
communication

• The increasing role of social media in political communication raises concerns

about the spread of misinformation, echo chambers, and political polarization

o The algorithms and design of social media platforms can amplify extreme
views, reinforce biases, and contribute to the fragmentation of the public
sphere

o Addressing these challenges requires a combination of media literacy

education, fact-checking initiatives, and regulatory measures

• The use of big data and targeted advertising in political communication poses
ethical and privacy concerns

o The collection and use of personal data for political purposes can infringe on
individuals' privacy rights and autonomy

o Stricter regulations and transparency measures are needed to ensure the

responsible and accountable use of data in political communication

• The future of political communication is likely to be shaped by emerging

technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and virtual reality (VR)

o AI-powered chatbots and personalized content recommendations may

increasingly be used for political persuasion and engagement
 o VR and augmented reality (AR) technologies may create new immersive
experiences for political communication and civic participation

• Ensuring the integrity and fairness of political communication in the digital age
requires ongoing research, public discourse, and collaborative efforts among
political actors, media organizations, and civil society

o Interdisciplinary approaches, combining insights from political science,

communication studies, and computer science, are necessary to address
the complex challenges of contemporary political communication

o Fostering media literacy, critical thinking skills, and civic engagement among
citizens is crucial for maintaining a healthy and informed democracy in the
face of evolving political communication landscape

• Intro to Political Communications

Unit 6 – Digital Political
Communication
• Digital political communication has revolutionized how campaigns and
governments interact with citizens. It enables real-time, personalized
messaging through social media, targeted ads, and data-driven strategies.
This shift has increased engagement but also raised concerns about
misinformation and privacy. Key players include political strategists, social
media platforms, and digital ad networks. Campaigns use data analytics to
target specific voter segments, while social media allows direct
communication with constituents. However, these tools can also spread
fake news and amplify polarization, posing challenges for democracy.
What's Digital Political Communication?

• Refers to the use of digital technologies and platforms to communicate political

messages, engage with constituents, and shape public opinion

• Encompasses a wide range of activities including social media campaigns, targeted

advertising, email marketing, and online fundraising

• Has revolutionized the way political campaigns and governments interact with
citizens by enabling real-time, personalized, and interactive communication
 • Allows political actors to bypass traditional media gatekeepers and directly reach
their target audiences through various digital channels

• Enables the collection and analysis of vast amounts of data on voters' preferences,
behaviors, and demographics, which can be used to tailor political messages and
strategies

• Has the potential to increase political participation and engagement, particularly

among younger generations who are more likely to consume news and information
online

• Can also be used for spreading misinformation, propaganda, and fake news, which
poses significant challenges for democratic processes and institutions

Key Players and Platforms

• Political campaigns and candidates increasingly rely on digital strategists, data

analysts, and social media managers to plan and execute their online
communication strategies

• Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have become
essential tools for political communication, allowing politicians to share updates,
engage with supporters, and respond to critics in real-time

o Facebook is particularly important due to its large user base and advanced
targeting capabilities, which enable campaigns to reach specific
demographics and interest groups

o Twitter is often used for rapid response, news dissemination, and public
debates, with politicians and journalists frequently engaging in real-time
conversations

• Digital advertising platforms, such as Google Ads and Facebook Ads, enable
political actors to deliver highly targeted messages to specific audiences based on
their interests, behaviors, and demographics

• Email marketing remains a crucial tool for political campaigns, allowing them to
communicate directly with supporters, solicit donations, and mobilize volunteers

• Emerging platforms like TikTok and Snapchat are gaining popularity among younger
voters and are increasingly being used for political communication and organizing

Digital Campaign Strategies

 • Digital campaigns often focus on building a strong online presence through a
combination of owned, earned, and paid media

o Owned media refers to channels controlled by the campaign, such as their

website, email list, and social media accounts

o Earned media involves generating coverage and mentions from third-party

sources, such as news outlets, bloggers, and influencers

o Paid media includes digital advertising, sponsored content, and promoted

posts on social media platforms

• Campaigns use data-driven targeting to deliver personalized messages to specific

voter segments based on their demographics, interests, and behaviors

• Storytelling and narrative-building are key components of digital political

communication, with campaigns using various multimedia formats (videos, images,
infographics) to engage audiences and convey their message

• Rapid response and crisis communication are critical in the digital age, as
campaigns need to be able to quickly address negative stories, rumors, and attacks
that can spread rapidly online

• User-generated content, such as supporter testimonials, fan art, and hashtag

campaigns, can help campaigns build a sense of community and authenticity
around their brand

• Gamification and interactive content, such as quizzes, polls, and challenges, can be
used to engage supporters and encourage them to share campaign messages with
their networks

Social Media's Role in Politics

• Social media has become a primary source of news and information for many
citizens, with platforms like Facebook and Twitter serving as key channels for
political discourse and debate

• Politicians use social media to communicate directly with constituents, share

updates on their activities, and promote their policy positions and achievements

• Social media enables politicians to bypass traditional media gatekeepers and shape
their own narrative, but also exposes them to greater scrutiny and criticism from the
public
 • Political campaigns use social media for organizing and mobilization, such as
coordinating volunteer efforts, promoting events, and encouraging supporters to
donate or vote

• Social media can amplify marginal voices and enable grassroots movements to gain
traction, as seen in the Arab Spring, Black Lives Matter, and #MeToo movements

• However, social media can also be a breeding ground for misinformation, echo
chambers, and political polarization, as algorithms tend to show users content that
reinforces their existing beliefs and preferences

• The spread of fake news and propaganda on social media has become a major
concern for democracies worldwide, with foreign actors and domestic groups using
these platforms to manipulate public opinion and interfere in elections

Data and Targeting in Political Messaging

• Political campaigns collect and analyze vast amounts of data on voters'

demographics, interests, behaviors, and political preferences to inform their
messaging and targeting strategies

• Data sources include voter registration files, consumer data, social media activity,
and campaign interactions (e.g., email sign-ups, event attendance, donations)

• Campaigns use data analytics tools to segment voters into distinct groups based on
their characteristics and likelihood to support the candidate or cause

• Predictive modeling techniques, such as machine learning algorithms, are used to

identify persuadable voters, anticipate their behavior, and optimize campaign
resource allocation

• Micro-targeting involves delivering highly personalized messages to specific

individuals or small groups based on their unique profile and interests

o For example, a campaign might send targeted ads about education policy to
young parents in a specific zip code who have shown an interest in the topic
on social media

• Geotargeting allows campaigns to deliver location-specific messages and ads to

voters based on their real-time location or place of residence

• Campaigns use A/B testing to experiment with different message variations and
optimize their effectiveness based on metrics like engagement, conversion rates,
and survey responses
 • While data-driven targeting can help campaigns be more efficient and effective, it
also raises concerns about voter privacy, data security, and the potential for
manipulation and discrimination

Viral Content and Memes in Politics

• Viral content refers to messages, images, or videos that spread rapidly through
social networks, often by being shared and remixed by users

• Memes, which are typically humorous images or videos with overlaid text, have
become a popular form of political expression and commentary online

• Political campaigns and activists use memes to simplify complex issues, mock
opponents, and rally supporters around a common cause or identity

• Memes can help campaigns connect with younger, digitally-savvy audiences and
generate earned media coverage by being shared widely online

• However, memes can also spread misinformation, perpetuate stereotypes, and

contribute to a culture of political polarization and tribalism

• The most successful political memes often tap into pre-existing cultural references,
emotions, and identities that resonate with their target audience

o For example, the "Bernie Sanders mittens" meme that went viral during the
2021 U.S. presidential inauguration capitalized on the senator's reputation as
a relatable and authentic figure

• Political actors also use hashtags to create viral campaigns around specific issues
or events, such as #BlackLivesMatter, #MeToo, and #MAGA

• While viral content can help campaigns and movements gain visibility and
momentum, it can also be difficult to control or predict, as memes and hashtags
can be co-opted or subverted by opposing groups

Challenges and Ethical Concerns

• The spread of misinformation, disinformation, and fake news on digital platforms

poses a significant threat to democratic processes and institutions

o False or misleading content can be used to manipulate public opinion,

suppress voter turnout, and undermine trust in elections and government
 • Foreign interference in elections through social media campaigns and targeted
advertising has become a major concern, with countries like Russia and China
being accused of using these tactics to influence outcomes in other nations

• The use of bots, trolls, and fake accounts on social media can artificially amplify
certain messages and create the illusion of grassroots support or opposition to a
candidate or cause

• Micro-targeting and data-driven campaigning raise concerns about voter privacy,

data security, and the potential for manipulation and discrimination

o Campaigns may use personal data to exploit voters' fears, prejudices, or

vulnerabilities, or to exclude certain groups from seeing their messages
altogether

• The increasing polarization and echo chambers on social media can lead to a
fragmentation of the public sphere and a decline in civil discourse and democratic
norms

• Political actors may prioritize virality and engagement over accuracy and ethics in
their digital communication strategies, leading to a race to the bottom in terms of
content quality and integrity

• The concentration of power among a few dominant tech platforms raises questions
about their role in shaping political discourse and their responsibility for moderating
content and protecting user privacy

• Regulating digital political communication is challenging due to concerns about free

speech, innovation, and the global nature of the internet, which transcends national
borders and jurisdictions

Future Trends in Digital Politics

• The increasing use of artificial intelligence and machine learning in political

communication, such as chatbots, personalized content recommendations, and
predictive modeling of voter behavior

• The rise of deepfakes and synthetic media, which use AI to create highly realistic but
fake videos and images of politicians saying or doing things they never actually did

o This could further erode trust in political institutions and make it harder for
voters to distinguish between real and fake information
 • The growing importance of messaging apps and private networks, such as
WhatsApp and Telegram, for political organizing and communication, particularly in
countries where these platforms are more widely used than traditional social media

• The potential for blockchain and decentralized technologies to enable new forms of
political participation and decision-making, such as secure online voting,
crowdfunding of campaigns, and direct democracy initiatives

• The increasing use of gamification and immersive technologies, such as virtual and
augmented reality, to engage voters and simulate political experiences or scenarios

• The need for greater digital literacy and critical thinking skills among citizens to
navigate the complex and often misleading information environment online

• The importance of international cooperation and global governance frameworks to

address the transnational challenges posed by digital political communication,
such as foreign interference, data privacy, and content moderation

• The potential for digital technologies to enable new forms of political mobilization,
activism, and resistance, particularly among marginalized or oppressed groups who
may lack access to traditional channels of political power

• Intro to Political Communications

Unit 5 – Media and Politics in
Political Communication
• Media plays a crucial role in shaping political discourse and public opinion.
From agenda-setting to framing, various theories explain how media
influences what we think about and how we perceive political issues.
Understanding these concepts is key to navigating the complex relationship
between media and politics. The media landscape has evolved significantly,
from early partisan newspapers to today's digital platforms. This evolution
has transformed how politicians communicate with voters, how campaigns
are run, and how citizens engage with political information. Examining this
history provides insights into current media dynamics and their impact on
democracy.
Key Concepts and Theories
 • Agenda setting theory suggests media influences public perception by prioritizing
certain issues and stories

o Media coverage shapes what the public considers important and worthy of
attention

o Politicians and campaigns often try to influence media agenda to gain

visibility for their issues

• Framing theory posits media frames stories in particular ways, shaping how the
public interprets events and issues

o Framing involves selecting certain aspects of a story and making them more
salient

o Media frames can influence public opinion and political preferences

• Priming theory proposes media coverage can activate certain ideas, making them
more accessible in the audience's mind

o Priming can influence how people evaluate political candidates or issues

o Media priming often occurs during election campaigns, shaping voter

perceptions

• Cultivation theory argues long-term exposure to media messages can shape

people's perceptions of social reality

o Heavy media consumption can lead to a distorted view of the world (mean
world syndrome)

• Uses and gratifications theory focuses on how and why individuals actively seek out
specific media to satisfy needs

o Media use is goal-directed, with people choosing media that meet their
needs (information, entertainment, social interaction)

• Spiral of silence theory suggests people are less likely to express opinions they
perceive as minority views due to fear of isolation

o Media coverage can reinforce dominant opinions, silencing alternative

viewpoints

Historical Context of Media in Politics

 • Early American newspapers played a crucial role in political discourse and shaping
public opinion (Federalist Papers)

o Partisan press era (1780s-1830s) featured newspapers openly aligned with

political parties and ideologies

• Penny press (1830s) made newspapers more affordable and accessible, expanding
readership and political influence

• Yellow journalism (late 1800s) used sensationalism and exaggeration to attract

readers and influence public opinion

o Spanish-American War (1898) showcased the power of media to shape

foreign policy and public sentiment

• Radio (1920s) and television (1950s) emerged as powerful political communication

tools

o Fireside Chats (FDR) and televised debates (Kennedy-Nixon) demonstrated

the impact of broadcast media

• Fairness Doctrine (1949-1987) required broadcasters to present contrasting

viewpoints on controversial issues

o Repeal of the Fairness Doctrine led to the rise of partisan talk radio and cable
news

• Internet and social media (1990s-present) have transformed political

communication, enabling direct candidate-voter interaction and grassroots
mobilization

o Obama's 2008 campaign successfully leveraged digital media for fundraising

and voter outreach

Types of Media and Their Influence

• Print media, including newspapers and magazines, provide in-depth coverage and
analysis

o Editorials and op-eds can shape public opinion and influence policy debates

o Investigative journalism can uncover political scandals and hold leaders

accountable (Watergate)

• Broadcast media, such as radio and television, offer wide reach and emotional
appeal
 o Television advertising is a key tool for political campaigns to reach and
persuade voters

o Televised debates and interviews can significantly impact voter perceptions

of candidates

• Cable news networks (CNN, Fox News, MSNBC) have become increasingly partisan,
catering to specific political audiences

o 24-hour news cycle and punditry can amplify political polarization and
conflict

• Internet and digital media have democratized political communication, allowing for
greater citizen participation

o Social media platforms (Twitter, Facebook) enable politicians to directly

engage with constituents and shape narratives

o Online news sources and blogs provide diverse perspectives and challenge
traditional media gatekeepers

• Alternative media, such as podcasts and YouTube channels, offer niche content and
cater to specific political interests

o Partisan alternative media can contribute to echo chambers and reinforce

existing beliefs

Political Messaging and Framing

• Crafting effective political messages involves understanding target audiences and

their values

o Messages should be clear, concise, and emotionally resonant to capture

attention and persuade voters

• Framing involves selecting and emphasizing certain aspects of an issue to shape

public perception

o Framing can highlight benefits or risks, assign blame or credit, and appeal to
specific values or emotions

o "War on Terror" frame justified military action and increased executive power
post-9/11

• Storytelling and narratives can make political messages more compelling and
memorable
 o Personal stories and anecdotes can humanize politicians and create
emotional connections with voters

• Negative messaging, such as attack ads, can be effective in shaping voter

perceptions of opponents

o Negative ads often focus on an opponent's character flaws, past

controversies, or policy failures

• Repetition and consistency are key to effective messaging, as they help reinforce
ideas and make them more salient

o Staying "on message" helps campaigns maintain control of the narrative and
avoid distractions

• Visual imagery and symbolism can enhance the power of political messages

o Iconic photographs and campaign logos can evoke strong emotions and
create lasting impressions (Obama "Hope" poster)

Media Ownership and Regulation

• Media ownership concentration has raised concerns about diversity of viewpoints

and potential bias

o Mergers and acquisitions have led to a handful of corporations controlling

most major media outlets

o Consolidated ownership can lead to homogenized content and reduced

local coverage

• Government regulation aims to ensure fair competition, protect public interest, and
promote diverse viewpoints

o Federal Communications Commission (FCC) oversees broadcast media and

sets rules for content and ownership

o Telecommunications Act of 1996 deregulated media ownership, allowing for

greater consolidation

• Public broadcasting, such as NPR and PBS, receives government funding to provide
educational and informative content

o Public media aims to serve the public interest and offer alternative
perspectives to commercial media
 • Net neutrality debate centers on whether internet service providers should treat all
online content equally

o Proponents argue net neutrality is essential for free speech and equal access
to information

o Opponents claim regulation stifles innovation and investment in broadband

infrastructure

• Media ownership by political actors can lead to conflicts of interest and biased
coverage

o Politician-owned media outlets may prioritize owner's political interests over

journalistic integrity

• Antitrust laws and regulations are designed to prevent monopolies and promote
competition in media markets

o Antitrust enforcement can block mergers that would lead to excessive

market power and reduced diversity

Public Opinion and Media Effects

• Agenda setting refers to the media's ability to influence which issues the public
considers important

o Media coverage can raise awareness of certain topics and make them more
salient in the public mind

o Political actors often seek to shape media agenda to prioritize their preferred
issues

• Framing effects occur when media coverage influences how the public interprets
and evaluates issues and events

o Framing can emphasize certain aspects of a story and influence attributions

of responsibility or blame

o "Horse race" framing of elections focuses on polling and campaign strategies

over substantive issues

• Priming effects happen when media coverage activates certain ideas or feelings,
making them more accessible for decision-making

o Media priming can influence how people evaluate political candidates or

issues
 o Negative media coverage can prime voters to view a candidate unfavorably

• Selective exposure and confirmation bias can limit media effects, as people tend to
seek information that aligns with their beliefs

o Echo chambers and filter bubbles can reinforce existing opinions and reduce
exposure to diverse viewpoints

• Media can influence public opinion through persuasion, providing new information,
and reinforcing existing beliefs

o Persuasive effects are more likely when the message is credible, relevant,
and resonates emotionally

• Public opinion polls are often used to gauge media impact and track shifts in
attitudes over time

o Polling methodologies and question wording can influence results and shape
media narratives

Digital Media and Political Campaigns

• Social media platforms have become essential tools for political campaigns to
reach and engage voters

o Candidates use social media to share messages, mobilize supporters, and

fundraise (Bernie Sanders grassroots fundraising)

o Social media allows for targeted advertising based on user data and
demographics

• Digital advertising, including display ads and video ads, has grown increasingly
sophisticated and personalized

o Microtargeting uses data analytics to deliver tailored messages to specific

voter segments

o Retargeting shows ads to users who have previously interacted with a

campaign's content

• Data analytics and voter databases enable campaigns to identify and target key
constituencies

o Campaigns collect and analyze voter data to predict preferences and tailor
outreach (Cambridge Analytica controversy)
 • Viral content, such as memes and videos, can quickly spread political messages
and shape public discourse

o Viral content often appeals to emotions and humor, making it highly

shareable (TikTok political videos)

• Online grassroots organizing and mobilization can empower citizens to participate

in political campaigns

o Email lists, text messaging, and peer-to-peer outreach can activate

supporters and encourage voter turnout

• Disinformation and fake news pose challenges for digital political communication

o False or misleading information can spread rapidly online and influence voter
perceptions (2016 US election interference)

o Campaigns and media organizations must combat disinformation through

fact-checking and media literacy efforts

Ethical Considerations and Media Bias

• Journalistic ethics emphasize principles of accuracy, fairness, and independence

o Journalists should strive to report the truth, minimize harm, and avoid
conflicts of interest

o Ethical lapses, such as plagiarism or fabrication, can undermine media

credibility and public trust

• Media bias can manifest in the selection, framing, and presentation of news stories

o Partisan bias occurs when media outlets consistently favor one political
party or ideology over another

o Structural bias arises from factors such as ownership, advertising pressures,

and sourcing practices

• False balance can occur when media present opposing viewpoints as equally valid,
even when evidence strongly favors one side

o Climate change coverage has been criticized for giving undue weight to
climate change deniers

• Objectivity and neutrality are journalistic ideals, but perfect impartiality is often
difficult to achieve
 o Journalists should aim to be fair and balanced, while acknowledging their
own perspectives and biases

• Transparency and accountability are essential for maintaining media integrity and
public trust

o Media outlets should disclose conflicts of interest, correct errors, and

respond to public feedback

• Ethical considerations in political advertising include issues of truth, fairness, and

disclosure

o Political ads are often negative and can mislead voters through deceptive
claims or manipulated images

o Regulations require disclosure of ad sponsors and spending, but

enforcement can be challenging in the digital age

5.1 Role of media in political communication

4 min read•Last Updated on August 16, 2024

Media plays a crucial role in political communication, shaping public opinion and
influencing the political landscape. It serves as the primary source of political info, setting
agendas, and acting as a watchdog. The media's power to frame narratives impacts policy
priorities and public perceptions.

Political actors rely on media for exposure, while media depends on them for content. This
symbiotic relationship affects information flow and shapes political discourse. In
elections, media coverage significantly influences candidate visibility, campaign strategies,
and voter behavior, highlighting its central role in democratic processes.

Media's Influence on Public Opinion

Information Sources and Opinion Formation

Top images from around the web for Information Sources and Opinion Formation
 •

Public Opinion: How is it formed? | United States Government View original

Is this image relevant?

Information Sources: Bias – Introduction to College Research View original

Is this image relevant?

 •

The Impact of the Media – American Government (2e) View original

Is this image relevant?

Public Opinion: How is it formed? | United States Government View original

Is this image relevant?

 •

Information Sources: Bias – Introduction to College Research View original

Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Media serves as primary source of political information for public

• Influences how individuals form opinions on political issues and candidates

• Agenda-setting function determines which political topics receive public attention

o Shapes public discourse by framing issues in specific ways

• Gatekeeping role filters and selects political information

o Potentially leads to bias in presentation of political events and issues

• Media priming affects how public evaluates political figures and issues

o Based on criteria emphasized in media coverage (charisma, policy expertise)

Shaping Political Narratives and Perceptions

• Media's ability to shape political narratives influences public perception of political

realities

o Impacts policy priorities and public support for initiatives

• Rise of social media has decentralized political communication

o Allows for more diverse voices in political discourse

 o Increases spread of misinformation and political polarization (echo
chambers)

• Media literacy crucial for citizens to critically analyze political information

o Helps interpret content across various media channels (TV news, online
articles)

o Enables recognition of bias and fact-checking of claims

Functions of Media in Politics

Information Dissemination and Watchdog Role

• Media serves as primary conduit for delivering political news and events

o Informs public about policy developments and government actions

• Watchdog function acts as check on government power

o Investigates and reports on political corruption and misconduct

o Exposes policy failures and holds officials accountable

• Provides platform for political debate and exchange of ideas

o Hosts discussions among political actors and public (televised debates, op-
eds)

Agenda Setting and Interpretation

• Influences which political issues are perceived as important

o Shapes priorities of public and policymakers

• Offers context and explanation for complex political issues

o Provides expert opinions and analysis (political commentators, policy

experts)

• Motivates political participation and civic engagement

o Coverage of issues can inspire voter turnout and activism

• Shapes political values and attitudes, especially for younger generations

o Influences political socialization through news and entertainment media

Media and Political Actors

Symbiotic Relationships and Strategies

• Political actors rely on media for public exposure and communication

o Media depends on political figures for newsworthy content

• Politicians employ media management strategies

o Influence coverage and control public image (press releases, staged events)

• Interaction between press secretaries and journalists shapes information flow

o Negotiation of access and story framing

• Political actors use media platforms to bypass traditional gatekeepers

o Communicate directly with constituents (social media accounts, podcasts)

Media's Impact on Politics

• Media coverage influences prioritization of policy issues

o Affects political decision-making processes and legislative agendas

• Scrutiny of political actors increases transparency in governance

o Investigative reporting can lead to policy changes or resignations

• Ongoing power dynamics between media and political actors

o Negotiations of access, information control, and narrative framing

• Media as a tool for political messaging and agenda promotion

o Politicians strategically use interviews and press conferences

Media's Impact on Elections

Candidate Visibility and Campaign Strategies

• Media coverage significantly influences candidate recognition and viability

o Amount of airtime can affect polling numbers and fundraising

• Political campaigns adapt messaging to align with media formats

o Tailoring sound bites for TV news or creating shareable content for social
media

• Media-hosted debates shape public perception of candidates

 o Performance in debates can sway voter preferences (Kennedy-Nixon debate)

• Coverage of opinion polls influences voter behavior and campaign strategies

o Can create momentum or perceived frontrunner status

Advertising and Social Media in Campaigns

• Strategic use of political advertising impacts voter outreach

o Placement across various media platforms (TV, radio, online)

• Rise of social media transformed campaign outreach

o Allows for micro-targeting of specific voter demographics

o Enables rapid response strategies to breaking news or opponent statements

• Concerns about media bias in election coverage affect voter trust

o Perceptions of unfair treatment can impact voter engagement

• Ad effectiveness varies across platforms and demographic groups

o Campaigns analyze data to optimize ad spending and messaging