First Pole to Clear Factor of a Circuit Breaker is the ratio of power

frequency recovery voltage across the first pole to clear the arc to the
normal phase to ground voltage when all the three poles of breaker are
open. It is denoted as kpp.
Arc Voltage : is the voltage that is responsible for maintaining the arc
between the contacts of the circuit breaker. At the time of circuit breaker
contacts opening, an arc is struck between the contacts due to ionization
of medium surrounding the contacts. A small potential difference exists
between the contacts and it is responsible for maintaining the arc. This
voltage is called the Arc Voltage.
Recovery voltage, also known as final recovery voltage, is the voltage that
appears across the contacts of a circuit breaker after the final arc
extinction and after all the transients have died out. The frequency of
recovery voltage is the same as the supply frequency

Restriking Voltage:Restriking voltage is the transient voltage that appears

across the circuit breaker (CB) contacts immediately after they open
during a fault. It is caused by the interaction of the system's inductance
and capacitance. If not controlled, restriking voltage may lead to the re-
establishment of the arc between the contacts.

Transient recovery voltage (TRV) refers to the voltage that appears across
the terminals of a circuit breaker after it interrupts a current. It occurs
during the transition from the conduction phase to the non-conducting
phase of the circuit breaker and is influenced by factors such as system
inductance and capacitance. TRV is crucial for circuit breaker design, as it
must withstand these voltages to ensure reliable operation and avoid
insulation breakdown.
Sulphur Hexafluoride(SF6) circuit breaker In SF6 circuit breakers, sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as the arc quenching medium. The SF6 is an
electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons.
The contacts of the breaker are opened in a highpressure flow of SF6 gas
and an arc is struck between them. The conducting free electrons in the
arc are rapidly captured by the gas to form relatively immobile negative
ions. This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough
insulation strength to extinguish the arc.
Constructional Details It consists of fixed and moving contacts enclosed in
a chamber (called arc interruption chamber) containing SF6 gas. This
chamber is connected to the SF6 gas reservoir. When the contacts of
breaker are opened, the valve mechanism permits a high-pressure SF6 gas
from the reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption chamber. The
fixed contact is a hollow cylindrical current carrying contact fitted with an
arcing horn. The moving contact is also a hollow cylinder with rectangular
holes in the sides to permit the SF6 gas to let out through these holes
after flowing along and across the arc. The tips of fixed contact, moving a
contact and arcing horn are coated with coppertungsten arc-resistant
material. Since SF6 gas is costly, it is reconditioned and reclaimed by a
suitable auxiliary system after each operation of the breaker.
Working Operation : In the closed position of the SF6 circuit breaker, the
contacts remain surrounded by SF6 gas at a pressure of about 2·8 kg/cm2.
When the breaker operates, the moving contact is pulled apart and an arc
is struck between the contacts. The movement of the moving contact is
synchronised with the opening of a valve which permits SF6 gas at 14
kg/cm2 pressure from the reservoir to the arc interruption chamber. The
high-pressure flow of SF6 rapidly absorbs the free electrons in the arc
path to form immobile negative ions which are ineffective as charge
carriers. The result is that the medium between the contacts quickly
builds up high dielectric strength and causes the extinction of the arc.
After the breaker operation (i.e., after arc extinction), the valve is closed
by the action of a set of springs.
Applications: A typical SF6 circuit breaker consists of interrupter units
each capable of dealing with currents up-to 60 kA and voltages in the
range of 50—80 kVA number of units are connected in series according to
the system voltage.SF6 circuit breakers have been developed for voltages
115 kV to 230 kV, power ratings 10 MVA to 20 MVA and interrupting time
less than 3cycles.
Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (Low oil Circuit Breakers) (MOCB) In case
of bulk oil circuit breaker, the oil is used for two functions. -Firstly it acts
as an arc-quenching medium and - Secondly it insulates the live parts
from earth. But for arc extinction purpose a very small amount of oil is
sufficient while the major part is utilized for insulation purposes. Thus
the oil required in case of bulk oil circuit breaker is large and need
frequent replacement. This increases the overall cost; tank size and
weight of or the breaker. Above drawbacks of bulk oil circuit breakers
are removed in minimum oil circuit (also known as MOCB) breaker in
which a small quantity of oil is used for arc extinction and for insulation
purpose.
Constructional Details The MOCB has three chambers; the arc chamber
and the supporting chamber Top Chamber. The arc chamber includes
fixed and moving contact filled with oil. This chamber is used for
extinguishing the arc. It is made from porcelain with bakelised paper
encasing. It also includes vents for gas release at the top. The supporting
chamber provides support to the arc chamber. It is made of porcelain
filled with oil for insulation. It insulates the arc chamber that is mounted
on top of it. It includes an arm operated by a mechanism to move the
moving contact upward and downward using a rod. The moving contact
is also attached to a piston that develops the pressure necessary for arc
quenching. Therefore, MOCB is a type of Forced Blast oil circuit breaker
where the pressure is developed by external means independent of the
arc current. This arrangement permits two advantages. - Firstly, the
circuit breaking chambers requires a small volume of oil which is just
enough for arc extinction. - Secondly the amount of oil to be replaced is
reduced, as the oil in the supporting chamber does not get contaminated
by the arc.
Working Operation : •Under normal operating conditions, the moving
contact remains engaged with the upper fixed contact. •As soon as fault
occurs on the system, the moving contact is pulled down by the tripping
springs and arc is struck between the two contacts. •The heat of arc
causes vaporisation of the oil and produces gases under high pressure.
•Due to this action, the oil is pass through a central hole in the moving
contact and creates turbulance of the oil. • This causes successively
quenching of arc by the effect of separate stream of oil moving across
each section in turn and bearing away its gases.
Applications of Oil Circuit Breaker: The oil circuit breakers are used in
high voltage applications such as in power grids, substations, powerlines
and transmission and distribution systems for up to 220 kV.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker 1.The vacuum circuit breaker (also known as
vacuum interrupter or VCB) uses the arc quenching process in the vacuum
as a switching medium. 2.The vacuum has the highest insulating strength.
So, it has far superior arc quenching properties than any other medium.
3.The degree of vacuum is in the range of 10^-7 to 10^-5 Torr. It is suitable
for medium-voltage power distribution ranging from 22kV to 66 kV.
Constructional Details: 1.The vacuum circuit breaker consists of fixed
contact, moving contact and an arc shield mounted in a vacuum
interrupter. 2.The moving contact is connected to the control mechanism
by stainless steel bellow. 3.The Arc shields are supported to the insulating
housing such that they cover these shields and is prevented from
condensing on the insulating enclosure. 4.The possibility of a leak is
eliminated due to the permanent sealing of the Vacuum chamber for that
a glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as the outer insulating body.
Working of Vacuum Circuit Breaker: When the breaker operates, the
moving contact separates from the fixed contact and an arc is struck
between the contacts. The production of the arc is due to the ionization
of metal ions and depends very much upon the material of contacts.
The arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapors, electrons,
and ions produced during arc are diffused in a short time. Since vacuum
has a very fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength, the arc extinction in
a vacuum breaker occurs with a short contact separation (say 0.625 cm).
Applications of VCB : 1.High voltage circuits 2.Used in substations and
generators 3.Interrupts the double earth faults and out of phase currents
4.Applications that require high switching sequences use VCBs 5.Railway
applications use this circuit breaker for traction current and electric
supply switching. 6.To switch motor drives.
 Air blast circuit breaker Air blast circuit breaker employs a highpressure
air blast as an arc quenching medium. Air blast circuit breakers are using
compressed air or gas as the circuit breaking or interrupting medium.
Gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen or Freon can be used as
arc interrupting medium.
Constructional Details: The major components of the air blast circuit
breaker are, 1.Air reservoir 2.Hallow insulator assembly 3.Arc extinction
chamber 4.Valves 5.Current carrying conductors. Hallow Insulators
Assembly : These are mounted on the air reservoir that connects the air
reservoir to the arc extinction chamber for the supply of high-pressure air
from the air reservoir to the arc extinction chamber. Valves are provided
at the base of the hallow insulators that control the flow of high-pressure
air.
Arc Extinction Chamber : The arc extinction chamber is mounted on the
hollow insulator assembly. The making and breaking of the circuit are
carried out in the arc extinction chamber. It consists of fixed and moving
contacts with a spring mechanism. The moving contact moves away and
closes to the fixed contact depending upon the air pressure.
Valves : These are provided at the base of the insulators that regulate the
flows of high-pressure air from the air reservoir to the arc extinction
chamber. When there is a fault in the circuit the values get opened with
the help of an operating rod connected to the pneumatic operating
mechanism.
Current Carrying Conductors : The current carrying conductors link all the
arc extinction chambers in series and the poles of neighboring
equipment.
Working Operation of ABCB : Under normal conditions, the breaker
contacts present in the arc extinction chamber are in contact with each
other. Under fault conditions, the breaker receives a tripping signal and
this makes the valves open by operating rod connected to it. When the
valves get opened, the high-pressure air enters into the arc extinction
chamber through the hallow insulator assembly. Once the high-pressure
air enters into arc extinction chamber, it causes to increase the pressure
on the moving contact inside the arc extinction chamber. Hence the
moving contact gets separated from the fixed contact. At the time of
separation, an arc is drawn between the two contacts. The arc is formed
due to the ionization of air present between the contacts and this ionized
air is taken out by the highpressure air through the air outlet valves. Thus
the arc formed between the two contacts gets extinguished.
Types of Air Blast Circuit Breakers: Air blast circuit breakers are classified
on the basis the direction of air blast to the arc. They are classified into :
Axial Blast Type – air blast is directed along the arc path. Cross Blast Type
– air blast is directed at right angles to the arc path. Radial Blast Type – air
blast is directed radially.
Advantages : There is no need for oil in air blast circuit breakers. This
eliminates the oil maintenance requirement as compared to the oil circuit
breaker. It is easily accessible and the weight is relatively less. The air
blast circuit breaker has a high rupturing capacity. High-speed operation
(rapid reclosing at successive operation) is possible. Deterioration of oil
is eliminated and the arcing products produced are completely removed.
Fire risk in case of air blast circuit breaker is eliminated. The breaker
allows the high-speed interruption. These types of circuit breakers are
almost maintenancefree.
Disadvantages : 1.There can be a possibility of air leaks at the fittings of
the pipeline. 2.The variations in RRRV (Rate of Rising of Recovery Voltage)
will affect the performance of the air blast circuit breaker. 3.The breaker
requires additional equipment like the electric motor, air compressors,
etc., which increases the cost.
Circuit Breaker Ratings and Specifications : The circuit breaker needs to
work under severe electrodynamic forces, thermal stress, etc. These are
very high under short circuit fault conditions. Hence, its rating will be
different when compared with other equipments. Its rating specifies all
the characteristics values that define the working conditions for which it
has been designed. A few of the important specifications are, •Rated
voltage •Rated current •Rated frequency •Making capacity •Breaking
capacity
Rated Voltage : The rated voltage of a circuit breaker is defined as the
highest rms value of voltage for which it is designed. Usually, the rated
voltage will be greater than the rated nominal system voltage.
Rated Current : The Rated current of a circuit breaker is defined as the
highest rms value of current that it can carry continuously while
maintaining the temperature (in various parts) within the prescribed
limits.
Rated Frequency : The rated frequency of a circuit breaker is the
frequency at which it has been designed to operate. If the circuit breaker
is intended to operate at some other frequency, then its effects like
temperature rise, breaking time, etc., must be taken into consideration.
The standard rated frequency is 50 Hz.
Breaking Capacity : The breaking capacities are divided into two types
symmetrical breaking capacity and asymmetrical breaking capacity. The
symmetrical breaking capacity of a circuit breaker is defined as the
product of symmetrical breaking current (rms value of ac current) and
recovery voltage VR . The asymmetrical breaking capacity of a circuit
breaker is defined as the product of asymmetrical breaking current (rms
value of total current) and recovery voltage VR .
Making Capacity : The making current or making capacity of a circuit
breaker is given by, = 1.8 x √2 x Symmetrical breaking current or breaking
capacity Factor √2 converts rms value to maximum value and factor 1.8
takes the doubling effect of shortcircuit current (due to dc component)
into account.
 The overvoltage or transients or surge voltages are the voltages whose
values are much more than the normal voltages. These are of short
duration which can cause malfunction or failure of equipment in the
system depending upon the severity of the voltage level. The main causes
of over voltages in power systems are classified as, 1.Internal causes, and
2.External causes.
Internal causes of over voltages are mainly due to, 1.Switching surges,
2.Insulation failure, 3.Arcing ground, and 4.Resonance.
1.Switching Surges : Switching surges are the over voltages produced on a
power system due to switching operations. The study of switching surges
is important for designing the insulation of winding. the causes for the
production of switching surges are listed below,  Switching of an
Unloaded Line or Open Line.  Switching of a Loaded Line.  Short-
circuits and Line-faults Interruption -(In a circuit breaker, after clearing
faults a transient restriking voltage appears which may cause over
voltages.)  Reactor Switching- may cause current chopping  Auto-
reclosing of Circuit-breaker in Long EHV Lines
2.Insulation Failure : The over voltages are also caused due to the
insulation failure between line and ground or the grounding of the
conductor in a power system.
3.Arcing Ground : Arcing ground is commonly caused in long transmission
line operations on high voltages due to oscillation. The high voltage surges
produced due to the arcing ground can damage the power system
apparatus severely. The voltage produced due to arcing grounds is nearly
3 to 4 times the power frequency voltage. Arcing grounds can be avoided
by earthing the neutral.
4.Resonance : In an electrical system when inductive reactance of the
circuit becomes equal to capacitive reactance, resonance takes place.
High voltage surges are produced in the power system due to resonance
in transmission lines. Overvoltage due to External Causes : External causes
of over voltages in a power system are mainly due to lightning.
Methods of Protection Against Lightning : These are mainly three main
methods generally used for protection against lightning. They are
1.Earthing screen. 2.Overhead earth wire. 3.Lighning arrester or surge
dividers.
1.Earthing Screen: The power stations and sub-stations generally house
expensive equipment. These stations can be protected against direct
lightning strokes by providing earthing screen. It consists of a network of
copper conductors (generally called shield or screen) mounted all over the
electrical equipment in the sub-station or power station. The shield is
properly connected to earth on at least two points through a low
impedance. On the occurrence of direct stroke on the station, screen
provides a low resistance path by which lightning surges are conducted to
ground. In this way, station equipment is protected against damage.
2.Overhead Earth/Ground Wire: The most effective method of providing
protection to transmission lines against direct lightning strokes is by the
use of overhead ground wires The ground wires are placed above the line
conductors The ground wires are grounded at each tower or pole through
as low resistance as possible. Due to their proper location, the *ground
wires will take up all the lightning strokes instead of allowing them to line
conductors.
3.Lightning Arrester: The earthing screen and ground wires can well
protect the electrical system against direct lightning strokes but they fail
to provide protection against travelling waves which may reach the
terminal apparatus. The lightning arresters or surge diverters provide
protection against such surges. A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a
protective device which conducts the high voltage surges on the power
system to the ground It consists of a spark gap in series with a non-linear
resistor. One end of the diverter is connected to the terminal of the
equipment to be protected and the other end is effectively grounded. The
length of the gap is so set that normal line voltage is not enough to cause
an arc across the gap but a dangerously high voltage will break down the
air insulation and form an arc. The property of the non-linear resistance is
that its resistance decreases as the voltage (or current) increases and vice-
versa. 1.Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line i.e. it
conducts **no current to earth or the gap is non-conducting. 2.On the
occurrence of overvoltage, the air insulation across the gap breaks down
and an arc is formed, providing a low resistance path for the surge to the
ground. In this way, the excess charge on the line due to the surge is
harmlessly conducted through the arrester to the ground instead of being
sent back over the line.
The advantages of lightning arrestors are, • They reduce the damage
from lightning strokes. • They are able to protect the outdoor equipment.
• They reduce the over-voltage surges. • They reduce electromagnetic
interference. • They are very simple to use.
Types of Lightening arrestors: 1.Rod Gap Arrester 2.Sphere Gap Arrester
3.Horn Gap Arrester 4.Multiple-Gap Arrester 5.Valve Type Lightning
Arresters 6.Thyrite Lightning Arrester 7.Metal Oxide Lightning Arrester
Valve Type Lightning Arrester : This type of arrester is also known as
nonlinear type lightning arrester, which is extensively used on systems
operating at high voltages up to 440 kV.
Valve-type arrester Consists of series spark gaps and nonlinear resistors
sets. These two are connected in series with each other and placed in a
tight porcelain container.
Series Spark Gap : The spark gap consists of a number of series-connected
identical spark gaps. Every spark gap is formed by two electrodes with a
fixed gap between them. The spark gaps are constructed in such a way
that under normal conditions it does not spark over and during high
voltage surges, spark over takes place.
Nonlinear Resistance : The Non linear elements decreases with the
increase in current through them. They are made up of an inorganic
compound such as thyrite or metrosil. These resistors have a very low
resistance under highfrequency surge currents, Where as under power
frequency voltage it offers high resistance.
Working: Under normal conditions, the spark remains non conducting.
When a surge voltage occurs on the line, a spark over takes place in the
spark gaps and high current flows to the ground through nonlinear
resistors.
Advantages: 1.These arrestors provide very effective protection against
surges (especially for transformers and cables etc). 2.Speed of operation is
very high (operation overs in less than one second). 3.It sparks over at a
predetermined voltage.
The Disadvantage of this type of equipment is that, The performance
characteristics is adversely affected by the ingress of moisture into the
enclosure.
Metal Oxide Lightning Arrester:  It is also called Zinc Oxide diverter. 
This type of arrester comprises of numbers of solid zinc oxide disc.  This
discs are arranged one by one to form a cylindrical stack. The number of
zinc oxide discs used per lightning arrester depends upon the voltage
rating of the system.  This stack is kept inside a cylindrical housing of
polymer or porcelain. Then the stack is placed inside the housing and
highly pressed by heavy spring load attached to end cap at top.
Working : Under normal conditions, the potential barrier does not allow
the current to flow through it. During over voltage, the barrier collapse
and sharp transition of current from insulating to conducting state take
place. The current start flowing and the surge is diverted to ground.  The
equipment connection terminal for line is projected from top cap and
connection terminal for earth is projected from the bottom cap.
Advantages of Metal Oxide Surge Arrester: 1.It eliminates the risk of
spark over and also the risk of shock to the system when the gaps break
down. 2.At the normal operating condition, the leakage current in the
ZnO is very low as compared to other diverters. 3.It has high energy
absorbing capability. 4.In ZnO diverter, it is possible to control the
dynamic over voltages in addition to switching surges. 5. It eliminates the
need of voltage grading system.
Selection of Lightning Arrester Location :
The surge diverters or lightning arresters are located very close to the
equipment to be protected because of the following reasons,
 • The lightning surges occurring near the terminals of the equipment
may enter the circuit before the lightning arrester operates.
• For each operation of the lightning arrester, the voltage wave
corresponding to the sparkover voltage may be reflected towards
the equipment, so that the voltage across the terminals of
equipment rises to the sum of incident voltage and the reflected
voltage which will be many times greater than the equipment's
rated voltage value.
• The terminal voltage V of the equipment will also be affected by the
inductance Z of the leads of the lightning arrester, the residual
voltage VR of the arrester, and the rate of change of surge current
dis/dt,( i.e., V = L(dis/dt) + VR)
Insulation Co-ordination Insulation coordination is the process of
knowing the insulation levels of the power system components. Or In
other words, it is the process of determining the insulation strength of the
equipment. Generally, The internal and external insulation of the
electrical equipment is exposed to continuous normal voltage and
temporary abnormal voltage. The equipment insulation is designed in
such a manner so that it withstands the highest power frequency system
voltage, occasional temporary power frequency overvoltage and
occasional lightning surges. The equipment of power system has assigned
the rated insulation level, and their capability can be approved by
applying different types of test. The requirement of insulations is
determined by considering the following factors. 1. Highest Power
Frequency System Voltage. 2. Temporary Power Frequency Over voltages.
3. Transient Overvoltage Surge.
Necessity of Insulation Co-ordination  To ensure the reliability and
continuity of service  To minimize the number of failures due to over
voltages  To minimize the cost of design, installation and operation.
Basic impulse level (BIL) Definition: A reference impulse (voltage)
insulation strength expressed in terms of the peak value of the withstand
voltage of a standard impulse voltage wave.
 Aspect Static Relays Digital Relays
Technology Analog electronic components. Microprocessor or DSP-based.
Functions Limited to specific functions. Multifunctional in a single unit.
Response Time Fast, but depends on the circuitry. Very fast and optimized.
Moderate; depends on circuit
Flexibility High; programmable and adaptable.
design.
Good, but prone to component
Accuracy Excellent, with self-correction.
aging.
Communication None. Advanced protocols (IEC 61850).
Maintenance Requires periodic inspection. Minimal; self-diagnostic features.
Higher initial cost, cost-effective long-
Cost Moderate initial cost.
term.
Modern smart grids, advanced
Applications Traditional protection schemes.
protection.

Definition

Digital relays, also called numerical relays, are advanced protective devices that use
microprocessors or digital signal processors (DSPs) to perform relaying functions. They are
capable of handling complex algorithms and provide multiple functions in a single unit.

Working Principle:1)Data Acquisition

o Analog signals (current, voltage) are collected from current transformers (CTs)
and voltage transformers (VTs).
o These signals are converted into digital form using Analog-to-Digital
Converters (ADCs).(2)Processing
o Digital processors analyze the digitized signals using software-based
algorithms.
o These algorithms can implement traditional protection methods (e.g.,
overcurrent) and advanced methods (e.g., fault location).(3)Decision Making
o The processed data is compared with predefined settings to detect
abnormalities.
o If a fault is detected, the relay sends a trip signal to isolate the faulted
area.(4)Monitoring and Communication
o Digital relays can monitor system performance and communicate with control
systems using protocols like IEC 61850.

Digital relays are essential for modern power systems and are used in:

• Transmission line protection: Distance and differential protection.

• Generator protection: Monitoring voltage, frequency, and phase imbalance.
• Transformer protection: Detecting faults like winding short circuits and differential
protection.
• Smart grids: Providing adaptive protection and real-time monitoring.
• Comparison of Static Relays and Digital Relays