Praxis® Biology (5236) Study Plan

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I . Nature and Impact of Science
and Engineering
A. Nature of Science

1. Nature of scientific knowledge

a. Observations and experiments
provide evidence
b. Understanding develops and
changes over time in light of new
evidence
c. Science is interdisciplinary in nature
(e.g., principles of chemistry and
physics and earth science in biology)
d. Scientific methodologies

e. Scientific skills include observing,

categorizing, comparing,
generalizing, inferring, and
concluding
f. Distinguish between scientific laws,
and scientific theories, and
hypotheses
g. Models are developed, revised, and
applied to explain natural
phenomena
2. Experimental design, data
collection, and analysis
a. Standard units of measurement,
dimensional analysis, and unit
conversion

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b. Scientific notation and use of
significant figures
c. Experimental design, including
hypothesis development, identifying
variables, and planning data
collection
d. Processing, organizing, and reporting
of quantitative and qualitative data
e. Error analysis, including identifying
the sources and effects of error
f. Interpreting, extrapolating, and
drawing valid conclusions from data
3. Laboratory procedures
a. Preparation of materials for
classroom or field use
b. Appropriate and safe use, storage,
and disposal of chemicals and
biological materials
c. Appropriate and safe use and care of
laboratory equipment
d. Safety and emergency procedures
for science laboratories
B. Science, Engineering,
Technology, Society, and the
Environment

1. Engineering design and the

interdependence of science,
engineering, and technology
a. Defining problems, including
identifying the success criteria and

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the constraints
b. Designing solutions, including
proposing and evaluating in terms of
criteria, constraints, and limitations
c. Optimizing the design, including
systematic modification and
refinement
d. Engineering advances lead to
important discoveries in science
e. Science and technology drive each
other forward
2. Impacts of science, technology,
human activity, and natural
phenomena on society and the
environment
a. Sources of air and water pollution

b. Sources of greenhouse gases and

impacts of global climate change
c. Production, use, disposal, and
recycling of consumer products
d. Consequences of natural disasters,
resource extraction, and industrial
accidents
e. Forestry, agriculture, wildlife, and
fisheries practices
f. Ocean, estuary, freshwater, and
wetland degradation
g. Conservation, including species
protection and habitat preservation
and restoration

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 Praxis® Biology (5236) Study Plan
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h. Renewable or sustainable use of
energy and resource management
3. Applications of science in public
health, medicine, and agriculture
a. Epidemiology, disease, and medicine
(e.g., epidemics/pandemics, H
IV/AIDS, pathogens, vaccines)
b. Biotechnology (e.g., genetic
engineering, GMOs)
c. Medical technologies for disease
diagnosis and treatment (e.g.,
medical imaging, X-rays, radiation
therapy)
d. Ethical research concerns (e.g., use
of stem cells and toxic chemicals)
e. Ethical use of technology, genetic
information, organisms, and cloning
II. Cell Biology: Cell Structure and
Function
A. Basic biochemistry and
metabolism of living organisms

1. Chemical structures and properties

of biologically important molecules
a. Atomic and molecular structures

b. Chemical bonding

c. Organic versus inorganic molecules

d. Properties of water based on

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 Praxis® Biology (5236) Study Plan
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structure and bonding
characteristics
e. Major macromolecules, including
nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates
2. Dependency of biological processes
on chemical principles
developmental and content domains
a. Chemical and physical gradients,
and factors that influence the
gradients
b. Laws of thermodynamics

c. Anabolic and catabolic reactions in

metabolism
d. Reduction-oxidation reactions in
metabolism
3. Structure and function of enzymes
and the factors that influence their
activity
a. Active site structure and substrate
binding
b. Energy profile of a reaction in the
presence or absence of an enzyme
c. Reaction kinetics, including the
effects of temperature, pH,
concentrations, and other molecules,
including inhibitors
d. Regulation, including cooperative
binding and feedback inhibition

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4. Major biochemical pathways and

energy flow within an organism
a. Cellular locations of biochemical
pathways
b. Structure and function of ATP

c. Photosynthesis, including
photosystems, electron transport,
Calvin-Benson cycle
d. Processes associated with aerobic
and anaerobic cellular respiration
and fermentation, including
glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and
oxidative phosphorylation
e. Chemosynthesis as an alternative to
photosynthesis
B. Structure and function of cells
and the mechanisms of basic
cellular processes

1. Characteristics of living versus

nonliving things
a. Cell theory

b. Obtaining and transforming energy

c. Growth and development

d. Homeostasis: regulation and

responses to the environment
e. Reproduction

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2. Structure and function of cells and

organelles
a. Prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cells,
including organelles, cell walls, and
chromosomes
b. Plant cells versus animal cells

c. Plasma/cell membranes

d. Membrane-bound organelles and

ribosomes
e. Cytoskeleton and extracellular
matrix
3. How cells maintain their internal
environment and respond to external
signals
a. Selective permeability, including
structure and function of
phospholipid bilayer
b. Active and passive transport

c. Water movement, including

osmolarity and water potential
d. Cell surface proteins, cell
communication, signal molecules,
and signal transduction
e. Exocytosis and endocytosis

f. Negative-feedback and positive-

feedback mechanisms
4. Eukaryotic cell division, the cell

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cycle, and regulation of the
processes
a. Cell cycle stages and checkpoints

b. Mitosis, including functions, stages,

and results
c. Cytokinesis, including differences
between animals and plants
d. Cancer (e.g., unregulated
checkpoints and cell proliferation)
III. Genetics and Evolution

A. Mechanisms of molecular
biology and genetic transmission

1. Structure of nucleic acids and chro

a. Sugar-phosphate backbone and
complementary base pairing
b. DNA versus RNA

c. Chromosome structure, including

2. Transfer of genetic information

a. Central dogma of molecular biology

b. Process of DNA replication

c. The process of RNA transcription

d. Pre-mRNA processing in eukaryotes

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e. The process of translation, including
the role of mRNA, tRNA,
rRNA and ribosomes
f. Gene regulation (e.g., promoters,
enhancers, transcription factors, and
posttranslational regulation)
g. Utilization of a genetic code chart

h. Protein synthesis in eukaryotes

versus prokaryotes
3. Nature of mutations
a. Causes of mutations, including
recombination and mutagens
b. Types of mutations, including
substitution, deletion, insertion,
inversion, and translocation
c. Disorders resulting from point
mutations, frameshift mutations,
changes in chromosome structure,
and changes in chromosome
numbers
d. Significance of somatic versus germ-
line mutations
4. Laboratory techniques
a. Microscopy

b. Gel electrophoresis

c. Spectrophotometry

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d. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

e. Genome sequencing

f. Gene therapy

g. Protein sequence analysis

h. Genetically engineered cells and

transgenic organisms
i. Chromosome analysis

5. Mendelian genetics
a. Dominant and recessive alleles

b. The law of independent assortment

and the role of meiosis
c. The law of segregation and the role
of meiosis
d. Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses

e. Pedigree analysis

6. Non-Mendelian inheritance
a. Gene linkage and mapping by
recombination analysis
b. Sex-linked inheritance

c. Multiple alleles, codominance, and

incomplete dominance
d. Polygenic inheritance, epistasis, and

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pleiotropy
e. Extranuclear inheritance, including
mitochondrial and chloroplast
inheritance
f. Environmental influences, including
epigenetics
g. Pedigree analysis

B. Mechanisms of evolution as a
consequence of genetic
variation and factors affecting
evolution

1. Sources of genetic variation

a. Mutation

b. Sexual reproduction, including

crossing-over, random fertilization,
segregation and independent
assortment
c. Horizontal genetic exchange,
including conjugation,
transformation, and transduction
2. Mechanisms of evolution
a. Darwin-Wallace theories of
reproductive fitness and natural
selection
b. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
calculations and factors that may
alter the equilibrium

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c. Effects of mutations, gene flow,
genetic drift (including bottleneck
and founder effects), and
nonrandom mating (including sexual
selection)
d. Artificial selection

e. Macroevolution versus
microevolution
f. Patterns of evolution: convergent,
divergent, coevolution, parallel
evolution, adaptive radiation
g. Gradualism versus punctuated
equilibrium
h. Mechanisms of speciation, including
reproductive isolation and allopatric
and sympatric speciation
3. Evidence supporting evolution
a. Fossil record

b. Biogeographical similarities

c. Biodiversity over geological time

d. Endosymbiosis

e. Structural and developmental

evidence, including homology,
embryology and vestigial structures
f. Molecular evidence, including
universal genetic code, DNA, RNA,
and amino acid sequence

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comparisons
g. Direct observation of evolution (e.g.,
antibiotic resistance)
4. Models of evolution
a. Molecular clock (mitochondrial
DNA)
b. Phylogenetic relationships, including
cladograms and phylogenetic trees
5. Scientific explanations for the origin
and early evolution of life on Earth
a. Abiotic synthesis of organic
compounds (e.g., the Miller-Urey
experiment)
b. Development of self-replicating
molecules, including the RNA-first
hypothesis
c. Biological influences on atmospheric
composition, including the role of
photosynthesis
6. Factors that lead to the extinction of
species
a. Lack of genetic diversity

b. Interspecific competition

c. Meteorite impacts and the effects of

geological processes, including
tectonic plate movement and
volcanism
d. Human-caused environmental
pressures, including climate and

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habitat change
IV. Diversity of Life and Organismal
Biology
A. Diversity of Life

1. Biological classification of organisms

a. Taxonomic hierarchy, including
domains and kingdoms
b. Binomial nomenclature

2. Defining characteristics of viruses,

eubacteria, archaea, protists, fungi,
plants, and animals
a. Structural characteristics of viruses,
eubacteria, archaea, protists, fungi,
plants, and animals
b. Cellular organization, including
unicellular versus multicellular
c. Modes of nutrition, including
autotrophic versus heterotrophic
3. Organizational hierarchy
a. Cells

b. Tissues
c. Organs

d. Organ systems

4. Cell differentiation and specialization

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a. Differential gene expression

b. Stem cells, including characteristics

and sources
B. Animal Biology

1. Characteristics of animals
a. Major evolutionary trends, including
body plans, body cavities,
cephalization and multicellularity
b. Modes of reproduction (sexual
versus asexual)
c. Modes of temperature regulation
(endotherm versus ectotherm)
2. Structure and function of major
human organ systems
a. Cardiovascular and respiratory

b. Digestive and excretory

c. Immune

d. Musculoskeletal

e. Nervous and endocrine

3. How homeostasis is maintained in

organisms
a. Role of organs or tissues, such as the
kidney, adrenals, and hypothalamus,
and pituitary

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b. Role of hormones, such as insulin,
antidiuretic hormone, and sex
hormones
c. Feedback mechanisms, including
negative and positive
d. Role of behaviors, including diurnal,
nocturnal, hibernation, and basking
4. Reproduction, development, and
growth in organisms
a. Gamete formation, including the
stages of meiosis and changes in
chromosome number
b. Fertilization, including internal
versus external
c. Embryonic development

d. Patterns of growth and development,

including metamorphosis
5. Behavior
a. Innate versus learned behaviors

b. Territoriality

c. Group versus individual

d. Social behavior (e.g., hunting,

flocking, migration, altruism)
C. Plant Biology

1. Characteristics of plants

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a. Vascular versus nonvascular plants

b. Angiosperms versus gymnosperms

c. Tissues, including dermal, ground,

and vascular (xylem and phloem)
d. Structure of organs, including
flowers, stems, leaves, and roots
2. How plants obtain, transport, and
store materials
a. Roles of roots, stems, and leaves

b. Water and nutrient transport,

including xylem and transpiration
through stomata
c. Production, transport, and storage of
products of photosynthesis,
including simple and complex
carbohydrates, phloem transport,
and storage structures
3. Reproduction, growth and
development
a. Gametogenesis

b. Alternation of generations, including

gametophyte and sporophyte
c. Pollination/fertilization strategies and
seed/spore propagation
d. Germination and growth

4. How plants respond to the

environment

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