Other construction materials

Ground granulated blast

furnace slag (GGBS)
Lime added to the molten iron to extract impurities in
production of carbon steel

The fused slag is rapid quenched as it passes through

water sprays and then granulated.

The major components includes melilite (⿈⻑⽯)

(Ca,Na)2(Al,Mg,Fe2+)[(Al,Si)SiO7], merwinite (鎂薔薇輝
⽯) Ca3Mg(SiO4)2, oldhamite (Ca,Mg)S and native iron.
Processing of GGBS

Lime added in iron ore reduction with coke process, silica, alumina
compounds combine with lime and magnesia at 1400-1500℃ to form a
molten slag. Various form of slag can be produced for different usage

• When slag is allowed to cool slowly (air cool), stony slag will be formed
that can be used as roadster or aggregate for concrete

• Reheat slag (sometimes add silicious materials) and issue from tap
holes of a jet. Thin stream of slag is condensed to form light weight
mass which is an excellence thermal isolator

• Molten slag is cooled rapidly and solidi es as glass. The granulated slag
subjected to spraying jets. The nal form is the GGBS used in cement
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Chemical composition of GGBS
Source CaO SiO2 Al2O3 MgO Fe2O3 MnO S

UK 40 35 16 6 0.8 0.6 1.7

Canada 40 37 8 10 1.2 0.7 2.0

France 43 35 12 8 2.0 0.5 0.9

Germany 42 35 12 7 0.3 0.8 1.6

Japan 43 34 16 5 0.5 0.6 0.9

Russia 39 34 14 9 1.3 1.1 1.1

South Africa 34 33 16 14 1.7 0.5 1.0

USA 41 34 10 11 0.8 0.5 1.3

Usage of GGBS

Separate constituent in concrete

Intergrinding with cement clinker in manufacture of

Portland blast furnace or high-slag blast furnace
cement
Advantage of using GGBS
Cost reduction (replace cement)

Temperature reduction in large pours

Improve resistance to sulphate attack (water reduction)

Improve resistance to chloride diffusion (water reduction)

Inhibition of expansion caused by AAR (reduce alkali in

pore solution)
Speci cation of GGBS
Analyses excl. ignition loss EN 15167-1
SiO2 % Declare
Al2O3 % Declare
TiO2 % Declare
MnO % Declare
CaO % Declare
MgO % Declare
Na2O % Declare
K2O % Declare
SO3 % < 2.5
S % < 2.0
Cl % < 0.1
Ignition loss % < 3.0
Glass content Vol % >2/3
CaO+MgO+SiO2 % >2/3
(CaO + MgO)/SiO2 - >1.0
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Speci cation of GGBS
Analyses Method used
SiO2
Al2O3
TiO2
BS EN 196-2
MnO
CaO
MgO
Na2O
BS EN 196-21
K2O
SO3
BS EN 196-2
S
Cl BS EN 196-21
Ignition loss BS EN 196-2
Glass content Microscopic counting
CaO+MgO+SiO2
Calculation
(CaO + MgO)/SiO2
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Pulverised fuel ash (PFA)
By product of burning coal, ~20-25 % residue fused
like clinker (‘furnace bottom ash’) and 75-80% is
collected in exhaust combustion gas (‘ y ash’)

Different classes in ASTM C618-96. Two classes used

for concrete: (a) Class C produced by burning sub-
bituminous coal (contains more than 10% CaO) and (b)
Class F produced by burning bituminous coal (low in
CaO)

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Properties of PFA

45-70% is aluminosilicate glass less than 20 μm and

unburned coal

Solid spheroidal particles or hollow ‘cenospheres’

The crystalline components consists of mullite (莫來⽯)

3Al2O32SiO2 or 2Al2O3SiO2, haematite (⾚鐵鑛) Fe2O3,
quartz and magnetite (磁鐵鑛) Fe3O4
Advantages of using PFA in concrete

Cost reduction

Improve long term performance in terms of strength

Improve durability (reduction of water use)

Improve workability for given water content

Improve resistance to sulphate attack

Improve resistance to AAR

Action of PFA in cement hydration

Initially PFA reduces water demand of the concrete, then

it reacts with hydration byproducts to improve strength of
hardened concrete

In hydration reaction of OPC, calcium hydroxide is one of

the byproduct which does not contribute strength and is
water soluble

PFA react with calcium hydroxide in presence of water to

form second phase of C-S-H that improve the nal
strength. The reaction takes place after 1-7 days

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 70

60

Compressive strength - MPa 50

40 Control
concrete

30

20 Fly ash (PFA)

concrete

10

0
1 3 7 28 90 180 365
Age (log scale) - days
Testing of PFA
Item Standard method
Sulphuric anhydride SO3
Loss on ignition
Magnesium oxide
Iron oxide BS EN 450-1 or BS EN 196-2
Aluminium oxide
Silicon oxide
Calcium oxide
Total alkali BS EN 196-2 or 196-21
Chloride BS 450-1
Portland Pulverised Fuel Ash Cement
(PPFAC)

PPFAC contains ~20-40% PFA by weight. It is produced

by either blending PFA with clinker or mixing PFA with
cement.
Testing of PPFAC

Item Method used

Proportion of PFA Ref. BS 6588

BS EN 196-2:2005 Cl. 8
Sulphate content BS EN 196-2:2013 Cl. 4.4.2

BS EN 196-2:2005 Cl. 14
Chloride content BS EN 196-2:2013 Cl. 4.5.16

Loss of ignition BS EN 196-2:1995 Cl. 7

Testing of PPFAC
Proportion of PFA
Ref. BS 6588

Sample is digested in HCl. CaO in the ltrate is

determined by EDTA titration. Proportion of PFA
is calculated by the following equation:

(Cp-Cc)/(Cp-Cf) x 100

where Cp is CaO of OPC; Cc is CaO of PPFAC; Cf is CaO of PFA

If no information of CaO in raw materials, assume Cp = 64.5% and Cf

= 2.0%

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Water for
making
concrete
Spec. of water for making concrete

Item BS 3148 BS EN 1008:2002

Bicarbonate and < 1000 mg/L -

carbonate
Prestressed concrete < 500 mg/L
Chloride < 500 mg/L Concrete with rebar < 1000 mg/L
Concrete without rebar < 4500 mg/L

Total dissolved < 2000 mg/L -

solid
Sulphate < 1000 mg/L < 2000 mg/L

Total alkali < 600 mg/L* < 1500 mg/L

* guideline extracted from ASTM C114

Testing of water for making concrete

Item Method used

Bicarbonate and
Titrameric method
carbonate

Chloride BS EN 196-21

Total dissolved solid Gravimetric method

Sulphate BS EN 196-2

Total alkali BS EN 196-21

* guideline extracted from ASTM C114

Signi cance of testing of water for making concrete

Item Effect on concrete

Carbonate cause rapid setting while
Bicarbonate and bicarbonate may either accelerate or
carbonate retard the setting

Cause corrosion of rebar. If concrete

Chloride contains no rebar, sea water can be used

Sufficient amount of inorganic salts will

Total dissolved solid cause gradual deterioration of concrete
Total sulphate in concrete should not
Sulphate exceed by 4% of cement

Total alkali Cause AAR

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Soil
Component of soil

Soil consists of 50% solid, 5% organic and the

remaining is water and air

Solid contains major minerals, such as quartz, calcite

(CaCO3), feldspar and mica

Texture of soil depends on ratio of sand, silt and clay

Properties of soil related to construction

Soil contact piles of foundation (cause corrosion)

Soil contact concrete base of structure (cause acid,

chloride and sulphate attack)

Soil contains high organic and moisture content has

low strength and high compressibility
Chemical testing of soil

Item Method

Total sulphate GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.3

Water soluble sulphate GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.3

Organic matter GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.1

Loss on ignition GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.2

Water soluble chloride GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.4

pH GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.5

 Chemical testing of soil

Total sulphate
GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.3

Sample is dried and digested by HCl. The ltrate

is treated with excess BaCl2 to precipitate out the
sulphate ion. The precipitate is collected by
ltration and heated to 800℃. Sulphate content
is calculated.
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Chemical testing of soil

Water soluble sulphate

GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.3

Sample is extracted with water by shaking for 16

hours. The ltrate is acidi ed and then treated
with excess BaCl2 to precipitate out the sulphate
ion. The precipitate is collected by ltration and
heated to 800℃. Sulphate content is calculated.
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Chemical testing of soil
Organic matter
GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.1

Organic matter is determined by Walkley &

Black’s method. Sample is mixed with potassium
dichromate and sulphuric acid. After cooling,
500mL water and phosphoric acid are added
with indicator. The mixture is titrated with ferrous
sulphate until colour changes to green. Add 5 mL
dichromate to change colour back to blue.
Titrate the solution by adding dropwise of ferrous
sulphate to the end point. Calculate the OC.
Chemical testing of soil

Loss on ignition
GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.2

Sample is placed in a pre-heated and pre-

weighed crucible. The crucible is heated to 440 ±
25℃ to constant weight. The L-O-I is then
calculated.
Chemical testing of soil

Water soluble chloride

GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.4

Sample is extract with water for 4 hours with

shaking. After settle the solution, part of
supernatant is taken out. Chloride content is
determined by Volhard’s method.
Chemical testing of soil

pH
GEOSPEC 3:2001 Test 9.5

30 g of sample is mixed with 75 mL water and

shaked for a few minutes. The mixture is allowed
to stand for 8 hours. pH of the aqueous solution
is measured by pH meter
Paint
Common paint type

Emulsion paint

Synthetic paint

Multi-layer acrylic paint

Table 1 – Quality and Performance Requirements for Emulsion Paint
Items Test Method Acceptance Criteria

(1)Viscosity, ASTM D562-10 Min. 75 KU, Max 95 KU; or

(procedure B) Purchaser’s specified values
Hiding Power (Contrast BS EN ISO 2814:2006 Min. 60; for coloured paints to
Ratio)% BS 04E53 (BS 4800)
i.BS 04E53 (BS4800) Min. 75; for paints of other colours
ii.All other colours
Drying time – BS EN ISO 9117-1:2009 Max. 1 hour or refer to product specification
Hard drying
Fineness of Grind, (µm) BS EN ISO 1524:2013 Max. 40µm
Gloss (at 85o specular BS EN ISO 2813:2000 Min. 15, Max. 50; or
reflection), units Purchaser’s specified values
Wet Scrub resistance, PSB SS5 Part F5:2003 Min. 1,500 cycles
cycles A dry film of the paint shall withstand the specified cycles of scrubbing without
exposing the contrasting colour of the undercoat to a total length of more than
10mm in the direction of the stroke.
(2)Accelerated ASTM G154-12a Min. 500 hours
weathering, (hour) After the specified hours of testing there shall be no signs of checking, blistering or
(“Cycle 2” in “Table X2.1 – cracking, and the loss of gloss shall not be more than 30% of the original gloss. In
Common Exposure addition, there shall be little change or no change in colour, and any change in
Conditions” to be adopted colour shall be equivalent to a degree of contrast of not less than grade four of the
except that UVA-340 lamp grey scale conforming to BS 1006: 1992.
should be used in place of
UVB-313)
(2) Resistance to algal Refer to ANNEX I Resistance Index = 0 at Day 28 for algal resistance
growth
Table 2 – Quality and Performance Requirements for Synthetic Paint
Items Test Method Acceptance Criteria

Surface skin No surface skin

Consistency No gelling
Preliminary
Colour separation into layers BS EN ISO 1513:2010 No colour separation
examination of paint
Settling No hard settling
Extraneous matter No extraneous matter
Surface drying (hour) BS EN ISO 9117-3:2010 <=4
Drying times
Hard drying (hour) BS EN ISO 9117-1:2009 < = 18
Fineness of grind (µm) BS EN ISO 1524:2013 < = 25
Hiding power (contrast ratio %) Solvent base: > = 85
BS EN ISO 2814:2006
Water base: > = 60
Solvent base: > = 80
Specular gloss 60° BS EN ISO 2813:2000
Water base: > = 50
Solvent based: by Flow Cup No. 6
BS EN ISO 2431:2011 45 – 60
(1) Viscosity (sec)
Water based: by Viscometer (KU) ASTM D562-10 75 - 85
Bending BS EN ISO 1519:2011 No coating crack at 3mm mandrel
Scratch (g) BS EN ISO 1518-1:2011 > = 600
Min. 300 hours

ASTM G154-12a
After the specified hours of testing there shall
be no signs of checking, blistering or cracking,
(“Cycle 2” in “Table X2.1 –
and the loss of gloss shall not be more than
Accelerated Weathering Common Exposure Conditions” to
30% of the original gloss. In addition, there
be adopted except that UVA-340
shall be little change or no change in colour,
lamp should be used in place of
and any change in colour shall be equivalent to
UVB-313)
a degree of contrast of not less than grade four
of the grey scale conforming to BS 1006: 1992.
Table 3 – Quality and Performance Requirements for Multi-layer Acrylic Paint
Acceptance Criteria
With Texture Coat Without Texture
Items Test Method Remarks
(Fine texture: min 0.9 kg/m2; Coat
Medium texture: min. 1.3 kg/m2) (min. 0.45kg/m2)
Low temperature stability Clause 5.5 JIS A6910-1988 or No lumps and free from separation and aggregation of Respective samples of primer coating,
Clause 7.5 JIS A6909:2003 the composing materials main coating and top coating shall be
taken for testing separately
Change in consistency Clause 5.6 JIS A6910-1988 or Only main coating shall be tested.
± 15% Not applicable
Clause 7.7 JIS A6909:2003
Cracking resistance due Clause 5.7 JIS A6910-1988 or
No cracking shall occur Not applicable
to init. stage drying Clause 7.8 JIS A6909:2003
Adhesion strength Clause 5.8 JIS A6910-1988 or Standard condition > = 0.7 N/mm2
Clause 7.9 JIS A6909:2003 Immersion in water > = 0.5 N/mm2
Repeated warming and Clause 5.9 JIS A6910-1988 No peeling cracking and No remarkable
cooling or blistering and remarkable discoloration and
Clause 7.10 JIS A6909:2003 discoloration and degradation in degradation in luster
luster on the surface on the surface
Permeability Clause 5.10 JIS A6910-1988 or
< = 0.5 ml < = 0.8 ml
Clause 7.12 JIS A6909:2003
Impact resistance Clause 5.11 JIS A6910-1988 or Cracking, remarkable
Clause 7.14 JIS A6909:2003 deformation and peeling shall not Not applicable
occur
Weather resistance ASTM G154-12a Cracking and peeling shall not occur and the The test conditions:
discoloration shall be No. 3 or over in grey scale Fluorescent UV Lamp: UVA-340nm
according to JIS A6910-1988 Cycle: 24 hours UV at 60°C Total
exposure time: 250 hrs
Determination of BS EN ISO 3231:1998 No blistering, loss of adhesion, No rust staining and The amount of sulphur dioxide to be
resistance to humid rust staining, change of colour, change of colour used in testing is one litre. The test
atmos. containing SO2 embrittlement and other signs of cycle to be 12 cycles
deterioration
Resistance to fungal Refer to ANNEX I Resistance Index < = 1 at Day 28 for fungal resistance
Resistance to algal Resistance Index = 0 at Day 28 for algal resistance