Basics of Radio Programming and Productions

BA(JMC) 203
UNIT III

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 Syllabus- Unit 3
• Elements of Radio Programme

• Radio Production Process

• Equipment used in Radio Production: Types of Microphones,

Headphones and Talk Backs, Audio Mixers and Transmitters.

• Recording, Broadcasting and Troubleshooting a. Indoor: Studio,

Acoustics and Perspective b. Outdoor: Ambience and Noise

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 Elements of Radio Programme

© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Rajender Singh Thakur & Dr. Divyshikha, U2.3
Assistant Prof., BVICAM
 Elements of Radio Programme
A radio show is any type of program broadcast on the radio, or on
the Internet in the case of Internet radio. Radio programmes can
be spoken word programmes or music programmes. In spite of
the type of programme aired on the radio, the elements of the
different programmes remain the same such as:

• Voice

• Music

•Script

•Sound effects.

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 THE ROLE OF VOICE IN RADIO

• For our voice to be recorded in a studio, we use a microphone.

They amplify or in other words, increase the volume of your voice.
When you speak before a microphone, you don’t have to shout.
You speak normally and it will be made louder if you use a
loudspeaker to listen to.
Voice is important in the following ways
• Voice conveys meaning.
• It stimulates our visual imagination: it creates visual images in
our minds.
• When we think of radio, the microphone is the most important
element using which you present your programme. The main stay
in any radio programme is the human voice.

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 Think of the voice of an announcer or newsreader on radio. You
often find them very pleasant and nice to listen to. That is
because of the quality of their voice and the proper use of it.
There are two aspects of the use of human voice in radio
production.
• Firstly, there has to be a well written script to be spoken.
• Secondly, someone has to speak or read it before a microphone
in a studio.

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 Music & Radio:

• Music is the soul of radio. Film songs and classical music

programmes are independent programmes on radio. Music is also
used as signature tunes or theme music of various radio
programmes. It enhances the programme in the following ways:
• Music adds colour and life to any spoken word programme.
• Music can break monotony.
• Music is used to give the desired effect of happy or unhappy
situations, fear or joy.
• Music can suggest scenes and locations. For example, you have
to create a bright early morning situation. This can be done by
playing a pleasing note on the flute along with the sound of
chirping birds.

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 • Most music based stations operate a playlist that is updated every
week. The playlist determines what will be played and how often it
will be played. The selection of music is not done on personal
taste but is a professional judgement that takes into account a
variety of factors including the stations target audience, how
appropriate a track is to certain times of the day, and increasingly
how well it has scored in audience research.
• Types of Music: There are three types of Music:
 Hindustani classical
 Carnatic classical
 Western classical

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 SCRIPT & RADIO PROGRAMMES
• A radio script is a writing which gives the detail of how an entire
programme should be. A script takes some of the pressure off
presenters doing live broadcasts. It provides them with the
reassurance that they know what theyare going to say next so
that they can concentrate on how they say it. Scripts also ensures
that an item is covered fully, in a logical manner and to set time. A
radio script for a presenter is largely a safety measure but it
needs to contain certain characteristics to make it effective.
• Though it is written, it is spoken
• It is written for the ear not the eye.
• It is heard only once
• The listener normally does not get a second chance to listen.
• It is conversational.
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 • It should be simply worded without any difficult or unfamiliar
words.
• The sentences should be short and simple and not complex.
• There should be only one idea in a sentence and not many ideas.
• Though there are thousands of listeners, what is written should be
meant for just one listener.
• The words chosen should denote the exact meaning and not be
vague.
• The words should make pictures in the minds of the listeners.
• Abbreviations or short forms should be avoided. If an
abbreviation is used, then its full form should be given.
• While referring to more than one person, avoid using ‘he’ or ‘she’.
It can confuse the listeners.
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 SOUND EFFECTS
• Sound effects in a radio programme give meaning and sense of
location. It adds realism to a programme and helps a listener to
use imagination. Sound effects describe the circumstances of a
dramatic audio situation. They can be used for such things as
setting and place, conveying action, solving certain narrative
problems and evoking characteristics. Effects should sound as
though they were being heard by the character. Dubbing adds
extra sound effects or bring disparate sounds together.
Sound effects can be used in two ways: Spot effects or effects
that are created as we speak .

• Recorded sound effects.

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 • Categories in Sound Effects:
• a) Ambiences: It provide a sense of place, “where”, and perhaps
of time “when”, events occur.
• b) Discrete Effects: Indicates individual events; “what”, “how”,
and “how much”.
• c) Crowds: Sounds of many people in a crowded situation,
without specific voices or words being distinguishable.
• d) Dialogue: Dialogue is sound too. The character of the voice
indicates a lot about who the character is. Give importance to
vocal contrast.
• e) Silence: A dramatic element.

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 Radio Production Process

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 Radio Production Process
• PRE-PRODUCTION:
• This is the planning and development stage. This begins with the
generation of a script. Unless a script is developed it is difficult
and there will be confusion on what type of programme you are
producing. The script contains instructions and guidelines for the
production of the program.

• Writing for Radio:

• We know that script is the backbone of production. So writing is
an essential part of it. We write what type of sound would be
required at a given situation and what would follow. Sound is the
entire means of communication in radio. Sounds help create and
enhance mental images.

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 • Sounds have the unique capability of creating an environment for
the listener. Through the creative use of various writing and
production techniques, entire worlds can be created in the human
mind. Many techniques are availed to create an environment with
sound.

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 • Language: The primary goal of language is to communicate
ideas and information to be easily understood. The selection and
using words and the combining of words into meaningful
sentences are important for good production.
• Words: Words are the primary tools for the expression or
thoughts, ideas, and emotions, regardless of the medium. Words
have meaning and power. Words need to be selected carefully.
Use words that come close to reality. Informal, rather than formal
words are preferred.
• Sentences: Sentences are the principal units of organized
thought. The keys to construct effective sentences are clarity,
simplicity, conversational style and conciseness.

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 Productions
• PRODUCTION: The second stage is production. The entire
material for the program is recorded or organized at this stage.
Selecting and positioning of the microphones, the type of tapes to
be used, and selection at various sources at sound through the
mixer are all part of this stage.
• Equipments for Recording Purpose:
• The Console: The control board or console processes the
sounds and voices during recording, editing, and dubbing. This
mixes together the various programme sources to form the
broadcast output. This is located in the central control point or
control room. Three types of circuit functions are operated.
• Programme circuits: A series of channels, their individual
volume levels controlled by separate rotary faders.

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 • Monitoring circuits: Visual (meter) and aural (headphone)
means of measuring the individual sources or channels as well as
the final mixed output.
• Control circuits: Provision of communication with studio or
outside by means of “talk back" or telephone line.
• Microphone: A microphone (mics, pronounced myke) is a
transducer, which converts acoustic energy into electrical energy.
Several types of microphones are available with audio pickup
pattern characteristics designed to meet various recording
requirements and situations. The directional property of
microphones, which is also called the pickup pattern, is important
for selecting the right kind of microphone.

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 • Turntable: A turntable picks up information recorded on a disc or
record and sends this information to the console for amplification,
mixing, processing, and integration with other sound elements.
• Compact discs and records: Vinyl records or LPs are being
replaced by high quality digital recordings made on compact disc.
In playing a disc, most control desks have a "pre-fade”, ”pre-hear"
or "audition" facility which enables the operator to listen to the track
and adjust its volume before setting it up to play on the air. With a
record, a glance at the grooves will often be sufficient to indicate
whether there is a wide variation in dynamic range.

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 • Audiotape: Sounds can be recorded in the field or in the studio
onto audiotape at standard speeds. The audiotape used in studio
may be in the form of continuous loop cartridges, or carts, or
materials may be recorded on reel-to-reel audiotape machines.
Digital Audio Tapes (DAT) record the signal in digital form in
which the original electrical variations.

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 Post- Productions

• Post production: This stage generally includes editing Sounds

recorded during production and dubbing if required, are the
principal focus of post production. Putting together the previously
recorded sound and selection of sound are important. The
purpose of editing can be summarized as:
• To arrange recorded material into a more logical sequence.
• To remove the uninteresting. Repetitive or technically acceptable
portion.
• To compress the material in time.
• For creative effect to produce new juxtaposition of speech, music.
sound and even silence.

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 Equipment used in Radio Production: Types
of Microphones, Headphones and Talk Backs,
Audio Mixers and Transmitters.

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 Condenser microphone
• While dynamic microphones are popular for stage use, due to
their rugged construction, condenser microphones have always
been the preferred type for studio recording.
• How a condenser microphone works?
• The British call them “capacitor microphones” – and for a reason,
too. You may remember from physics class that a capacitor is
essentially two metal plates in close proximity. The closer they
are, the higher the capacitance.
• A condenser capsule is constructed similarly. It consists of a thin
membrane in close proximity to a solid metal plate. The
membrane or diaphragm, as it is often called, must be electrically
conductive, at least on its surface. The most common material is
gold-sputtered mylar, but some (mostly older) models employ an
extremely thin metal foil.
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 • When sound waves hit the diaphragm, it moves back and forth
relative to the solid back plate. In other words, the distance
between the two capacitor plates changes. As a result, the
capacitance changes to the rhythm of the sound waves. Voilà, we
have converted sound into an electrical signal.

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 Condenser microphone Image

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 Dynamic microphone
• The term “dynamic” can have a lot of meanings, especially when
it comes to sound and music. In this case, however, it has little to
do with “dynamic range” or a “dynamic performance". In this
context, it refers the kind of electromagnetism that happens for
instance inside your bicycle’s dynamo: When an electrical
conductor moves in a magnetic field, an electric current is
induced.
• Dynamic microphones, thus, are microphones that convert sound
into an electrical signal by means of electromagnetism. They fall
into two categories, moving coil and ribbon microphones.

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 MOVING COIL MICROPHONES
(AKA “DYNAMIC MICS”)

• Moving coil microphones are probably easiest to understand,

because they are basically built like a loudspeaker: A coil is glued
to the rear of a membrane, and there is a strong magnet
surrounding this coil. When sound waves hit the microphone, the
membrane moves to the rhythm of the sound waves, and the coil
on its back moves along with it. The relative movement of the coil
within its (stationary) magnetic gap induces a small signal voltage
in this coil. There’s your microphone, a device that converts
sound into an electrical signal.
• Moving coil microphones are often preferred for use on stage,
because they are quite sturdy and do not require external power.
In the studio, engineers usually prefer condenser or in some
cases ribbon microphones, which are less robust but offer
superior sound reproduction.
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 • Moving coil microphones are by far the commonest type of
dynamic microphones. And since “moving coil microphone” is
quite a long term, most sound engineers prefer to call them
“dynamic mics” or just “dynamics”, thus perceiving ribbon mics as
a different category. While this is technically incorrect, it makes a
lot of sense from a practical standpoint, because ribbon mics are
quite exotic beasts, which sound and behave different than
moving coil dynamics.

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 Ribbon microphone
• A ribbon mic is actually a type of dynamic microphone. Instead of
a dynamic microphone’s diaphragm that is attached to a moving
coil that vibrates within a magnetic field, ribbon mics feature an
extremely thin strip of metal (most often aluminum) suspended in
a strong magnetic field. The ribbon acts as both the diaphragm
and the transducer element itself, providing the same kind of
sensitivity and transient response you’d expect from a condenser
but with a wholly different character.

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 Ribbon microphone Images

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 Microphones – Pickup Pattern
• An Omni-directional polar pattern covers all directions and picks
up all sound in a 360 degree radius. These are ideal for natural,
ambient recordings and for tie clip microphones - as moving your
head to one side will not change the volume. They also make
ideal headset microphones, as they sound very natural when
close to the mouth.
• Omni directional microphones are pressure sensitive so they are
not as affected by wind noise or by the “proximity” effect (the
bass boost when you are close to a directional microphone). They
are also less susceptible to popping caused by “plosives” (when
you say “P” or “B” close to the microphone). Omni directional
capsules exist independently of any special housing or cavities to
alter the polar pattern.

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 Bi-directional
• Bi-directional microphones pick up sound from the front and rear
while rejecting sound from the sides. You can see on the
diagram above that it does not change for different frequencies.
This is due to the fact that the capsule exists naturally without any
alteration - like omnidirectional microphones which are very
neutral sounding.
• Figure of Eight microphones are used for their natural sound
quality in some headsets, studio and broadcast microphones.
There are also used in “Mid/Side” stereo recording techniques
and in stereo microphones like the BP4027 and the BP4029. All
ribbon microphones are naturally Figure of Eight.

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 Uni-directional
• Unidirectional Microphones are microphones that only pick up
sound with high gain from a specific side or direction of the
microphone. Thus, if a user is speaking into a unidirectional
microphone, he must speak into correct side, normally called the
voice side, of the microphone in order to get good gain on the
recording. This is in contrast to omnidirectional microphones
which pick up sound equally from all directions of the microphone.

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 Headphones
The Four Main Types of Headphones.
1) Over-ear
• Let’s begin with the shape that jumps into our minds the moment
we hear the word “Headphones.”
• Over-ear headphones, also referred to as or full-size
headphones, are the largest and heaviest type of the
bucircumauralnch. They hold the classical shape of two big cups
connected with a band that goes around the head.
• The earpieces cover the whole ear tightly so that there is no
chance for any sound leakage. Hence, they provide superior
sound isolation, allowing you to enjoy whatever you’re hearing
without external disturbance and sparing your surroundings
the noise coming from your headphones.

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 • Regarding sound quality, they’re one of the best as they respond
well to even the lowest frequencies. Due to their big-cup design,
there’s a large room for the sound to reflect, so the soundstage is
incredible.

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 • On-ear
• This type takes a smaller size than over-ear headphones while
reserving the same around-the-ear shape.
• In terms of portability and comfort, they represent a middle-
ground between the former type and in-ear ones, but they’re
inferior in sound quality. That’s because their design allows for the
air to pass between the ear and headphones, thus opening a
space for some sounds to escape.
• However, that doesn’t eliminate your chances of finding a high-
quality one with minimum noise leakage.

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 Although their bass responses aren’t as outstanding as that of
over-ear headphones, they’re preferred by more people, as
they’re easier to carry around and use outdoors. Thanks to their
light weight, they tend to stay in place, so you can use them while
running or jumping the rope without worrying about them slipping.

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 • In-ear
• The highlight of this era is that everything is getting smaller, so
why stop at headphones? What makes this type stand out is that
it combines portability, comfort, and usability, all in a small and
compact package. That’s why it’s the most well-known type in our
days.
• Unlike the previously mentioned headphones, these get inside
your ears so that the sound is the closest to your eardrums.
They’re like earplugs but with the option of producing sounds.
Consequently, they have second-to-none sound isolation,
providing an extraordinary listening experience.
• Although their sound quality is comparable to that of over-ear
headphones, they have inferior soundstage due to the limited
space in which the sound travels.
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 • In-ear headphones may not be a suitable choice for studio editors
or music producers, but they’re definitely an important item in
everyone else’s pockets.
• They are, hands down, the first choice of fitness people and gym
residents, owing to their portable sizes. Bikers also prefer them,
as they don’t get in the way of their safety helmets.

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 • Ear buds
• Although this term is used usually to refer to in-ear headphones,
there is a difference between the two types.
• Ear buds are less invasive as they stay in the ears’ outer shell
instead of going inside. When it comes to convenience, they’re
not on top of the chart because they tend to fall out easily. The
fact that they come in only one size doesn’t help in this problem
as people’s ears have different sizes themselves.
• As one of the oldest and most basic headphones, there’s nothing
worth praising about their sound quality and isolation, yet they
come at affordable prices that reserve them a place on the market
to this day.

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 Audio Mixer
• As the name suggests, an audio mixer is a device that has the
primary function to combine and process audio. An audio mixer is
a great way to expand a recording studio or even enhance a
concert’s sound. These mixers are primarily used in four
environments: live concerts, music production in record studios,
broadcast audio, and television and cinema. This electronic
device is used for changing the quality and levels of audio
signals. It is a very convenient way to combine various audio
signals and even change the dynamics of sound. They enhance
audio integration with video to give you a perfectly consistent and
coherent A/V experience.
• It is known that the right mixer in the right hands can be powerful
and record-breaking. Make sure to educate yourself, practice, and
then purchase
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 • At the most basic level, an audio mixer combines multiple signals
and routes them to a common output for recording or
amplification through a sound reinforcement system. These
signals are the sounds that are captured by microphones or from
any other instruments. These mixers, also called mixing consoles,
mixing boards, or mixing desks, range from simple tabletop
devices to the large giants that you may see in many professional
recording studios.
• Some of the most common uses for sound mixers are:
• Combines different instruments into a stereo master mix and
additional monitoring mixes used for music studios and during live
performances

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 • Combines a variety of sounds from microphones, tape
machines, and other sources for television studios
• Combines multiple microphones into 2 or 4 channels for
easier recording during field shoots

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 Radio Transmitter

• The transmission of amplitude modulated signal is based on

the radio transmitter and receiver. It is also useful in other types
of modulation, including digital modulation. The radio transmitter is
an electronic device that produces radio waves and radiates these
waves with the help of an antenna. The antenna transmits the radio
waves from one end to the other, which is captured by the other
antenna present at the receiver end. Thus, data transmission is a
communication between the transmitter and the receiver. Let's first
discuss the transmitter and its components.

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 • Transmitter
• The transmitter is the device that sends information. It
communicates using wireless or wired media. Examples
include cell phones, Bluetooth, walkie-talkies, computer
networks, radio, and television broadcasting. A transmitter can
be a component in an electronic device or a separate component
in the circuit. The purpose of transmitters is to transmit the
information over a certain distance.

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 Components of a transmitter
• We know that a communication channel consists of three main
components, the transmitter, the communication channel, and
the receiver. The transmitter is not a single component. It also
involves a few components before transmitting the signal to the
communication channel.
• The components of a transmitter are a transducer,
processor, and transmitter. The circuit of a transmitter are as
follows:

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© Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Computer Applications and Management, New Delhi-63, by Rajender Singh Thakur & Dr. Divyshikha, Assistant Prof.,
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 Transducer
• The transducer converts the signal's energy to electrical energy to
make it suitable for transmission. For example,
Sound energy
• Sound as the input is converted to the electrical form (electronic
signal), which travels through different media, such as optical
fiber, cables, etc.
Processor
• The function of the processor is to analyze, interpret, and modify
the signal for efficient transmission.
Transmitter
• The transmitter directly sends the signal to the channel, which is
further perceived by the receiver.
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 • The information travels through the channel and reaches the
receiver. The components of the receiver are the same as a
transmitter but connected oppositely. The transmitter takes the
input from the user, converts it into a suitable form for
transmission, and sends it to the receiver through the
communication channel. The receiver captures the information,
converts it back into the original form, and sends it to the
receiver's output.

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 Recording, Broadcasting and Troubleshooting
a. Indoor: Studio, Acoustics and Perspective
b. Outdoor: Ambience and Noise

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 Indoor
• Acoustics:
• In our day-to-day life, we normally distinguish between sound and
noise In short, we refer to pleasant sequential impressions as
sound, while chaotic or obstructive sounds are considered noise.
• There is a fine line between the sound and the noise. For
reducing the noise, a sound-absorbing material is helpful. For
studying how sound transmission takes place and how to control
the noise, we will learn Acoustics. Now, let’s understand what
acoustics is.
• The word ‘Acoustic’ is derived from the following Greek word:
• ‘Akoustika’, which means ‘of or for the hearing/ready to hear’
• ‘Acoustic’, which means ‘heard or audible’.

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 • Acoustics Physics
• Acoustics is the arm of science that deals with production, control,
transmission, reception, and sound effects. In simple words,
acoustics deals with the process of generation, reception, and
propagation of sound.
• It is that branch of physics that serves the study of mechanical
waves in the states of matter (solid, liquid, and gasses) and also
with the following things:
• Sound
• Vibration
• Ultrasound and Infrasound

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 • Importance of Acoustics
• The techniques/methods we use to absorb undesirable sounds by
using soft-porous surfaces is called acoustic protection.
• For example, you are working in the steel industry, and machines
are producing large noises. To reduce this noise, what you can do
is, insert any soft material into the valves of the machine, then the
noise from that machine minimizes. It’s because the smooth and
plain surfaces produce large noise and soft-porous materials
avoid the echoing of the sound because of which the sound-level
reduces. That’s why porous materials are used in noise control
industries.

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 Outdoor
• Ambience & Noise
• Ambient sound (AKA ambient audio, ambience, atmosphere,
atmos or background noise) means the background sounds which
are present in a scene or location. Common ambient sounds
include wind, water, birds, crowds, office noises, traffic, etc.
• Ambient sound is very important in video and film work. It
performs a number of functions including:
• Providing audio continuity between shots.
• Preventing an unnatural silence when no other sound is present.
• Establishing or reinforcing the mood.
• There are several types of ambient sound used in film production.
Their exact names and meanings may vary but these are some
common definitions:
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 • Matching ambient sound Any ambient sound recorded to match
the ambient sound of a scene.
• Wild sound Background noise with distinct sounds, i.e. more
than ambient sound, which is not synchronised with the main
vision. Example: Children playing in a playground.
• Buzz track A general term for ambient sound.
• Room tone The sound of an empty room, or a room in which all
the actors are standing silently.

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