Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

CHAPTER TWO
2. TYPES AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATIONS
2.1 Purposes of Foundations
Every building consists of two basic Components
o The super structure
o The sub structure (Foundation)
The basic function of foundation is to transmit
o the dead load (weight of walls, partitions, floors, roofs, and other permanent
structures)
o Super imposed load (Live loads) eg. People, furniture, machines etc.
o wind load

From a building to the soil on which the building rests in such a way that:
a) settlements are with in permissible limits, without causing cracks in the super
structure
b) the soil doesn’t fail by the shear failure criterion:
-General shear failure
-Local shear failure
-Punching shear failure

Generally foundation is therefore, that part of the structure which is in direct contact
with the ground to which the loads are transmitted. The foundation should be
sufficiently strong to prevent excessive settlement as well as differential settlement.

 Differential settlement may be caused by:

i) weak sub soils
ii) Shrinkable and expansive soils (clay)
iii) frost action
iv) movement of ground water and uplift pressure
v) Excessive vibration, slipping of strata on slopping area etc.

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 1

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

 Foundations serve the following purposes:

1. Reduction of load intensity
 By increasing the area of contact, so that the total load divided by the total area (intensity
of load) doesn’t exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.

2. Even distribution of loads

 Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the superstructure evenly to the sub soil.
3. Provision of level surface
4. Lateral stability
 It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to the super
structure.
5. Safety against undermining
 Provides structural safety against undermining (scouring) due to burrowing animals and
flood water.
6. Protection against soil movements
 Minimizes cracks in the super structure due to expansion or contraction of sub soil,
because of moisture movement in some problematic soils.
7. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

 Essential Requirements of a good foundation

 Sustain the dead and imposed loads
 It should be rigid
 Good location

2.2 Types of foundation (As per Terzaghi)

1. Shallow Foundation- Depth is equal to or less than its width (Df ≤ B)
2. Deep Foundation- Depth is greater than its width (Df > B)

Df

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 2

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
 Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

2.2.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Shallow foundations can be either footings or mats. They consist of reinforced
concrete slabs formed directly on a prepared soil base. Footings may be either spread,
combined, or continuous.
2.2.1.1. Spread footing
Spread footing spread the super-imposed load of column or wall over a larger area of
contact. Spread footings support either a column or wall.

 Types of spread footings:

- Single footing
- Stepped footing
- Sloped footing

a) Single c) Slopped
footing b) Stepped Footing
footing

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 3

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

Figure-1: Types of spread footings

2.2.1.2. Combined footing

- A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as combined
footing.
- It may not be possible to place columns at the center of a spread footing if they are
near the property line, near mechanical equipment locations, or irregularly spaced.
Columns located off-center will usually result in a non-uniform soil pressure.
- To avoid the no-uniform soil pressure, an alternative is to enlarge the footing and
place one or more of the adjacent columns in the same line on it. The footing
geometry is made such that the resultant of the several columns is in the center of
the footing area. This footing and load geometry allows the designer to assume a
uniform soil pressure distribution.
 The combined footing may be of the following types.
i) Rectangular combined footing
ii) Trapezoidal combined footing
iii) Combined column – wall footings
 The footing can be rectangular if the column that is eccentric with respect to a
spread footing carries a smaller load than the interior columns. Bridge piers are
also founded on very rigid combined rectangular footings.
Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 4
(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

 A combined footing will be trapezoid-shaped if the column that has too limited a
space for a spread footing carries the larger load. In this case the resultant of the column
loads (including moments) will be closer to the larger column load.

a) Rectangular footing

b) Trapezoidal footing
Wall
Column
Column

c) Combined column wall footing

Figure-2: Types of combined footings

2.2.1.3. Strap Footing

 If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called a strap
footing.
 It is used when the distance between the columns is so great that a combined trapezoidal
footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments. In this case the column is
provided with its independent footings and a beam is used to connect the two footings
 The strap beam doesn’t remain in contact with soil, and thus doesn’t transfer any pressure
to the soil.
 The strap, assumed to be infinitely stiff, serves to transfer the column loads on the soil
with equal and uniform soil pressure under both footings.

Footing of wall
Strap Beam
A B

Adjoining wall
Figure-3: Strap Footing

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 5

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

2.2.1.4. Continuous ( Strip) Footing

A continuous or strip footing is an elongated shallow foundation that typically
supports a single row of columns or a wall or other type of strip loading. Continuous
footings tie together columns in one direction at their base, and reduce construction
costs through use of appropriate equipment for trenching.

Wall Steps
(Offsets)
Wall

d) Simple wall
Footing Footing
Footing
Wall

e) Stepped
footing

2.2.1.5. Mat (Raft) Foundation

A Raft or Mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and
support all the walls and columns. A mat (raft) foundation is a structural reinforced
concrete slab that supports a number of columns distributed in both horizontal directions
or supports uniform pressure, as from a tank.
 Mat foundation will be used when:
o the allowable soil pressure is low
o the building loads are heavy
o Use of spread footing covers more than one half of the area.

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 6

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

 Based on design and construction Rafts may be

o solid slab
o Beam slab
o cellular system

Figure-4: Mat Foundation

2.2.2. DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Deep foundations are those in which the depth of the foundation constructed by
ordinary methods of open pit excavations or deep drilling excavation.
Deep foundations are of the following types:
1. Pile foundations- more commonly used.
2. Pier foundation
3. Caisson or well foundation

2.2.2.1 Pile foundations

Pile foundations are preferable under the following situation:
 When the load of the super structure is heavy and its distribution is uneven
 The top soil has poor bearing capacity
 The sub soil water level is high so that pumping of water from the open
trenches for the shallow foundations is difficult and uneconomical
 When there is large fluctuations in sub soil water level
 When the structure is situated on the sea shore or river bed
 When the Canal or deep drainage lines exist near the foundations.
Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 7
(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

Types of piles
Based on the function they serve for building foundation, Piles may be of four types;

i) End Bearing Piles

 Used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum
 Such piles are used to carry heavy loads safely to hard strata
 Multi-story buildings are invariably founded on end bearing piles, so that the
settlements are minimized.

Loose soil Loose soil

Hard strata
Fig 5 End bearing pile

ii) Friction Piles

 Used to transfer load to a depth of friction load carrying material by means of skin
friction along the length of the pile
 Generally used in granular soil where the depth of hard stratum is very great.

iii) Combined End Bearing

 Sometimes the super imposed load is transferred both through friction side friction
as well as end bearing.
Side friction

Fig-6 Friction pile Fig-7 Combined End bearing and friction

pile

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 8

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

iv) Compaction Piles

 Used to compact loose granular soils, thus increasing their bearing capacity. The
compaction piles themselves do not carry a load. Hence it may be of weaker material (eg
timber, bamboo, etc)
 The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is gradually taken out and sand is filled in its
place thus forming a ‘sand pile’

Fig-8 compaction
pile
 Classification of piles based on materials and composition
1. Concrete piles
a) Pre-cast
 Driven piles (cased or uncased)
b) cast in-situ
 Bored piles (pressure piles, under- reamed piles, bored compaction piles)
2. Timber piles
3. Steel piles
a) H- pile
b) Pipe pile
c) Sheet pile
4. Composite pile
a) Concrete and Timber
b) Concrete and Steel.

2.2.2.2. Pier Foundations (Drilled Foundation)

 Transfer large superimposed loads to the firm strata below
 The difference between pile foundation and pier foundation lies in the method of
construction.

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 9

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

 Pile foundations transfer the load through friction and or bearing, pier foundations
transfer the load only through bearing.
 pier foundation is shallower in depth than pile foundation
 Pier foundation is preferred in a location where the top strata consist of decomposed rock
over laying strata of sound rock. In such cases it is difficult to drive the bearing piles
through decomposed rock.

2.2.2.3. Well Foundations (Caissons)

 These are box like structures circular or rectangular which are sunk from the
surface of either land or water to the desired depth.
 Much large in diameter than the pier foundations.
 These are used for major foundation works, such as.
o bridge piers and abutments in rivers, lakes, etc
o wharves, quay, walls, docks (related to ships)
o Break waters and other structures for shore protection.
o large water front structures such as pump houses
 Well foundations are not used for building.
 wharves = landing stage where ships may moor for loading/ unloading
 dock= artificially enclosed body of water where ships are admitted for loading,
unloading or repair

Fig 9 Well foundation

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 10

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

2.3. Foundations on Expansive Soils (Black Cotton soils)

In black cotton soil and other expansive type of soils, building often cracks due to
relative ground movements. This is caused by alternate swelling and shrinkage of the
soil due to changes in its moisture content.

2.3.1. Strip or pad foundation

For medium loads, strip foundation (for walls) and pad foundation (for columns) may
be provided with care.

Fig10 Simple sand fills Fig 11 Alternate layers of sand and mooram

2.3.2. Pier foundation with arches

Piers are dug at regular interval and filled with cement concrete. The piers may rest on
good bearing strata. These piers are connected by concrete or masonry arch, over
which the wall is constructed.

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 11

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

Fig-12 Pier Foundation with Arch

2.3.3. Under-reamed pile foundation

o An under – reamed pile is a pile of shallow depth (1 to 6m) having one bulb at its
lower end. If the bulb is provided at a level lower than the critical depth of
moisture movement in expansive soils, the foundation will be anchored to the
ground and it would not move with the swelling and shrinkage of the soil. The
diameters of the piles vary from 15cm-50cm and are reinforced.
o Spacing of the piles may vary between 2-4m.
o The piles are connected by a rigid capping beam, suitably reinforced over which
the wall is constructed.
o The capping beam is kept 8 to 12 cm above the ground level, so as to provide air
gap to accommodate the soil movement.

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 12

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

Fig-13 Under–Reamed Pile Foundation

2.4. Selection of Foundations Type

In selecting the foundation type the following points must be considered:
(a) Function of the structure
(b) Loads it must carry
(c) Subsurface conditions
(d) Cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure

Having these points in mind one should apply the following steps in order to arrive at
a decision:
(i) Obtain at least approximate information concerning the nature of the
superstructure and the loads to be transmitted to the foundations.
(ii) Determine the subsurface condition in a general way.

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 13

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)
Oda Bultum University, Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

(iii) Consider each of the usual types of foundations in order to judge whether or
not.
a) they could be constructed under existing conditions
b) they are capable of carrying the required load
c) they experience serious differential settlements

The types that are found to be unsuitable should then be eliminated.

(iv) Undertake a detailed study of the most promising types. Such a study may
require additional information on loads and subsurface conditions. Determine
the approximate size of footings, piers or caissons or the approximate length
and number of piles required.
(v) Prepare an estimate for the cost of each promising type of foundation.
(vi) Select the type that represents the most acceptable compromise between
performance and cost.

Geotechnical Engineering Design – I Instructor: Mohammedjeylan A 14

(Ground Investigations & Shallow Foundations Design) (Msc.In Geotechnical Engin-g)