CHAPTER 6

SET THEORY

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 Set Theory: Definitions and the Element
6.1
Method of Proof

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

 CHAPTER 6 : SET THEORY
Introduction to set
A set is a well-defined collection of objects or elements.

Definition
If a is one of the objects of the set A , we say that a
is an element of A or a belongs to A .
The statement that a belongs to A is denoted by
a A .

If it is not true that a is an element of A , we write

aA .
Introduction to set
Example
3 {1,2,3,4 } but 5  {1,2,3,4 } .

Definition

A set A is a subset of a set B (denoted by A  B)

if every element of A is an element of B ; that is, if
X A , then x B .

In particular, every set is a subset of its self.

Introduction to set
If it is not true that A is a subset of B , we write
A B .
Thus, A  B if there is an element of A that is not in
B.

Definition

The empty set , denoted by or by { } is the

set which contains no elements.

The universal set U is a set which has the property that

all sets under consideration are subsets of it.
Subsets: Proof and Disproof

◼We defined what it means for a set A to be

a subset of the set B. Here we rewrite the
definition as a formal universal conditional
statement:

◼ The negation is, therefore, existential:

Example 6.1.1 – Testing Whether One Set Is a Subset of Another

◼ Let A = {1} and B = {1, {1}}.

◼ a. Is A ⊆ B?

◼ b. If so, is A a proper subset of B?

Example 6.1.2 – Proving and Disproving Subset Relations

◼ Define sets A and B as follows:

◼ a. Outline a proof that A ⊆ B.

◼ b. Prove that A ⊆ B.
◼ c. Disprove that B ⊆ A.
Set Equality
Example 6.1.3 – Set Equality

◼ Define sets A and B as follows:

Is A =B ?
Venn Diagrams
Venn Diagrams
◼If sets A and B are represented as regions in the
plane, relationships between A and B can be
represented by pictures called Venn diagrams.
◼For instance, the relationship A ⊆ B can be
pictured in one of two ways, as shown in Figure
6.1.1.

A⊆B

Figure 6.1.1
Venn Diagrams

◼The relationship A ⊄ B can be represented in

three different ways, as shown in Figure 6.1.2.

A⊄B

Figure 6.1.2
 continued
Example 6.1.4 – Relations among Sets of Numbers

◼These relationships are shown diagrammatically in

Figure 6.1.3.

Figure 6.1.3
Operations on Sets
Set Operations
Definition

The intersection of sets A and B is the sets of all

elements that are in both A and B .

The intersection of sets A and B is denoted A ∩ B .

Equivalently, A ∩ B = { x: x  A and x B}

Set Operations
Example
If A= { 1,2,3,4,5 } and B= { 1,3,5,7,9 } , then

A ∩ B= { 1,3,5 } .

We define a more general intersection as follows

Definition
If I=k { 1,2,3,…,k } , then
 Ai = A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ … Ak
i =1 = { x: x Ai for all i I }
Set Operations
Definition

The union of sets A and B is the set of all elements

that are in either A or B .
The union of sets A and B is denoted A B .

Equivalently, A  B= {x: x A or x B}

 Set Operations
Example
A= { 1,2,6,7 } and B= { 2,3,5,6 } , then

A  B= { 1,2,3,5,6,7 } .

We define a more general union as follows

Definition
If I= {1,2,3,…,k } , then
 Ai = A1A2 A3 … Ak
iI
= { x: x Ai for some i I}
Example 6.1.7 – Finding Unions and Intersections of More than Two Sets

◼ For each positive integer i , let

◼ a. Find A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 and A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3.

◼ b. Find
Set Operations
Definition
Let A and B be sets.

The set difference A-B is the set of all elements which

are in A but not in B . Equivalently,

A-B= { x: xA and x  B }

Set Operations
Examples
1. If A= { 1,2,4,6,7 } and B= { 2,3,4,5,6 } , then

A-B= { 1,7 }
 Set Operations
Definition

The complement of a set A , denoted by Ac , is the

set of all elements of the universe which are not in $A$.
Hence
Ac=U-A={ x: xU and x  A }

Example

If U is the set of positive integers and A= { 2,4,6,8,… }

is the set of all even positive integers, then
Ac= { 1,3,5,7,…} is the set of all odd positive integers.
Operations on Sets

◼Venn diagram representations for union,

intersection, difference, and complement are
shown in Figure 6.1.4.

Shaded region Shaded region Shaded region Shaded region

represents A ∪ B. represents A ∩ B. represents B − A. represents

Figure 6.1.4
Example 6.1.5 – Unions, Intersections, Differences, and Complements

◼Let the universal set be the set U = {a, b, c,

d, e, f, g}, and let A = {a, c, e, g} and B =
{d, e, f, g}.

Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, B − A, and
Operations on Sets
 Example 6.1.6 – An Example with Intervals

◼Let the universal set be R, the set of all real numbers, and
let

These sets are shown on the number lines below.

Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, B − A, and
Partitions of Sets
Partitions of Sets
Example 6.1.9 – Disjoint Sets

Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}. Are A and

B disjoint?
Partitions of Sets
Example 6.1.10 – Mutually Disjoint Sets

◼ a. Let A1 = {3, 5}, A2 = {1, 4, 6}, and A3 =

{2}. Are A1, A2, and A3 mutually disjoint?

◼ b. Let B1 = {2, 4, 6}, B2 = {3, 7}, and B3 =

{4, 5}. Are B1, B2, and B3 mutually disjoint?
 Partitions of Sets
◼Suppose A, A 1, A 2, A 3, and A 4 are the sets of points represented by
the regions shown in Figure 6.1.5.

Figure 6.1.5

A Partition of a Set
Partitions of Sets
 Example 6.1.11 – Partitions of Sets

◼ a. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A1 = {1, 2}, A2 = {3, 4}, and

A3 = {5, 6}. Is {A1, A2, A3} a partition of A?

◼ b. Let Z be the set of all integers and let

◼ Is {T0, T1, T2} a partition of Z?

Power Sets
 Power Sets
Definition
The power set of a set A , denoted by P(A) , is
the set consisting of all subset of A .

Example
The power set of the set A= { 1,2,3 } is the set
P(A)={ , {1 }, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {2,3}, {1,3}, {1,2,3}}

When A has 3 elements,P(A) has 23=8 elements.

In general, if A has n elements, the set P (A) has 2n

elements.
 Example 6.1.12 – Power Set of a Set

◼ Find the power set of the set {x, y}. That is,
find
6.2 Properties of Sets

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Properties of Sets
 Proving a Subset Relation

Show: A ∩ B ⊆ A
Set Identities
 continued
Set Identities
 Example 6.2.2 – Proof of a Distributive Law

Consider trying to prove that for all sets A, B, and C,

A ⋃ (B ∩ C) = (A ⋃ B) ∩ (A ⋃ C).
Example 6.2.3 – Solution continued
Set Operations
Theorem
For arbitrary sets A and B , A-B=A ∩ Bc.

Proof

To show the two sets are equal, we need to show that each
is a subset of the other.

a  A-B iff (aA) (a B) definition of A-B

iff (aA) (a Bc) definition of complement
iff (a A ∩ Bc) definition of intersection
 Set Operations
Theorem

For arbitrary sets A and B ,

1. (A ∩ B )c=Ac  Bc

2. (A  B )c=Ac ∩ Bc
 Set Operations
Proof

1. a (A∩ B)c
a (A ∩ B)
~(a (A ∩ B))
~((aA) (aB)
~ (a A)  ~(a B)
(a A)  (a B)
(a Ac)  (a  Bc)
a ( Ac  Bc)

2. Left as exercise.
 Set Operations
Theorem

For arbitrary sets A , B , and C ,

1. A ∩ (B  C)=(A ∩ B)  (A ∩ C)

2. A  (B ∩ C)=(A B) ∩ (A C)

 Set Operations
Proof
1. a  A ∩(BC)

iff (a A)  (a(B C)) definition of intersection

iff (a A)((aB) (aC)) definition of union
iff ((a A) (aB)) ((aA)(a C)) definition of
intersection
DeMorgan's Law
iff (a(A∩ B)) (a(A∩ C)) definition of intersection
iff a((A∩ B)(A ∩C)) definition of union

2. Left as exercise.
The Empty Set
 Example 6.2.4 – Proving That a Set Is Empty

◼ Prove that for any set A,

 Example 6.2.5 – A Proof for a Conditional Statement

Prove that for all sets A, B, and C, if

then