NEW ERA UNIVERSITY

College of Nursing

CONAPL 18 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LABORATORY

First Semester, AY 2020-2021

LABORATORY EXERCISE 5A: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Name of Student: ________________________ Score: ________

Section: ______________________ Group No. _______________

Learning Outcomes:
After completing this exercise, you should be able to:

1. Identify bones as either long, short, flat, irregular, or

sesamoid.

2. Describe the gross structure of a long bone and identify the

parts on a real bone or chart.

3 Describe the difference between compact (cortical) and

spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone.

4 Identify microscopic structures of compact and spongy bone

on drawings and slides.

5 Describe the effect of collagen and mineral salts on bone

hardness and flexibility.

Materials:
Picture of the Microscopic Structure of Bone
Chart of Human Long Bone: human long bone cut longitudinally and
transversely
Chart of Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

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Introduction
Bones are organs composed of a complex arrangement of
several tissues. Atypical bone has compact and spongy osseous
tissues, connective tissues, cartilage, and adipose tissue. In addition,
bones contain blood vessels and nerves. This laboratory activity will let
you explore the different parts of the skeletal system.

I. Classification of Bones
Human bones have different shapes and distinct gross
anatomical features. Bones are placed in five classifications according
to their shapes: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid. Long bones
are longer than they are wide, with a thick compact bone exterior.
Distribution of spongy bone in long bones is covered in detail later in
this exercise. Short bones are almost equal in length and width and
contain a thick interior of spongy bone covered by a thin veneer of
compact bone. Flat bones are relatively flat, but may be curved, and
contain a thin, spongy bone interior covered by a thin veneer of
compact bone. Irregular bones are self-explanatory and do not easily
fit into any of these categories. Sesamoid bones are small bones that
develop in tendons (e.g., patella) for protection against wear and tear.

To know more about the classification of bones click this link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qvyishs-RP4

II. Microscopic Structure of Compact and Spongy Bone

Compact (cortical) bone is composed of repeating units of
osteons, with each unit having a central (Haversian) canal running
longitudinally. The central canal contains blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves that serve compact bone tissue. The blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves travel from the periosteum,
dense regular connective tissue covering the bone surface, to the
central canal through perforating (Volkmann) canals. These canals run
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horizontally in compact bone and connect with the central canal. The
main feature of each osteon is the concentric rings, or concentric
lamellae that are found between concentric lamellae, and the thin lines
are canaliculi (small channels) that connect the lacunae. Osteocytes
are mature bone cells that reside in the lacunae, and osteocyte
processes extend through the canaliculi. Canaliculi allow nutrients from
the blood vessels in the central canal to diffuse to the osteocytes
embedded in the solid bone material. The canaliculi are also the route
by which waste materials are removed from these cells. Interstitial
lamellae fill in the spaces between the osteons.
Spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone does not contain
osteons but instead has trabeculae (little beams)–flat plates with a
lattice-like network of thin, bony columns lined with endosteum. The
trabeculae have lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi. Spongy
bone has many spaces filled with red marrow. Blood vessels within the
red marrow provide the osteocytes with nutrients. This fragile spongy
bone needs the protection of an outer layer of compact bone. Spongy
bone is found in the epiphyses of long bones and in the interior of short,
flat, and irregular bones. plate or ring), which look similar to the rings
of a tree trunk cut in cross-section. When viewed on a stained slide of
compact bone, there are dark areas with thin lines extending between
the lamellae.

Activity 1
1. Label the structures in Figures 5.1 (a) and (b), and Figure 5.2(a)
and (b).

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 FIGURE 5.1 Microscopic features of bone.

(a)
• blood vessels 1. ____________________________
• canaliculus 2. ____________________________
(can-a-LIK-yoo-lus)
• central canal 3. ____________________________
• compact bone 4. ____________________________
• concentric lamellae 5. ____________________________
(la-MEL-lee)
• lacuna (la-COO-na) 6. ____________________________
• osteocyte (OS-tee-o-site) 7. ____________________________
• perforating canal 8. ____________________________
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• periosteum 9. ____________________________
(per-ee-OS-tee-um)
• spongy bone 10. ___________________________
• trabeculae (trah-BEKyoo- 11. ___________________________
lee) of spongy bone
covered with endosteum

(b)
• interstitial lamellae 12. ___________________________
• osteocyte in lacuna 13. ___________________________
• trabeculae covered 14. ___________________________

FIGURE 5.2 Microscopic features of compact and spongy bone.

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(a)
• canaliculi 1. ________________________________
• central canal 2. ________________________________
• concentric lamella 3. ________________________________
• lacuna 4. ________________________________
(b)
• osteocyte 5. ________________________________
• trabecula 6. ________________________________

III. Gross Features of Long Bones

The enlarged proximal and distal ends of long bones are called
epiphyses, and the middle shaft area is called the diaphysis. Compact
bone forms the exterior (or cortex) of long bones and most of the
diaphysis. A small layer of spongy bone lines the interior of the
diaphysis. Spongy bone also forms the interior of the epiphyses. The
metaphyses are the areas in an adult bone where the epiphyses and
diaphysis join. In a growing bone, the metaphyses contain a layer of
hyaline cartilage called the epiphyseal plate. Division of cartilage
allows the bone to grow in length. Bone growth stops when the
epiphyseal plate cartilage becomes ossified and forms a bony structure
called the epiphyseal line. Articular cartilage, composed of hyaline
cartilage, covers both epiphyses; and the rest of the bone exterior is
covered with a tough, connective tissue membrane, the periosteum.
The hollow center of the bony diaphysis is called the medullary cavity,
and a small amount of spongy bone is found in this cavity. The
medullary cavity is lined with a connective tissue membrane called the
endosteum. The endosteum also lines the cavities within the spongy
bone of the epiphyses. Both the periosteum and the endosteum
contain osteoblasts and osteoclasts for bone formation, bone tissue
repair, and bone remodeling. Yellow marrow is a fatty substance found
within the medullary cavity. Red marrow is found within the cavities of
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spongy bone and produces blood cells. The nutrient artery is a large
artery that enters compact bone near the middle of the diaphysis. The
nutrient artery immediately branches into proximal and distal portions
which supply blood to the inner layer of compact bone, spongy bone,
and red marrow. The nutrient foramen is the foramen through which
the nutrient artery enters.

Activity 2
1. Label Figure 5.3.

FIGURE 5.3 Features of an adult long bone.

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• articular cartilage 1. ____________________________
• compact bone 2. ____________________________
• diaphysis (die-AF-ih-sis) 3. ____________________________
• distal epiphysis 4. ____________________________
(e-PIF-ih-sis)
• endosteum 5. ____________________________
(en-DOS-tee-um)
• epiphyseal (ep-i-PHY-zee-al 6. ___________________________
or ee-PIF-ih-seal) line
• medullary (MED-yoo-lar-y) 7. ____________________________
cavity
• nutrient artery 8. ____________________________
• periosteum 9. ____________________________
(peri-OS-tee-um)
• proximal epiphysis 10. ___________________________
• spongy bone 11. ___________________________
• yellow marrow 12. ___________________________

Review your Knowledge.

A. Gross Features of Long Bones
Write the answer in the space provided for questions 1-5.
1. What area of the long bone is covered with cartilage?
Epiphysis
____________________________________________
2. What type of cartilage is articular cartilage?
Hyaline Cartilage
____________________________________________
3. What area (epiphysis or diaphysis) is made up of a thin layer of
compact bone and a thick spongy bone?
Epiphysis
____________________________________________
4. What area (epiphysis or diaphysis) is made up of a thick layer of
compact bone and a very thin layer of spongy bone?
Diaphysis
____________________________________________

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 5. The long bone in Figure 5.3 is from an adult. If this figure were
from a child, what structure would be present instead of the
epiphyseal line?
Epiphyseal Plate
__________________________________________________

B. Microscopic Features of Long Bones

Identify the term that describes the phrase about long bones.
Osteocyte
____________________________1. bone cell found in lacunae.
Haversian Canal
____________________________ 2. vertical canal in an osteon.
Medullary Cavity
____________________________3. cavity that contains yellow
marrow in adults.
Diaphysis
_____________________________4. bone shaft.
Lacunae
_____________________________5. spaces where the osteocytes
are located.
Canaliculus
_____________________________6. horizontal canal in an osteon.
Volkmann's Canal
_____________________________7. small canal connecting
lacunae.
Endosteum
_____________________________8. membrane lining medullary
cavity.
Periosteum
_____________________________9. membrane covering surface of
bone.
Trabeculae
_____________________________10. thin bony columns in spongy
bone.

C. Comparison of Compact and Spongy Bone

Identify whether the statements below describe compact bone, spongy
bone, or both.
Compact Bone
______________________1. composed of osteons.
Both
______________________2. contains osteocytes and lacunae.
Both
______________________3. has lamellae.
Spongy Bone
______________________4. has trabeculae.
Compact Bone
______________________5. has perforating canals.
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Spongy Bone
___________________6. located in the epiphyses.
Compact Bone
___________________7. located in the diaphysis.
Compact Bone
___________________8. has a central canal.
Spongy Bone
___________________9. spaces filled with red marrow.
Compact Bone
___________________10. has canaliculi.

E. Chemical Composition of Bone

Fill in the blanks with the correct term.
Calcium Salts.
1. The hardness of bone is due to ___________________ .
2. The flexibility and tensile strength of bone are due to
Collagen Fibers.
_________________________ .
3. What type of a macromolecule (carbohydrate, lipid, protein) is
Protein
collagen? ___________________________
4. A bone that has the collagen removed is flexible or inflexible?
Flexible.
__________________________________
5. A bone that has calcium removed is flexible or inflexible?
Flexible.
__________________________________

F. Bone Tissue
Fill in the blanks with the correct term.
1. Two bone cells located in the periosteum and endosteum are
Osteoblasts
___________________ Osteoclasts.
and ___________________.
2. Which type of bone tissue, compact bone or spongy bone,
significantly degenerates first in osteoporosis?
Spongy Bone.
__________________________________
3. As we age, the amount of collagen in the extracellular matrix of bone
decreases and bones become more brittle.
Identify the osseous tissue cell that secretes collagen.
Osteoblasts.
__________________________________________
4. Explain the importance of the integumentary system to bone
formation.

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_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

G. Bone Images
Identify the structures indicated on Figure 5.4 and Figure 5.5.

FIGURE 5.4 Longitudinal section FIGURE 5.5 X-ray of a child’s

of a long bone. knee joint.
5. _______________________ 7. ____________________
6. _______________________ 8. ____________________
9. Observe the bones in Figure 5.6(a) and (b). Identify the child’s hand
and the adult’s hand.

9. (a) ____________________ 9. (b) ___________________

FIGURE 5.6 X-rays of the child and adult hand.

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10. Observe Figure 8.7(a) and (b). Identify the normal bone and
osteoporotic bone.

FIGURE 5.7 Normal and osteoporotic bone tissue.

10. (a) ____________________ 10 (b) ___________________

IV. Axial Skeleton

There are 206 named bones in the adult skeleton which can be
separated into the axial and the appendicular divisions. The axial
skeleton is composed of 80 bones located along a vertical line, the
longitudinal axis of the body. Its bones support and protect the organs
of the head, neck, and torso. The appendicular skeleton is composed
of 126 bones that make up the upper limbs (or extremities), lower
limbs, and the bones of the girdles that attach the limbs to the axial
skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral
column, and thoracic cage (rib cage). Smaller bones included in this
division are the ear ossicles (bones).

A. The Skull
The major bones of the skull include the cranial and facial
bones. The cranial bones form a bony cavity that harbors and protects
the brain and houses organs of hearing and equilibrium. Facial bones
provide the shape of the face, house the teeth, and provide
attachments for all the muscles of facial expression. Other major

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features of the skull include sutures, orbit of eye, bone markings,
paranasal sinuses, nasal septum, hard palate, and fontanels in the
fetal skull.

Activity 3
1. Label the cranial bones, facial bones, and sutures on the
photographs in Figures 5.8–5.10.

FIGURE 5.8 Lateral view of skull.

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1. ________________________ 8. ____________________
2. _______________________ 9. ____________________
3. _______________________ 10. ____________________
4. _______________________ 11. ____________________
5. _______________________ 12. ____________________
6. _______________________ 13. ____________________
7. _______________________ 14. ____________________

FIGURE 5.9 Superior view of skull.

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• coronal suture 1. ____________________________
• frontal bone 2. ____________________________
• lambdoid suture 3. ____________________________
• occipital bone 4. ____________________________
• parietal bone 5. ____________________________
• sagittal suture 6. ____________________________

FIGURE 5.10 Anterior view of skull.

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• ethmoid bone 1. _______________________________
• frontal bone 2. _______________________________
• inferior nasal concha 3. _______________________________
(CON-cha) or turbinate
• lacrimal (LAC-ri-mal) bone 4. ___________________________
• mandible (MAN-di-ble) 5. __________________________
• maxilla 6. _______________________________
• nasal bone 7. _______________________________
• parietal bone 8. _______________________________
• sphenoid bone 9. _______________________________
• temporal bone 10. _______________________________
• vomer 11. _______________________________
• zygomatic bone 12. _______________________________

Activity 4
1. Label the bone marking as specified in Figure 5.11.

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 FIGURE 5.11 Anterior view of skull.
• inferior orbital fissure 1. _____________________________
• mental foramen 2. _____________________________
• middle nasal concha 3. _____________________________
• orbit of eye 4. _____________________________
• perpendicular plate of ethmoid 5. _______________________
• superior orbital fissure 6. _____________________________
• supraorbital foramen 7. _____________________________
• supraorbital margin 8. _____________________________

Activity 5
1. Label the bone marking as specified in Figure 5.12.

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FIGURE 5.12 Lateral view of skull.

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• body of mandible 1. ____________________________
• condylar (CON-dih-lur) 2. ____________________________
process (mandibular
condyle)
• coronoid process 3. ____________________________
• external auditory meatus 4. ____________________________
• lacrimal fossa 5. ____________________________
• mastoid (MAS-toid) 6. ____________________________
process
• ramus of mandible 7. ____________________________
• zygomatic process of 8. ____________________________
temporal bone

B. Vertebral Column
The vertebral column protects the spinal cord and provides
attachment points for back and abdominal muscles. The curved
vertebral column (backbone) is a flexible structure that can be bent,
twisted, and rotated, especially in the cervical region. The vertebral
column consists of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae, the
sacrum, and coccyx. The sacrum consists of 5 sacral vertebrae that
are fused in the adult. The coccyx (tailbone) is usually composed of 4
small, fused coccygeal vertebrae. An infant has 33 individual
vertebrae, and the adult has 26 due to fusion of the sacral and
coccygeal vertebrae. The vertebral column articulates with the skull,
the ribs, and the pelvis.
The 5 regions of the vertebral column and the number of
vertebrae in the adult, from superior to inferior, are: cervical (7),
thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (1), and coccygeal (1). To remember
the number of vertebrae in the first 3 groups, students say they eat
“breakfast at 7, lunch at 12, and dinner at 5.” There are 4 normal
curvatures that correspond with the regions of the vertebral column:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral (pelvic) curvatures. A newborn
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has a single anteriorly concave primary curve that will become the
thoracic curve and sacral curve. Two anteriorly convex secondary
curves—the cervical and lumbar— develop several months later. The
cervical curve develops when the baby can hold its head erect, while
the lumbar curve develops when the baby can stand.

Activity 6
1. Label the 5 regions of the vertebral column in Figure 5.13.
2. Label the 4 normal curvatures in Figure 5.13.

FIGURE 5.13 Normal spinal curvatures of the vertebral column.

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• cervical curve 1. ______________________________
• cervical vertebrae 2. ______________________________
• coccyx (COCK-six) 3. ______________________________
• lumbar curve 4. ______________________________
• lumbar vertebrae 5. ______________________________
• sacral curve 6. ______________________________
• sacrum (SAY-crum) 7. ______________________________
• thoracic curve 8. ______________________________
• thoracic vertebrae 9. ______________________________

FIGURE 5.14 Parts of a typical vertebra.

C. Thoracic Cage or Rib Cage

The bony cage that encircles the chest is called the thoracic
cage, or rib cage, and is composed of the sternum, ribs, costal
cartilages, and thoracic vertebrae.The sternum is a narrow flat bone
that is composed of three fused bones: the manubrium, the body of the
sternum, and the xiphoid process. The manubrium (handle), the
superior portion of the sternum, has a concave superior surface called
the suprasternal notch or jugular notch. Between the body of the
sternum and the manubrium is the sternal angle, an important clinical
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landmark indicating the attachment of the second rib, below which is
the second intercostal space. The manubrium and body articulate with
the costal cartilages of the ribs. The xiphoid process (sword-like) is the
inferior portion of the sternum that is shaped like a small sword. There
are 12 pairs of ribs in both males and females. The first 7 pairs are
called the true ribs or vertebrosternal ribs because their costal (rib)
cartilages have a direct attachment to the sternum. The last 5 rib pairs
(8-12) are called false ribs. Rib pairs 8 through 10 are vertebrochondral
ribs because their costal cartilages do not have a direct attachment to
the sternum, but attach to the costal cartilage of the seventh rib instead.
Rib pairs 11 and 12 do not have any attachment to the sternum or
cartilage and are called floating ribs or vertebral ribs. The space
between the ribs is called the intercostal space.
The main parts of a rib are the head, neck, tubercle, and body.
The head projects from the posterior part of the rib and articulates with
demifacets on the bodies of thoracic vertebrae. The neck is the
constricted part lateral to the head. The tubercle is a small, knob-like
projection close to the neck that articulates with the facet of a
transverse process. The body is the main part of the rib.

Activity 7
1. Locate the parts of the thorax in Figure 5.15.
2. Identify these parts on an articulated thorax or skeleton.

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 FIGURE 5.15 Thoracic cage.
• body of sternum 1. _________________________
• costal cartilage 2. _________________________
• false ribs 3. _________________________
• floating ribs 4. _________________________
• manubrium 5. _________________________
• sternal angle 6. _________________________
• sternum 7. _________________________
• suprasternal notch 8. _________________________
(jugular notch)
• true ribs 9. _________________________
• xiphoid process 10. ________________________

Review your Knowledge

A. Bone Surface Markings
Name the depression, opening, process, or projection that
describes the definition.
Meatus
1. Tube-like passageway ___________________________

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 Condyle
2. Rounded articular process _________________________
3. Opening or hole through
Foramen
a bone (oval or round) _______________________________
Fossa
4. Shallow depression _______________________________
Ramus
5. Branch-like process _______________________________
Fissure
6. Narrow slit or cleft in bone __________________________
Spine
7. Pointed projection _________________________________

B. Vertebral Column and Thorax

Write the name of the structure that is described.
Intervertebral Disc
1. Softens jolts to the vertebral column ________________________
Intervertebral Foramen
2. Opening for spinal nerve exit ______________________________
Rib Cage
3. Bony protection for thoracic organs _________________________
Atlas
4. First cervical vertebra ___________________________________
Axis
5. Second cervical vertebra _________________________________
Thoracic Vertebrae
6. Articulates with rib posteriorly _____________________________
Coccyx
7. Tailbone ____________________________________________
Vertebral Foramen
8. Encloses and protects the spinal cord _______________________
Primary curvatures
Thoracic Curvature
9. ____________________________________
Sacral Curvature
10. ____________________________________
Secondary curvatures
Cervical Curvature
11. ____________________________________
Lumbar Curvature
12. ____________________________________
13. Formed by the fusion of pedicles and lamina
Vertebral Arch
____________________________________
14. Passageway for vertebral arteries in cervical vertebrae
Transverse Foramen
_____________________________________
Name the 4 parts of the thoracic cage
Manubrium
15. _____________________________________
Body
16. _____________________________________
Xiphoid Process
17. _____________________________________
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 Costal Cartilages
18. ______________________________________
Name the 3 bones of the sternum
Manubrium
19. ______________________________________
Body
20. ______________________________________
Xiphoid Process
21. ______________________________________
22. Concave depression in superior surface of manubrium
Suprasternal Notch
__________________________________________
Ribs 8-12
23. False ribs _______________________________
Ribs 1-7
24. True ribs ________________________________
Ribs 11-12
25. Floating ribs _____________________________
Intercostal Space
26. Space between ribs _______________________
C. Identifying Bones and Bone Markings on Radiographs of Skull
1. Identify the structures if Figure 5.16.
2. Identify the structures if Figure 5.17.

Figure 5.16.

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1. ________________________________ (bone marking)
2. ________________________________ (bone)
3. ________________________________ (bone)
4. ________________________________ (bone)
5. ________________________________ (bone)

Figure 5.17.

6. __________________________ (bone marking)

7. __________________________ (bone marking)
8. __________________________ (bone marking)
9. __________________________ (bone marking)
10 __________________________ (space between bones)

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V. Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton has larger bones than the axial
skeleton and bears more weight. The bones of this division are
separated into four main areas: the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs
and the lower limbs.
To form the pelvic girdle, the acromial end of the clavicle
articulates with the acromion (acromial process) of the scapula
laterally. The pelvic girdle is attached to the axial skeleton by the
articulation of the sternal end of the clavicle with the manubrium of the
sternum. The scapula does not articulate directly with the axial
skeleton but is attached to it with muscles.

Activity 8
1. Identify the parts of the clavicle and scapula in Figure 5.18 (a),
(b), and (c).

Figure 5.18 (a) Clavicle

1. ___________________________________
2. ___________________________________

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 FIGURE 5.18 (b)

FIGURE 5.18 (c) The Right Pectoral Girdle

(b) Scapula, anterior view

• acromion (a-CROW-mee-yon) or 3. _______________________
acromial process
• coracoid (COR-a-coid) process 4. _______________________
• glenoid (GLEN-oid) cavity or fossa 5. ______________________
• lateral (axillary) border 6. _______________________
• medial (vertebral) border 7. _______________________

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• subscapular (sub-SCAP-u-lar) fossa 8. _____________________
c) Scapula, posterior view
• acromion or acromial process 9. ________________________
• glenoid cavity 10. _______________________
• infraspinous (in-fra-SPINE-us) fossa 11. ____________________
• spine of scapula 12. ______________________
• supraspinous fossa 13. ______________________

Selected Bones of the Upper and Lower Extremities

The upper limb consists of the humerus, ulna, radius, carpals,
metacarpals, and phalanges. Of the 30 bones in each upper limb, 1 is
in the arm, 2 in the forearm, and the other 27 are in the hand (includes
wrist).
The shoulder joint that connects the upper limb to the pectoral
girdle is formed by the head of the humerus, articulating with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula. The elbow joint is formed by the
articulation of the coronoid process and olecranon process of the ulna
into the coronoid and olecranon fossae of the humerus and by the
trochlea of the humerus with the trochlear notch of the ulna. At the
elbow joint, the head of the radius articulates with the capitulum of the
humerus and with the radial notch of the ulna at the proximal radioulnar
joint.

Activity 9
1. Identify the parts of the humerus in Figure 5.19 (a) and (b) and
the ulna and radius in Figure 5.20 (a) and (b).

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FIGURE 5.20 Right humerus.

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(a) Anterior view
• anatomical neck 1. ___________________________
• capitulum 2. ___________________________
• coronoid fossa 3. ___________________________
• deltoid tuberosity 4. ___________________________
• greater tubercle 5. ___________________________
• head 6. ___________________________
• intertubercular sulcus 7. __________________________
• lateral epicondyle 8. ___________________________
• lesser tubercle 9. ___________________________
• medial epicondyle 10. __________________________
• trochlea 11. __________________________

(b) Posterior view

• lateral epicondyle 12. __________________________
• medial epicondyle 13. __________________________
• olecranon fossa 14. __________________________

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 FIGURE 5.21 Right ulna and radius.
(a) Anterior view
• coronoid process 1. _____________________________
• head of radius 2. _____________________________
• olecranon (process) 3. _____________________________
• radial notch 4. _____________________________
• radial tuberosity 5. _____________________________
• styloid process of radius 6. _______________________
• styloid process of ulna 7. _______________________
• trochlear notch (semilunar) 8. _______________________
(b) Posterior view
• radius 9. _____________________________
• ulna 10. ____________________________

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Activity 10.
1. Identify the parts of the hand in Figure 5.22. For each phalanx,
include the Roman numeral.
2. Locate the bones of the hand on an articulated hand or
skeleton.
3. Locate and palpate these bones on yourself.

FIGURE 5.22. Right hand and wrist.

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• carpals 1. _______________________
• distal phalanx V 2. _______________________
• metacarpals 3. _______________________
• middle phalanx V 4. _______________________
• proximal phalanx V 5. _______________________

The Pelvic Girdle

The pelvic girdle is composed of 2 hip (coxal) bones called the
ossa coxae that attach the lower limb to the axial skeleton. Each os
coxa is formed by the fusion of 3 separate bones: the, ischium, and
pubis bones. These 3 bones are identifiable as separate bones in
children.
There are definite anatomical differences between the male and
female pelves (pl.). The bones of the male are typically heavier and
rougher, with larger bone markings than the female. The male pelvis is
more vertical and narrower, has a pelvic inlet that is heart-shaped, and
has a 90 degree or less pubic arch angle. The female pelvis generally
has more space in the true pelvis for childbirth and is tilted backward
and flared. The pelvic inlet is round or oval, the angle of the pubic arch
is generally greater than 90 degree, and the angle of the sciatic notch
is wider. The pelvic girdle articulates with the axial skeleton at the
sacroiliac joints. The sacroiliac joints are located where the articulated
ossa coxae unite posteriorly with the sacrum.

Activity 11.
1. Palpate the iliac crest, the anterior superior iliac spine,
and the pubic symphysis on your own body.
2. Identify the bone markings of the pelvis in Figure 5.23.
3. Identify the differences between male and female
pelves on models or articulated skeletons.

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 FIGURE 5.23. Pelvis.
(a) Female pelvis
• false pelvis 1. _______________________________
• iliac crest 2. _______________________________
• ilium 3. _______________________________
• ischial spine 4. _______________________________
• pelvic brim 5. _______________________________
• pubic symphysis 6. _______________________________
• pubis 7. _______________________________
• true pelvis 8. _______________________________
(b) Male pelvis
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• coccyx (COCK-six) 9. _______________________________
• false pelvis 10. ______________________________
• ischial spine 11. ______________________________
• pubis 12. ______________________________
• sacroiliac 13. ______________________________
joint
• sacrum (SAY-crum) 14. ______________________________
• true pelvis 15. ______________________________

Bones of the Lower Limb

The lower limb consists of bones of the femur, patella, tibia,
fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and the phalanges. Of the 30 bones in each
lower limb, 4 are in the thigh and leg, and the other 26 are in the foot
(including ankle).
The hip or coxal joint is formed by the acetabulum articulating
with the head of the femur to form a ball-and-socket joint. There is a
strong ligament that connects these two structures deep inside the joint
itself. The knee joint is formed by the articulation of the medial and
lateral condyles of the femur with the medial and lateral condyles of
the tibia. The patella articulates with the condyles of the femur. The
fibula does not form part of the knee joint; however, the head of the
fibula articulates with the tibia but not the femur.

Activity 12.
1. Identify the bones and bone markings of the femur in Figure
5.24 (a) and (b) and the patella, tibia, and fibula in Figure 5.25
(a) and (b).
2. Palpate these bone markings on your own body: greater
trochanter, medial and lateral epicondyles, patella, head of the
fibula, tibial tuberosity, anterior crest (shin) of the tibia, medial
malleolus of the tibia, and lateral malleolus of the fibula.

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FIGURE 5.24 Right femur.

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• greater trochanter (tro-CAN-ter)
• head of femur
• lateral condyle (CON-dile)
• lateral epicondyle (epi-CON-dile)
• lesser trochanter
• linea aspera (LIN-ee-uh ASP-er-uh)
• medial condyle
• medial epicondyle
• neck
(a) Anterior view
1. _________________________
2. _________________________
3. _________________________
4. _________________________
5. _________________________
6. _________________________
(b) Posterior view
7. _________________________
8. _________________________
9. _________________________

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 FIGURE 5.25 Right tibia, fibula, and patella.
• fibula (FIB-u-la) 1. _____________________________
• head of fibula 2. _____________________________
• lateral condyle 3. _____________________________
• lateral malleolus 4. _____________________________
• medial condyle 5. _____________________________
• medial malleolus 6. _____________________________
• tibia 7. _____________________________
• tibial tuberosity 8. _____________________________

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Activity 13.
1. Label Figure 5.26 (a) and (b). For each phalanx, include the
Roman numeral.
2. Palpate these parts on your own body: lateral malleolus,
calcaneus, and talus.

FIGURE 5.26 Bones of the right foot.

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(a) Superior view
• calcaneus (cal-CANE-ee-us) 1. _______________________
• distal phalanx II (FAY-lanx) 2. _______________________
• middle phalanx II 3. _______________________
• metatarsals 4. _______________________
• phalanges 5. _______________________
• proximal phalanx II 6. _______________________
• talus (TA-lus) 7. _______________________
• tarsals 8. _______________________

FIGURE 5.27vBones of the right foot, continued.

(b) Lateral view
• calcaneus 9. _________________________
• lateral malleolus of fibula 10. ________________________
• tibia 11. ________________________
• metatarsals 12. ________________________
• phalanges 13. ________________________
• talus 14. ________________________
• tarsals 15. ________________________

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References

Books
Marieb, E., Keller, S. (2018), Essentials of Anatomy &
Physiology, 12th Edition, England: Pearson Education Limited.

Saladin, K., Gan, C., Cushman, H. (2018), Anatomy &

Physiology: The Unity of Form & Function, 8th Edition, New York:
McGraw Hill Education.

Shier, D., Butler, J., Lewis, R. (2018), Hole’s Essentials of

Human Anatomy & Physiology, 13th Edition, New York: McGraw
Hill Education.

Tortora, G., Derrickson, B. (2014), Principles of Anatomy &

Physiology, 14th Edition, New Jersey: Wiley.

Online Sources
Easy AandP (2020), Classification of Bone
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qvyishs-RP4 retrieved last
November 01. 2020.

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