Sociology: An Introduction

Meaning, Origin and Definitions

• Sociology, in simplest terms, implies a scientific study of society.
• The word ‘sociology’ derives its origin from two words:
• the Latin word socius (companionship) and the Greek word logos (study
of or science of). The etymological meaning of ‘sociology’ is ‘the science
of society,’
• The name of our discipline is thus an ‘illegitimate’ offspring of two
languages.
• Sociology is the scientific and systematic study of groups and group
interactions, societies and social interactions, from small and personal
groups to very large groups.
• A group of people who live in a defined geographic area, who interact
with one another, and who share a common culture is what
sociologists call a society.
SOCIAL
• What is social ?
• When an interaction became social ?
• A social relationship, therefore, implies reciprocal awareness between two
or more people and the sense of their having something in common.
• Reciprocal recognition, direct or indirect, and ‘commonness’ are the
characteristic features of every social relationship.
• ‘Social relationship’ is generally used for more or less stable and enduring
relationships among individuals belonging to a particular group or society.
• The term ‘society’ is reserved for ‘a collection of individuals held together
by certain enduring relationships in the pursuance of common ends’
(Gisbert, 2016).
ORIGIN OF SOCIOLOGY

• Sociology has a long past but only a short history

• Since the dawn of human civilization- like nature, society has also been a
subject for speculation and enquiry. But our understanding of natural and
social worlds was largely based on imaginations, speculations and trial-and-
error learnings.
• In the struggle for survival, man soon realised that for the progress and
welfare of mankind, a systematic and comprehensive understanding of the
physical and social forces is necessary.
• In the course of time, man learned to observe carefully and systematically the
forces shaping his life, until he reached a point at which he was able to make
scientific analyses and generalisations about them.
• All inquiries were once part of Philosophy (mater scientiarum).
• Renaissance (11th to 16th Century)- More focused on physical and biological
understanding.
• Astronomy and physics were among the first to break away, and were
followed thereafter by chemistry, biology and geology.
• In the nineteenth century, two new sciences appeared: psychology (the
science of human behaviour) and sociology (the science of human
society).
• Thus, what had once been natural philosophy became the science of
physics; what had been mental philosophy, or the philosophy of mind,
became the science of psychology; and what had once been social
philosophy, or the philosophy of history, became the science of
sociology.
• Man’s efforts to make use of scientific observation and analysis in
understanding social relationships and institutions have resulted in the
rise of the social sciences, such as economics, political science,
psychology and sociology.
• While, broadly speaking, all deal with social phenomena and are
therefore interrelated and quite interdependent, each, at present,
concentrates upon a particular phase of human conduct and specialises
in studying it.
 Absentee student happens to be
a female or a Dalit
poor health,
fear of punishment for non-
completion of homework,
some urgent household work,
family function,
rough weather or
just the mood of the student to
bunk the class

individualistic in nature.

If absenteeism is very high among the females, and Dalits in particular, then it would definitely invite the attention o
social scientists. Because now the reason for such large-scale absenteeism of students belonging to a particular gend
or a caste group cannot merely be individualistic, it has to be social.
Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen in their famous work India:
Development and Participation (2002) observed that the progress of
female education has been particularly slow in areas of India
where the gender division of labour, patrilineal inheritance,
patrilocal residence, village exogamy, hypergamous marriage
and related patriarchal norms tend to be particularly influential.
Similarly, discriminatory attitudes of teachers and classmates,
and extreme poverty could be identified as some of the
socioeconomic factors responsible for large-scale absenteeism or
high dropout rates of Dalits in schools in India.
Medieval England and Three Revolutions
• Barbarism Feudalism Capitalism
(from 5th Century to 12th Century) (from 13th Century to 15th Century) (from 16th Century
onwards)

Mercantile Capitalism
(Result of Merchandise revolution) Agrarian Capitalism
(Result of Agricultural Revolution)
• Change is social system
• A new class (Middle Class) originated in the Society Industrial Capitalism
(result of Industrial revolution)
• Held maximum control on the resources
• This Aristocratic Group was known as ‘Bourgeoisie’
• The other social group of wagers was known as ‘prolateral’
 Enlightenment
• The intellectual revolution of the eighteenth century Western and Central Europe.
• In England and Scotland, the Enlightenment was dominated by a group of thinkers
who argued for a vision of human beings and society. For Adam Smith, individuals
are to be free of external constraint and allowed to compete, thereby creating a better
society.
• In France, the Enlightenment is often termed the Age of Reason, and it was dominated
by a group of scholars known as the philosophes.
• It is out of the intellectual ferment generated by the French philosophes that sociology
was born.
• The essence of the Enlightenment lay in its challenge to absolutism, the questioning of
authority through a new conception of truth.
• Under absolutism, the individual had to submit to the authority which was supposed
to possess the monopoly of the truth; but under the Enlightenment the individual
acquired a new importance, dignity and self-respect.
• Any man’s opinion was potentially worth something. One no longer had to be a
bishop or prince to claim access to truth.
• The Enlightenment stood for the classic trilogy – liberty, equality, and fraternity
John Locke (1632-1704)
• Key Contribution: Social Contract and Tabula Rasa
• Locke's idea of the social contract emphasized that
legitimate political authority arises from the consent
of the governed, challenging the divine right of
kings. This concept laid the foundation for modern
political and sociological thought regarding the
relationship between individuals and the state.
• His theory of the mind as a "tabula rasa" (blank
slate) suggested that individuals are shaped by their
experiences and environment. This idea influenced
later sociological theories on socialization and the
impact of society on individual development.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
• Key Contribution: The Social Contract and the
Concept of the General Will
• Rousseau’s work "The Social Contract" proposed
that individuals come together to form a collective
"general will" that represents the common good.
His ideas highlighted the importance of collective
decision-making and the relationship between
individuals and society.
• Rousseau also explored the concept of "amour-
propre" (self-love or pride), which he believed was
a social emotion arising from comparisons between
individuals. This concept contributed to later
sociological studies on social inequality and the role
of self-perception in social interactions.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
Key Contribution: Critique of Traditional
Institutions and Advocacy for Freedom of
Thought
• Voltaire was a fierce critic of the church,
monarchy, and established social hierarchies.
His advocacy for freedom of thought, religious
tolerance, and civil liberties challenged
traditional authority and encouraged critical
examination of societal norms.
• Voltaire’s emphasis on rationality and his
critique of societal institutions influenced the
sociological tradition of critically analyzing the
power structures and ideologies that shape
society.
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
• Key Contribution: Separation of Powers
and Comparative Analysis of Societies
• Montesquieu’s seminal work "The Spirit of
the Laws" introduced the idea of the
separation of powers within government,
a concept that influenced modern political
and sociological thought on governance
and the organization of society.
• He also conducted a comparative analysis
of different societies and forms of
government, laying the groundwork for
later sociological studies that compare and
contrast social structures across cultures
and historical periods.
David Hume (1711-1776)
• Key Contribution: Empiricism and the
Study of Human Nature
• Hume’s emphasis on empiricism—the idea
that knowledge comes from sensory
experience—encouraged a scientific
approach to understanding human behavior
and society. His exploration of human
nature and emotions influenced later
sociological theories on social behavior and
collective action.
• Hume’s skepticism of absolute truths and
his analysis of social conventions
contributed to the sociological examination
of how social norms and values are
constructed and maintained.
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
• Key Contribution: Economic Theories
and the Concept of the Invisible Hand
• Smith’s work "The Wealth of Nations"
introduced the idea of the invisible hand,
suggesting that individuals pursuing
their own interests can lead to positive
social outcomes. His economic theories
laid the foundation for the study of social
and economic behavior, influencing the
development of economic sociology.
• Smith’s emphasis on the division of labor
and its impact on society also contributed
to later sociological studies on social
stratification, work, and industrialization.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
• Key Contribution: Autonomy,
Enlightenment, and the Role of Reason
• Kant’s essay "What Is Enlightenment?"
defined the Enlightenment as the
emergence of individuals from self-
imposed immaturity through the use of
reason. He advocated for intellectual
autonomy and the courage to think
independently.
• Kant’s ideas about autonomy and the
role of reason in human affairs
influenced the development of
sociological thought on individual
agency, morality, and the role of
rationality in shaping social life.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
• Key Contribution: Founder of Sociology
and Positivism
• Although Comte came after the peak of
the Enlightenment, he was heavily
influenced by Enlightenment ideas. He
coined the term "sociology" and
proposed the positivist approach to
studying society, advocating for the use
of scientific methods to understand
social phenomena.
• Comte’s "law of three stages"
(theological, metaphysical, and
positivist) reflects Enlightenment ideals
of progress and the belief in reason and
science as tools for social advancement.
1. Shift from Religion to Reason
2. Focus on Individualism
3. Critique of Traditional Institutions
4. Development of Social Sciences
5. Concept of Progress
6. Foundation for Social Contract Theories

‘The Enlightenment's emphasis on reason, individualism, and the

critique of traditional institutions laid the intellectual foundations
for the emergence of sociology as a scientific study of society’
Definitions of Sociology
These definitions highlight the diverse perspectives and approaches that
scholars have taken to define the field of sociology.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
"Sociology is the science of social phenomena, subject to natural and
invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation.“
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
"Sociology is the study of the social organism, its structure, functions, and
development.“
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
"Sociology is the study of social facts, which are external to the individual
and exercise a constraining influence upon him.“
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
"Sociology is the study of the social relations of production, which shape
the economic, political, and cultural aspects of society.“
Max Weber (1864-1920)
"Sociology is the science which attempts to understand social action in
terms of the meaning attached to it by the actor.“
Lester F. Ward (1841-1913)
"Sociology is the study of the social forces that shape human behavior and
the social structures that result from it."
Contemporary definitions of sociology:
Anthony Giddens (1938-present)
"Sociology is the study of human social life, groups, and societies; it is a dazzling and compelling
enterprise, as its subject matter is our own behavior as social beings.“
Michael Haralambos (1939-present)
"Sociology is the study of human social behavior, relationships, and institutions within societies, and
how these shape our lives and the world around us."
Judith Butler (1956-present)
"Sociology is the study of the social and cultural forces that shape our understanding of ourselves and
our relationships with others."
Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002)
"Sociology is the study of the social structures and processes that shape our experiences,
opportunities, and identities, and how these are maintained and transformed over time.“
Saskia Sassen (1947-present)
"Sociology is the study of the global and local forces that shape our social worlds, including the
dynamics of inequality, power, and identity."
These contemporary definitions highlight the ongoing evolution of sociology as a field, incorporating
new perspectives and approaches to understanding human social behavior.