SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Dr. M. A. Jalil
Professor of Civil Engineering
BUET, Dhaka

Syllabus:
Solid Waste Management
Ultimate disposal methods
Resources and energy recovery options
3R strategy
Solid waste management policy in Bangladesh
Hazardous Waste Management
Identification, sources and characteristics of hazardous waste
Hospital waste management practices
Legal aspects
Auditing and prevention
Methods of treatment and disposal physical, chemical, biological
and thermal treatment
Stabilization and solidification, engineering storage, incineration,
landfill and deep burial
 References

1. Solid Waste Engineering by P. A. Vesilind, W. Worrell & D.

Reinhart
2. Hazardous Waste Management by C. A. Wentz
3. Text Book of Solid Wastes Management by I. H. Khan & N.
Ahsan
4. Environmental Engineering by A. P. Sincero & G. A. Sincero
5. Environmental Engineering by H. S. Peavy, D. R. Rowe & G.
Tchobanoglous
6. Water Supply & Sanitation by M. F. Ahmed & M. M.
Rahman

Solid Waste Management

What is Solid Waste?
Solid waste means any garbage, refuse, sludge from a wastewater
treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control
facility and other discarded materials including solid, liquid, semi-
solid, or contained gaseous material, resulting from industrial,
commercial, mining and agricultural operations, and from community
activities.
In Simple Words - Solid wastes are any discarded or abandoned
materials. Solid wastes can be solid, liquid, semi-solid or containerized
gaseous material.
What is Solid Waste Management?
Solid waste management is all the activities and actions required to
manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes
amongst other things, collection, transport, treatment and disposal of
waste together with monitoring and regulation. It also encompasses
the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste management
encompassing guidance on recycling etc.
 Ultimate Disposal Methods of Solid Wastes
Ultimate disposal
Regardless of how much reuse, recycling and energy recovery is
achieved some fraction of the solid wastes must be returned
to the environment.

Ultimate disposal methods:

1. Landfilling
2. Landfarming
3. Deep-well injection
4. Land burial
5. Dumping in oceans and other large water bodies.

Landfilling
Landfilling is the method of disposal used most commonly for
municipal solid wastes. It involves the disposal of solid
 Landfarming
Landfarming is a waste-disposal method to treat biodegradable
industrial wastes. The wastes are either applied on top of
the land or injected below the surface of the soil.

Deep-well Injection
Deep-well injection for the disposal of liquid and solid wastes involves
injecting the wastes deep in the ground into permeable rock formations
or underground caverns. It is used principally for liquid wastes that are
difficult to treat and dispose of by more conventional methods and for
hazardous wastes.
 Land Burial
Land burial is the waste-disposal method for hazardous wastes such
as toxic chemicals and radioactive materials. It involves confining
such wastes into large steel tanks or concrete tanks and bury
them into deep aquifers.

Ocean Dumping
Ocean dumping has been practiced for disposal of municipal solid
wastes. It involves loading up large barges by municipal refuse,
transporting them some distance from sea-shore, and unloading
the garbage into the water. This method is no longer allowed
because of inherent environmental problems associated with it.
 Solid Waste Disposal in Low-Income Countries
Indiscriminate dumping of solid wastes in and around cities in low-
income countries is very common and creates the following
problems:
Health hazards to nearby residents through inhalation of dust and
smoke from burning waste.
Environmental pollution from smoke and gas.
Contamination of surface and ground water through waste
leachate.
Soil pollution through direct waste contact and leachate.
Blockage of open drains and sewers resulting in urban flood,
creating serious secondary problems relating to public health and
environmental pollution.
Health hazards to waste workers and pickers through direct
contact with waste.
Spreading of diseases by different vectors like insects, rodents and
birds.
 Solid Waste Disposal Practices in Low-Income Countries

Type Description Indicators

Waste This is common in cities No primary collection.
discarded at and towns where no No functional
source collection system institution responsible
operates. for solid waste
management (SWM).
Waste is deposited by Scattered waste in
households in streets and streets and open areas.
open spaces as they Waste consumption by
generate it. animals is common.
Burning of waste
piles.

Type Description Indicators

Uncontrolled There is a primary There is an
local disposal collection system and institution
waste is taken manually responsible for
or in carts to a few SWM.
undesignated disposal Waste is removed
points. from streets to
nearby open places.
There is no secondary Waste quantities
transportation using accumulate.
vehicles. Such systems Waste picking
are common in small starts.
towns. Waste consumption
by animals is
common.
 Type Description Indicators
Uncontrolled Primary and secondary There is an
city disposal collection is available. institution
responsible for
Waste is generally SWM.
removed from the Waste is removed in
immediate environment two stages i.e.
and taken in vehicles to primary and
undesignated placed secondary.
away from residential Transfer points are
areas. provided.
Often, vehicle
drivers decide the
disposal point.
Waste picking
continues at all
stages.

Type Description Indicators

Semi- Primary and secondary Waste disposal
controlled collection is provided. options are in the
Disposal planning stage.
Waste is generally Vehicle drivers
removed from the transport the
immediate environment collected waste to
and taken in vehicles to designated site.
designated places outside Waste picking
the residential area. continues at all
stages.
There is no management
or equipment at the
disposal site.
 Type Description Indicators
Controlled Primary and secondary Engineering
disposal collection is provided. disposal options are
in the planning
Waste is taken outside stage.
the residential area to Vehicle drivers
designated sites in transport the
vehicles. collected waste to
designated sites.
There is some Controls over waste
operational control and picking at disposal
equipment/plant sites begin.
available at the site, Solid waste
though disposal is not authority owns the
fully engineered. site.
Waste picking
continues.

Type Description Indicators

Fully Waste is disposed of in a Details of planning
engineered fully-controlled manner and records are
disposal/ with maximum available.
sanitary protection to the All facilities for
landfill environment. proper land filling
and environment
This is quite uncommon protection are
in low-income countries. available and
function
satisfactorily.
No waste picking.
There exists a
strong landfill
management unit.
 Landfill Development Levels
Solid waste disposal by landfill should be done in a sanitary manner to protect health and
environment. Landfills in developing countries may be categorized into 4 development
levels based on the available facilities of the landfills. The main features of these landfill
development levels are presented in Table 1.

Table: Sanitary Landfill Levels in Developing Countries.

Facility Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Description Controlled Sanitary Sanitary Sanitary Landfill
tipping Landfill with Landfill with with Leachate
bund and leachate re- Treatment
daily cover circulation facilities
(l) Soil cover
(Periodic)
(2) Embankment
(3) Drainage facility
(4) Gas venting
(5) Leachate collection
(6) Leachate
recirculation
(7) Leachate treatment
(8) Liner

Sanitary Landfill

Sanitary landfill is an engineered method for land disposal of solid

and hazardous wastes in a manner that protects the
environment and public health. It is the only widely acceptable
method of solid waste disposal currently all over the world.

Landfilling Methods
The principal methods for landfilling dry areas can be classified as
Area method
Trench method
Depression method
Area Method

It is used when the terrain is unsuitable for excavation.

The filling operation is usually started by building an
earthen levee against which wastes are placed in thin
layers and compacted.
When the thickness of the compacted wastes reached
layer of cover material is placed over the completed
fill.
Successive lifts are placed on top of one another until
the final design shape is reached.
A final layer of cover material is applied on the final
shape.
Trench Method

It is the most widely used method of landfilling.

It is suitable where the water table is well below the
soil surface and excavation is not difficult.
The sides and base of the trench which is to be filled
with solid wastes are lined with impermeable materials
if natural clay layer is non-existent.
An earthen embankment is constructed at the
boundary of the landfill site to prevent entry of surface
runoff and flood water.
The filling of waste starts from the bed and is the same
as in the case of area method of landfilling.
The excavated soil is used as cover material.
 Depression Method
It is used where natural or artificial depressions exist.
Canyons, ravines, dry borrow pits, and quarried have all been used for this
purpose.
The techniques to place and compact solid wastes vary with the geometry of
the site, the characteristics of the cover materials, the hydrology and geology
of the site, and the access to the site.

Advantages and disadvantages of sanitary landfill

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Where land is available, a sanitary 1. In highly populated areas, suitable land
landfill is the most economic method of may not be available within the
solid waste disposal. economical haul distances.
2. The initial investment is low compared 2. Proper sanitary landfill practices must
with other disposal methods. be adhered to; otherwise it will turn into
an open dump.
3. A sanitary landfill is the final or 3. Sanitary landfills located in residential
complete disposal method as compared area cause nuisance and provoke public
to other method that need subsequent opposition.
operations.
4. A sanitary landfill can receive almost 4. A completed landfill will settle and
all types of solid wastes, eliminating the require periodic maintenance.
necessary for separate collection.
5. A sanitary landfill is flexible; increased 5. Buildings constructed on completed
quantities of solid wastes can be sanitary landfills require special
disposed of with little additional considerations for design.
personnel and equipment.
6. Low-land can be reclaimed and used 6. Methane and other gases generated in
for many purposes. landfills may become a hazards and
nuisance and interfere with the use of
completed landfills.
 Planning and Design of a Sanitary Landfill
A sanitary landfill needs careful planning and design for its successful
implementation. Important considerations in the planning and design of a
sanitary landfill are presented in the following Table.
Table: Important considerations in the planning and design of a sanitary landfill
Waste (i) Existing
quantities and (ii) Projected
characteristics

Environmental (i) Selection of different possible sites

Impact (ii) Preparation of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Report
Assessment (iii) Selection of the best site based on EIA

Design of i. Selection of landfilling method based on site topography, subsurface

filling area strata, etc.
ii. Design dimensions (cell width and length, lift, fill depth, daily cover
thickness, intermediate cover thickness, thickness of liner and final
cover)
iii. Specification of operational features (method of compaction, leveling,
and grading, transportation of cover material, equipment requirement,
staff requirement)

Design of (i) Access roads

Landfill (ii) Leachate control
Components (iii) Gas control
(iv) Surface water diversion
(v) Special working area
(vi) Site office
(vii) Weigh bridge
(viii)Workshop for equipment
(ix) Vehicle and equipment parking area
(x) Support utilities
(xi) Fencing
(xii) Car wash pool
(xiii) Monitoring facilities/probes
(xiv) Plantation and landscaping
Design (i) Development of preliminary site plan of fill areas
Documents (ii) Development of landfill contour plan, excavation plan, sequential fill
plans, completed fill plans, fire prevention, litter, vector, odor, and
noise control, surface water diversion
(iii)Computation of solid waste storage volumes, quantity of cover
material, and life of landfill
(iv)Development of final site plan including normal fill areas, special
working areas during rains, leachate control system, gas control
system, access roads, site office, weigh bridge and other structures
e.g. workshop and garage, monitoring wells/probes/stations, fencing
etc.
(v) Preparation of elevation plans with cross-sections of excavated fill,
completed fill, and phase development fill at various stages
(vi)Preparation of construction details for fencing, access roads, liners,
leachate collection and disposal system, gas collection and energy
recovery or flaring facilities, surface water diversion channels,
workshop, garage, site office, weigh bridge etc.
(vii)Preparation of final land use plan after closure of landfill
(viii)Preparation of environmental monitoring plan
(ix)Preparation of cost estimates
(x) Preparation of design report
(xi)Application along with EIA report for obtaining approval of the
regulating authority

Operational Manual
A sanitary landfill should have an operational manual for proper operation
of the site, which should contain the following items:
(1) Waste receiving control;
(2) Recording the amount of type of wastes received;
(3) Rates and rating system for receiving wastes;
(4) Regulation of traffic and behavior at the site;
(5) Instruction for deposit of first layer of waste;
(6) Routes for deposit of different types of wastes, including daily cover;
(7) Hauling and compaction of deposited wastes;
(8) Occupational safety of the workers and other working within the site;
(9) Regulation and routine for work with leachate,
(10) Routine for cleaning the roads and site including collection of littering
paper;
(11) Routine to avoid dust and smoke;
(12) Routine for fire control.
 Planning of a sanitary landfill
The design period should be 10-30 years
The landfill site must provide sufficient landfill capacity for the
selected design period
The site must support ancillary solid waste functions
leachate collection and treatment
storm water collection
landfill gas management
landfill control area
special waste services
material recovery facilities
Calculate the required landfill capacity with data of population
projection, per capita waste generation rate, diversion rate,
compacted density of solid wastes and soil cover.
The following factors could affect the volume requirement of the
landfill
new regulations for waste diversion/recycling
existence or closure of competing facilities
different cover options
non-residential waste changes

Problem 1: A refuse has the following components and bulk densities:

Component Percentage by weight Uncompacted bulk density (lb/ft3)
Miscellaneous paper 50 3.81
Garden waste 25 4.45
Glass 25 18.45

Assume that the compaction in the landfill is 44.4 lb/ft3. Estimate the % volume
reduction achieved during compaction of the waste. Estimate the overall
uncompacted bulk density if the miscellaneous paper is removed.

Solution: The overall bulk density prior to compaction is

(50 + 25 + 25)/ [(50/3.81) + (25/4.45) + (25/18.45)] = 4.98 lb/ft3.

The fraction remaining of initial volume during compaction = 4.98 / 44.4 = 0.11

The % volume reduction = (1 0.11) 100 = 89

If the mixed paper is removed, the overall bulk density is

(25 + 25)/ [(25/4.45) + (25/18.45)] = 7.18 lb/ft3.

 Problem 2: Calculate the required landfill capacity for a community for the year
2040 from the following data:
Projected population = 12,00,000
Per capita generation rate = 6.4 lb/cap/d
Diversion fraction = 0.25
Compacted waste density = 44.4 lb/ ft3
Assume a soil daily cover is used that accounts for 20% of the landfill volume.

Solution: Compacted waste volume for the year 2040 is

[(Population) x (Per cap. gen. rate) x (1- DF) x 365 d/y] / (Compacted waste
density)
= [ 1200000 x 6.4 x (1- 0.25) x 365 ] / 44.4 = 4.74 107 ft3

To account for the volume requirement for the cover soil:

0.20 (V) + 4.74 107 = V
V = 5.92 107 ft3

Landfilling with an average depth of 25 ft would have a footprint of 54.4 acres.

Site Selection
The general process of site selection is likely to follow the step-by-step
sequence illustrated in the following Figure.
Input
Step No.
1 Carryout constraint mapping apply geographical exclusion criteria

Areas of potential sites

consider target land area
2 Identify long list of comparable potential sites
requirement, land ownership and
current use
Long list of potential sites
assessment of physical and
3 Conduct walk over surveys environmental conditions of sites
and surrounding areas

Short list of candidate sites

from topographic survey consider
4 Prepare conceptual design and initial costing site development and phasing
and environmental impacts
Site capacities and indicative costs
 Carry out site investigation on confirm geology and hydrogeology
5 preferred site(s)

Confirmed estimates of cost

and capacity

prepare work program and

6 Prepare feasibility report cash flow forecast and the
formal EIA
Basis for decision

commit development of
7 Decision preferred site

Constraint Mapping
The list of area exclusion criteria is given in the following Table.

Aspect Criteria
Transport T1. More than 2 km from a suitable main road
T2. More than an economic travel distance from points of origin
of waste generation

Natural N1. Flood plain or other area liable to flooding

conditions N2. Extreme morphology
N3. High or seasonably high water table
N4. Geologically faulted area
N5. Wetlands or other areas of ecological significance

Land use L1. Designated groundwater recharge, sole source aquifer

or surface water catchment areas for water supply schemes.
L2. Incompatible future land use designations on or adjacent to
the site
L3. Within a military exclusion zone
 Aspect Criteria

Public P1. Within 200 m of existing residential area

acceptability P2. Within an acceptable distance from historical,
religious or other important cultural site or heritage
P3. Areas with high population density

Safety S1. Within 5 km of an airport runway

S2. Within a microwave transmitter exclusion zone
S3. Within a safe buffer distance from an existing
of planned quarry
S4. Area of former military activity
S5. Areas known to contain collapsing soil
 Decomposition of Solid Wastes in Landfills
Solid wastes that is disposed off in a landfill decomposes
by physical, chemical and biological processes, and the
landfill can be considered as a natural biochemical
reactor.

Three stages of waste decomposition:

i. Aerobic decomposition
ii. Facultative decomposition
iii. Anaerobic decomposition

Aerobic decomposition:

First stage of decomposition by aerobic microorganisms due

to presence of oxygen in the small amount of air trapped
during waste disposal.
It is dominant near the surface of landfills as more oxygen is
available until covered by soil.
It comes to an end when all the available oxygen is
exhausted.
The general reaction is:

Biodegradable waste + O2 + Aerobic microbes = CO2 + H2O +

biomass +heat + partially degraded waste

The materials released in the process contribute to the

formation of leachate. An acidic environment is created.
Facultative decomposition:

Second phase of decomposition by facultative

microbes as oxygen is depleted within the waste.
The general reaction is:
Biodegradable waste+ Facultative microbes = CO2 +
H2O + NH3+ H2 + VFA + biomass + partially degraded
waste
Highly acidic leachate (pH = 5.5-6.5) is generated

Anaerobic decomposition:

Anaerobic (methanogenic) bacterial become active and

produce methane, carbon dioxide and water
The process continues for many years.
The general reactions are :

H2 + CO2 = CH4 + H2O

VFA = CH4 + CO2
The dominant gas produced is methane. Other gases
produced include N2 and H2S.
The pH of leachate increase to 7-9 and becomes less
chemically aggressive
The methane has high calorific value and is therefore
suitable for energy recovery.
If the methane escapes the landfill, it contributes to green
house effect.
 Leachate Management
Leachate can be defined as liquid that is produced from decomposition
of wastes and from percolation of external water through the wastes
extracting dissolved and suspended matters from it including the
products of its decomposition.

Characteristics of Leachate

The characteristics of leachate may vary with the type of waste

deposited in the landfill. It also changes with time depending
on the physical, chemical and biological reactions that take
place in the landfill. A generalized variation in the
concentration of leachate constituents with time is shown in
the following Figure.

Fig. Typical concentration profile of leachate constituents.

The concentration level of a constituent first increases
to a peak value and later over a period of time is starts
decreasing, the time to attain the peak value depends
on the type of pollutant readily soluble pollutants
reach the peak value quickly, easily biodegradable
pollutants attain the peak value later, and poorly
soluble/biodegradable pollutants reach the peak value
after a long time from the start of decomposition of the
wastes. Representative data on the characteristics of
leachate are given in the Table of the next page.

After about 25 to 30 years of closure of a landfill, the

waste is fully stabilized. The concentration of pollutants
in the leachate is then significantly low and may not be
harmful.

Table : Data on the composition of leachate from landfills.

Parameter Concentration mg/L*
Range Typical
BOD5 2000-30000 10000
TOC 1500-20000 6000
COD 3000-45000 18000
TSS 200-1000 500
Organic nitrogen 10-600 200
Ammonia nitrogen 10-800 200
Nitrate 5-40 25
Total phosphorus 1-70 30
Ortho-phosphorus 1-50 20
Alkalinity as CaCO3 1000-10000 3000
pH 5.3-9.6 6
Total hardness as CaCO3 300-10000 3500
Calcium 200-3000 1000
Magnesium 50-1500 250
Potassium 200-2000 300
Sodium 200-2000 500
Chloride 100-3000 500
Sulfate 100-1500 300
Total iron 50-600 60
*Except pH
Leachate Migration

In most cases, it is impossible to predict accurately the

movement of escaped leachate, but the main
controlling factors are the surrounding geology and
hydrogeology. Escape to surface waters may be
relatively easy to control whereas escape to
groundwater can be much more difficult both to
control and to clean up.

The degree of groundwater contamination will be

affected by physical, chemical and biological actions
taking place in the sub-surface region as the leachate
moves from the landfill to the sub-surface region.

Leachate Management System

Key components are:
Leachate minimization
Leachate containment
Leachate collection
Leachate recirculation
Leachate treatment
Final disposal of leachate
Monitoring of leachate leakage
Leachate Quantities

In order to design a suitable landfill liner and an effective leachate collection

system, it is necessary to estimate the quantity of leachate that will be
generated in the landfill. The common methods are:
1. Water Balance Method (WBM)
2. Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) model

WBM : It is the most widely approach for estimating the quantities of

leachate and can be expressed as

L = P ET RO -

Where,
L = the leachate volume
P = the volume of precipitation
ET = the volume lost through evapotranspiration
RO = the volume of surface runoff

the initial moisture content.

Fig. Schematic of components of water balance with a landfill

Problem 3: Estimate the percolation of leachate through a
landfill 10m deep, with a 1m cover of silty clay for the
following data.
P = 2500 mm/year
R = 0.35 (Runoff coefficient)
ET = 780 mm/year
Silty clay field capacity = 400 mm/m
Refuse field capacity = 300 mm/m
Assume further that the soil cover is at field capacity when
applied, and that the incoming waste has a moisture content
of 150mm/m.

Solution :
Percolation through the soil cover is
L = P(1 - R) ET -
= 2500 (1 - 0.35) 780 - (400 - 400)
= 845 mm/y
The refuse has a net absorption capacity of (300-150)
mm/m i.e. 150mm/m.
The leachate front will move (845 mm/y) / (150 mm/m)
= 5.63 m/y
So, it will take
10 m / (5.63 m/y) = 1.78 y
to produce a leachate that will be collected at a rate of
(845mm×area of landfill) per year.
HELP Model:
It is the most frequently used computer model for leachate generation.
It requires detailed on-site morphology and extensive hydrologic data to
perform the water balance.
It is a quasi-two-dimensional hydrologic model of water movement
across, into, through, and out of a landfill.
Site specific information is needed for precipitation, evapotranspiration,
temperature, wind speed, infiltration rates, and watershed parameters,
such as, area, imperviousness, slope and depression storage.
The model accepts weather, soil and design data and uses solution
techniques that accounts for the effects of surface storage, snowmelt,
runoff, infiltration, evapotranspiration, vegetative growth, soil moisture
storage, lateral subsurface drainage, leachate recirculation, unsaturated
vertical drainage, and leakage through soil, geomembrane, or composite
liners.
The HELP model is most useful for long-term prediction of leachate
quantity and comparison of various design alternatives; however, it is not
suitable for prediction of daily leachate production.

Leachate Control
Because of the potential risk involved in allowing leachate to percolate
to the groundwater, best practice calls for its elimination or
containment. Ultimately it may be necessary to collect and treat the
leachate.
The use of clay has been favored method of reducing or eliminating the
percolation of leachate. Membrane liners have also been used, but they
are expensive and require care so that they will not be damaged during
the filling operations.
The liner system in a landfill should be designed to satisfy the following
requirements:
1. It should prevent migration of leachate or landfill gas to the
subsurface soil or groundwater.
2. Liner material should have adequate resistance to damage due to
vehicular movement, climatic conditions, or chemical reactions
with the waste or leachate
3. It should be installed both at the base and around sides of the
landfill.
 Landfills may be designed with single, composite, or double liners.
Equally important in controlling the movement of leachate is the
elimination of surface-water infiltration, which is the major
contributor to the total volume of leachate. With the use of an
impermeable clay layer, and appropriate surface slope (1 to 2 percent)
and adequate drainage, surface infiltration can be controlled
effectively.

Leachate Collection System

Leachate collection system is designed to avoid accumulation of
leachate in the landfills.
It includes sloped terrace and a pipe network for leachate
collection.
It is provided at the bottom of landfills but above the liner system
in a drainage layer filled with granular materials.
Completely wrapping the fill is a nonwoven geotextile to filter out
any fines to protect the granular fill.

A leachate collection
system is shown here
 The spacing of laterals can be deduced as follows:

q = rate of flow per unit length of the lateral.

yc = elevation of the top surface above the liner
yo = thickness of the drainage layer
L = spacing of the lateral
K = hydraulic conductivity of the drainage layer.

According to the Figure in the previous slide,

q/2 = [(yo + yc) / 2] K [(yo-yc)/(L/2)

or, q = 2K (yo2-yc2) / L

L = 2K(yo2-yc2)/q

Problem 4:
Design the spacing of laterals for an uncapped landfill for a required
maximum leachate head of 30.5cm, if the top surface of the laterals is 10
cm above the bottom liner. Assume that the hydraulic conductivity of the
drainage layer is 100 m/d and the overall vertical hydraulic conductivity
through the waste is 10-3cm/s. Also, determine the flow rate through each
lateral.

Solution :
Downward percolating water, qv = Kv = 10-3 cm/s = 10-5 m/s =10-5 m3/ m2-s

q = qv L = 10-5 L m3/ m-s

L = 2K(yo2-yc2)/q = [2 x 100 x (0.3052 0.102)] / [10-5 L x (60 x 60 x 24)]

L = 4.38 m

q = qv L = 10-5 x 4.38 = 4.38 x 10-5 m3/ m-s

 Problem 5:
The following three soils layers are lying between the base of a
landfill and the underlying aquifer. How long will it take for
leachate to migrate to the aquifer? Also, calculate the amount
of leachate flowing down if the landfill area is 50 hectare.

Depth Porosity Permeability

(m) (%) (m/s)
Soil A 2.0 42 3.0 x10-9

Soil B 2.5 44 2.0 x10-8

Soil C 3.0 43 5.8 x10-7

Solution:
Average interstitial velocity,

( p)A = (3.0 x10-9) / 0.42 m/s

( p)B = (2.0 x 10-8) / 0.44 m/s
( p)C = (5.8 x 10-7) / 0.43 m/s

= 10.69 years

Equivalent permeability,

Flow Rate, Q = v A = Ke A = 9.41 x 10 -9 x (50 x 104) x (60 x 60) = 16.94 m3/h

 Leachate Treatment
Due to a variety of physical, chemical and biological
constituents in leachate, no single treatment method can
be recommended.

Following are the important factors in the design of a

leachate treatment system:

Quantity or rate of flow of leachate generated

Concentration of various contaminants
Available treatment and disposal options

Leachate treatment options are summarised in the following

Table.

Table: Summary of leachate treatment options

Treatment option Removal Comments
objective
Biological Best used on "young" leachate
Activated BOD/COD Flexible, shock resistant, proven, minimum SRT
sludge increases with increasing organic strength, >90 %
BOD5 removal possible.
Aerated lagoons BOD/COD Good application to small flows,
>90 % BOD5 removal possible.
Anaerobic BOD/COD Aerobic polishing necessary to achieve
high-quality effluent

Physical/chemical Useful as polishing step or for treatment of "old"

leachate
Coagulation/ Heavy metals High removal of Fe, Zn, moderate removal of Cr,
precipitation Cu, Mn, little removal of Cd, Pb, Ni
Chemical oxidation COD Raw leachate treatment requires high chemical
doses, better used as polishing step.
Ion exchange COD 10-70 % removal, slight metal removal
Adsorption BOD/COD 30-70 % COD removal after biological or
chemical treatment
Reverse osmosis TDS 90-96 % TDS removal
Leachate Recirculation

Most sanitary landfills are traditionally constructed that the

leachate is collected and treated prior to final discharge. The
years, often preventing commercial recovery of methane gas
and delaying closure and possible future use of the landfill
site.

In contrast, leachate recirculation option that requires the

containment, collection and recirculation of leachate back
through the landfilled waste offers more rapid stabilization
within 2-3 years instead of the usual 15-20 years. This
acclerated stabilization is enhanced by the routine and
uniform exposure of microorganisms to constituents in the
leachate, thereby providing the necessary contact time,
nutrients, substrate for efficient conversion and degradation.
The landfill becomes a dynamic anaerobic bioreactor.

Lechate can be recirculated to the landfill by

wetting of waste as it is placed
spraying of leachate over the landfill surface
injection of leachate into vertical columns or
horizontal trenches installed within the landfill.

Leachate recirculation increases the base flow of

leachate from the landfill. The additional flow must be
considered during design, especially following rain
events. It is very important to have contingency plan
when leachate generation exceeds on-site storage
capacity.
 Final Disposal of Leachate

Leachate may be disposed off through evaporation,

recirculation back to the landfill, or on land, into sewers or
waterbodies.

Leachate evaporationis is carried out in evapration ponds

with a suitable clay or geomembrane lining at the base and
sides of the ponds. It is suitable for dry weather conditions
and for low volume of leachate.

Leachate recirculation is achieved by pumping the treated

leachate to "dry" landfills and distributing the leachate into
the landfills.

The final disposal of the leachate in sewers, land or

waterbodies should conform to the prescribed
guidelines/standards laid down by the relevant authority.

Stormwater Management
Stormwater management is very important for a landfill site.
Surface runon into a landfill increases the volume of leachate generated
and is usually controlled by constructing dikes at the periphery of the
landfill site.
Surface runoff from a landfill is to be maximized by applying soil cover
maintaining suitable slope in order to reduce infiltration of stormwater
into the landfill resulting in production of less amount of leachate.
Surface runoff is to be properly drained out to prevent the erosion of
the soil cover and the flooding of access roads. Improper drainage of
stormwater may totally disrupt the movement of waste dump
vehicles/trucks during heavy rainfall.
Roadside drains are constructed to collect the stormwater runoff from
all types of surfaces within the landfill and discharge it into the
surrounding natural drainage channels. To prevent erosion of the top
cover soil, saucer drains at the berms and top surface are constructed
and connected to covered pipes which discharge the collected
stormwater into the road side drains as shown in the following Figure.
The dimensions of a drain/pipe depend on design rainfall, size and
geometry of the catchment area, and slope and type of the drainage
surfaces.
 Landfill Gas Control
Table: Potential environmental impacts of landfill gases
Impacts Description
Explosion Due to methane migration and accumulation in confined areas with
subsequent ignition resulting in serious injury or death and/or damage to
buildings or other structures.
Asphyxiation Workers on the landfill or people or animals in the vicinity may suffer from
asphyxiation due to accumulation of gas in any confined area.

Vegetation Crops or other vegetation are damaged as a result of oxygen deficiency

damage due to landfill gas migration in the root zones. Some trace components of
landfill gases are toxic to plants.
Nuisance Due to presence of malodorous gases
Water pollution Carbon dioxide, highly soluble in water, increases the hardness, decreases
the pH and the water becomes acidic.
Corrosion Acid forming gases may cause corrosion of landfill equipment and other
metallic items.
Health effect Migration of trace compounds and emission from incomplete combustion
of gases during flaring may contain dioxins and furans which cause serious
health hazard.
Green house Methane and carbon dioxide present in the landfill gases contribute to the
effect green house effect.
 Composition of Landfill Gas:

Table: Typical composition of landfill gases

Component % by volume
Methane 47.7
Carbon dioxide 47
Nitrogen 3.7
Oxygen 0.8
Hydrogen 0.1
Carbon Monoxide 0.1
Hydrogen Sulfide 0.01
Trace Compounds 0.5

Stages of Landfill Gas Generation

The generation of landfill gases occurs in five district phases as shown in
the following Figure.

Figure: Idealistic development of landfill gases.

Duration of these phases depends upon the type of wastes, moisture
content, nutrient content, pH, initial compaction level, particle size,
temperature etc. Each of these phases in described below:
Phase I: This is an aerobic phase that takes place immediately after the
waste is disposed off. Easily biodegradable substances are broken down by
the presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide is produced.
Phase II: This is a transition phase in which oxygen is depleted and
anaerobic conditions start developing. Fermentative and acidogenic
bacteria produce volatile fatty acids, carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
Phase III: In this phase, methanogenic bacteria starts to grow and produce
methane. Organic acids and hydrogen gas formed during phase II are
converted into methane and carbon dioxide. Increasing amount of
methane will be produced and the concentration of carbon dioxide will
decrease.
Phase IV: This is the so-called stable methanogenic phase. It is
characterized by 50-60% of methane. Hydrogen is oxidized by carbon
dioxide to form methane and the concentration of CO2 is reduced.
Phase V: During this stabilization phase, methane and carbon dioxide
production will begin to decrease and the presence of atmospheric air will
reintroduce aerobic conditions.

Quantity of Landfill Gas Generation

Methods of estimation are:
Stoichiometry method
IPCC method
Test well method
Rough approximation method

Stoichiometry Method:
The most common technique is to use stoichiometry. If the chemical
composition of organic matter present in the wastes is known, the
following equation can be used to determine the volume of principal
gases in the landfill.
 CaHbOcNd + ( ) H2O ) CH4

+( ) CO2 + dNH3

where CaHbOcNd is the chemical composition of the municipal solid wastes.

IPCC method:
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has suggested
guidelines to estimate the quantity of methane generated from municipal
solid wastes as follows:
CH4 emission= MSWi * FDOCi * FDi * MEFi * CRi
Where MSWi = Amount of municipal solid wastes disposed off
FDOCi = Fraction of degradable organic carbon
FDi = Fraction of total degradable organic carbon which actually degrades
(about 0.75)
MEFi = Methane emission factor (about 0.5)
CRi = Methane carbon conversion rate (16/12)
The method gives a fair prediction of the potential of gas generation in a landfill.

Test Well Method:

This is the most reliable method for estimating the gas production
from an existing landfill.
It involves construction of a gas well at the landfill site and
monitoring of quantity and quality of gas received.
The number of test wells required for this purpose depends upon the
size of landfill as well as characteristics waste.

Rough Approximation Method:

This method is used to assess the quantity of gas generated based on

the volume of waste disposed off in a landfill.
It is assumed that about 6m3 of gas is generated every year from
each ton of wastes.
Estimation from this method may vary by as much as 50%.
Pb. Estimate the theoretical volume of methane and carbon dioxide
gases that would be expected from the anaerobic digestion of a ton
of waste having the composition C50H100O40N.
Solution:

CaHbOcNd + ( ) H2O ) CH4

+( ) CO2 + dNH3

a = 50, b = 100, c = 40, d = 1

C50H100O40N + 5.75 H2 4 + 22.875 CO2 + NH3

(1354) (103.5) (434) (1006.5) (17)

The weight of CH4 gas produced per ton of the waste

= (434/1354) x 1000 kg/ton = 320.5 kg/ton
The weight of CO2 gas produced per ton of the waste
= (1006.5/1354) x 1000 kg/ton = 743.4 kg/ton

Density of CH4 gas at STP = 0.7167 kg/m3

Density of CO2 gas at STP = 1.9783 kg/m3
Volume of methane gas = = 447.2 m3/ton
Volume of carbon dioxide gas = = 375.8 m3/ton

Comments: In practice, a portion of the waste would be used for

the synthesis of cell tissue. Hence, the actual volume of gas
would be about 0.85 times the value determined.
Control of Gas Movement:

The gases generated from a landfill should be either vented to the

atmosphere or in larger landfills, collected for the production of energy.

Gas venting:
The methods of gas venting are:
(1) Cell vent
(2) trench vent
(3) perforated-pipe vent, and
(4) well vent, as shown in the next slide.

The cell vent, composed of gravel, is put directly above the daily cover.
In a trench vent, a trench is dug as deep as the solid wastes and filled
with gravel.
In the perforated pipe vent, perforated pipes are used to collect and
convey the gases to riser pipes for gas venting.
The well vent composed of gravel packed gas well is installed in deeper
landfill to collect and vent the gases to the atmosphere.
Gas Recovery:
The objectives of gas recovery is
to prevent migration and accumulation of landfill gases
to use it as an energy source
to reduce the emission of green house gases
The methane gas has a high calorific value and can be utilized for recovery of energy.
A typical gas recovery system is shown in the following figure

• Active extraction systems link collection wells with piping and

extract the gas under vacuum created by a central blower.
Landfill gas if not available is sufficient quantity or found of
poor quality is not feasible for energy recovery. In such cases,
gas should be burnt off by standby flare.

• Gas collected from landfill contains various impurities

especially water vapor and hydrogen sulfide, which are
removed for efficient energy recovery. The purified gas is used
to generate electricity using a generator and the electricity is
supplied to the power grid or locally used.
 Resource Recovery from Solid Waste:
The processes of resource recovery may be classified into two groups:
Recovery by materials separation
Recovery by materials conversion
Recovery by materials separation is the sorting of the groups of materials
contained in the waste stream without changing their physical and chemical
properties. It can be done either through separation at the source or through
mixes waste separation at some control locations.
Recovery by materials conversion is the recovery of products for transformation
and their use as raw materials or sources of energy as well as harnessing of
the energy released during transformation.
Options for utilization of recovered resources are:
- re-use of useable items in house hold wastes e.g. glass bottles, plastic
bottles, metal containers, etc.;
- direct application of wastes on land;
- recycling through materials recovery processes;
- energy recovery through thermal combustion, incineration etc.;
- composting or other chemical or biological processes.

Recycling Process in Bangladesh:

In Bangladesh, wastes having some market value are being reclaimed or
salvaged in three stages.
In the first stage, housewives/maids separate refuse of higher market
value such as papers, bottles, fresh containers old clothes, shoes etc. and
sell them to street hawkers.
Mostly children of slum dwellers known as “Tokai” carry out the second
stage of salvaging. They collect different items of low market value from
waste collection bins. The items include broken glass, cans, cardboard,
waste papers, rags, plastics, metals and miscellaneous commercial
wastes discarded by households.
Scavengers at the final disposal sites do the third stage of salvaging when
municipal trucks unload fresh refuse.
The reclaimed materials reach the old materials shops through the street
hawkers and waste collectors. The salvaged materials require
intermediate processing like washing, drying and sorting.
The refuse dealers separate the material and sell them to shops for direct
use or supply them to appropriate processing factories for reuse as raw
materials.
 Hazardous Wastes Management
Hazardous Waste: A hazardous waste has physical, chemical or
biological characteristics which cause potential danger to human
beings, other creatures, microorganisms, property or the
environment.

In general, hazardous wastes have one or more of the characteristics

– corrosivity, ignitability, reactivity, radio activity, toxicity,
carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, bioaccumulation and phytotoxicity.

For a hazardous waste to be a risk, a person, animal, or plant must be

exposed to it, and exposed in a way that can cause harm. Unless
the waste has escaped into the environment, the greatest hazard
is usually to the workers handling it.

Corrosive, ignitable, or reactive wastes can also harm materials, as

when a corrosive waste “eats” a metal container.

Human Exposure Pathways for Hazardous Wastes

Human population is mainly exposed to hazardous wastes
thorough inhalation, ingestion and dermal exposure. The main
pathways are shown in below:

Figure: Pathways of Human Exposure to Hazardous Wastes

Fig. Flow Chart for
Hazardous Wastes Screening

Review of Treatment and Disposal Options for

Hazardous Wastes
Problems in Hazardous Wastes Treatment and Disposal
– Technological limitations
– Involves some degrees of risk
– Involves cost
Problems in Developing Countries
Poor control in storage, handling, transportation & disposal
Scattered in small quantities in units that generate wastes
Producers are unaware of short and long term effects
Limited organizational capacity, skills and financial resources
Many other problems receive attention over hazardous
wastes
Five General Categories of Hazardous Wastes
Radioactive substances
Toxic Chemicals
Biological Wastes
Flammable Wastes
Explosives
Classification for Processing and Treatment Operations
Inorganic chemicals of low toxicity
Inorganic chemicals with toxic metals/compounds
Organic chemical with low toxicity
Organic chemicals with toxic metals/chemicals
Radiological washes
Biological wastes
Flammable wastes
Explosives

Hazardous Waste Minimization

Fig. : Selection Process of Hazardous Wastes Minimization

 Potential Management Priorities for
Hazardous Wastes

1. Comply with laws and regulation

2. Reduce disposal cost and resource commitment
3. Reduce short-term liabilities during waste
processing, transportation and storage
4. Eliminate long-term landfill liabilities
5. Ensure reliability of the technology
6. Protect environment and human health
7. Provide employee incentives
8. Provide organizational incentives
9. Improve public and community relations
10. Enhance corporate image

Potential Process and Operation Alternatives for Waste Minimization

1. Exhaust Pollution Prevention Alternatives
2. Education and training of employee Improve house keeping
3. Assure quality materials procured
4. Improve handling and distribution of materials
5. Substitute materials that are likely to generate wastes
6. Modify process operating conditions
7. Improve process control and operating conditions
8. Recycling wastes to other processes
9. Recover wastes for other uses
10. Modify maintenance procedure
11. Modify process equipment
12. Modify materials of construction
13. Modify product specification
14. Treatment of waste to reduce quantity
15. Treatment of wastes to reduce risk of hazards
16. Treatment of wastes to render it nonhazardous

The above mentioned potential management priorities and potential process

and operation alternatives can be used as a checklist for the development,
implementation and control of successful waste minimization program.
Table 1: Treatment Processes Suitable for Different types of Wastes
Functions Type of Forms of
Operations/Processes
Perform Wastes Wastes
PHYSICAL TREATMENT
Solidification/Encapsulation St 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 L, S
Aeration Se 1, 2, 3, 4 L
Carbon Absorption Vr, Se 1, 3 L, G
Stripping Vr, Se 1, 2, 3, 4 L
Sedimentation/Flotation Se, Vr 1, 2, 3. 4, 5,7 L
Centrifugation Se, Vr l, 2, 3, 4, 5 L
Flocculation/Settling Se, Vr 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 L
Filtration Se 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 L
Reverse Osmosis Se, Vr 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 L
Evaporation Se, Vr 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8 L
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Neutralization/Precipitation De 1, 2, 3, 4 L
Coagulation/Sedimentation Se, De 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 L
Ion exchange Se, De 1, 2, 3, 4 L
Chlorination/Ozonation De 1, 2, 3, 4 L
Reduction De 1, 2 L

Functions Type of Forms of

Operations/Processes
Perform Wastes Wastes
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
Waste Stabilization Ponds De 3 L
Aerated Lagoon De 3 L
Activated Sludge De 3 L
Trickling Filters De 3 L
Anaerobic Digestion De 3 L
Anaerobic Filtration De 3 L
THERMAL TREATMENT
Incineration Vr, De 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 S, L, G
Pyrolysis Vr, De 3, 4, 6 S, L, G

Functions: De - Detoxification; Se - Separation; St- Storage; Vr- Volume reduction

Waste type: 1. lnorganic chemicals of low toxicity 2. Inorganic chemicals with toxic
metals/compounds; 3. Organic Chemicals of low toxicity; 4. Organic Chemicals with
toxic metals/compounds; 5. Radiological.· 6. Biological; 7. Flammable; 8.Explosive.
Waste forms: S-Solids; L-Liquids; G-Gaseous
Table: Advantages, Disadvantages and Limitations of Physical Processes

Process Advantages Disadvantages Limitations

Solidification/ Application to many solid, Not completely immobile Not effective for all
Encapsulation semi-solid and liquid wastes and nonreactive wastes
Carbon Very effective, application Regeneration & disposal Many inorganics and
Absorption to many organics & of spent carbon required, some organics are poorly
inorganics that do not high operation and absorbed
respond to other treatment maintenance costs
Stripping Well understood Air control required Application only to
and effective relatively volatile organic
contaminants
Sedimentation/ Well understood, inexpensive Generates sludge & scum Not applicable for soluble
Centrifugation/ for disposal and colloidal solids
Floatation
Filtration Low cost Requires pretreatment Not effective for many
constituents
Reverse High removal Pretreatment Required, Waste flow and
Osmosis potentials produces sludge for composition affect
removal, expensive performance
Flocculation- Low cost Produces sludges for Not effective for
Settling disposal many constituents
Evaporation Applicable for all waste types Energy intensive Solar evaporation is
weather dependent

Table : Advantages, Disadvantages and Limitations of Chemical and

Thermal Treatment Processes

Process Advantages Disadvantages Limitations

Neutralization/ Wide range of Produce hazardous Complexing agents
Precipitation application, low cost sludge for disposal reduces
effectiveness
Coagulation/ Low cost Generate hazardous Not effective for all
Flocculation/ sludges disposal, constituents
Sedimentation sometimes
adjustment needed
Ion exchange Can recover metal at Expensive Not effective for
high efficiency pretreatment all constituents
required
Wet air Good for wastes too Oxidation not Moderate efficiency,
Oxidation dilute for incineration, complete, may poor destruction of
too concentrate or toxic produce new many chemicals
for biological treatment hazardous waste
and require
pretreatment
Process Advantages Disadvantages Limitations
Chlorination Well understood, Produces Interfering wastes
widely used, cause chlorinated limits application
complete destruction hydrocarbons and effectiveness
of many chemicals
Ozonization Can destroy many Oxidation not Not effective for
organics complete, can many wastes
produce new
hazardous products,
high capital cost
Incineration Destroy all organics Generates toxic Requires moisture
residues for disposal, control,
causes air pollution, additional fuel for
high cost wet wastes or
superheating for
destruction of some
toxic chemicals

Table : Advantage, Disadvantages and Limitations of Biological

Treatment Processes
Process Advantages Disadvantages Limitations
Enzyme Can degrade Prohibitively high
Limited Commercial
Treatment many chemicals cost application
Waste Low cost Ground water Toxic elements/
Stabilization pollution from compounds limit
Ponds unlined ponds biodegradation
Aerated Lagoon Low cost Produces sludgeToxic elements or
treatment of for disposal compounds may
same hazardous inhibit bacterial
wastes activity
Activated Sludge Used to Gaseous emissions - do -
detoxicate may be hazardous,
some hazardous produces excess
wastes biological sludges
 Process Advantages Disadvantages Limitations
Trickling Used to produces Toxic elements
Filter detoxicate humus sludge or compounds
some hazardous for disposal may inhibit
wastes bacterial activity
Anaerobic Low energy Produce Limited to few
processes requirements sludges for wastes, toxic
disposal wastes inhibit
the processes
Absorption/ Effective for Requires safe Use in
adsorption heavy disposal of experimental
on plants metals and toxic plants stage
dyes removal

Fig. Flow Sheet for

Hazardous Waste
Treatment and
Disposal Facilities
Options for the disposal of processed, treated and
untreated hazardous wastes
– On land, in sewer and inland waters
– Ocean dumping
– Engineering storage
– Deep well injection
– Deep mine storage and disposal
– Land burial or landfill
Future demand is for more land disposal option by landfill
or land burial method but there are problems for
– Percolation of toxic liquid wastes into groundwater
– Dissolution of solid hazardous wastes by acid leachate and
percolation into ground water
– Undesirable reaction leading to explosion and release of toxic gases
– Volatization of hazardous wastes leading to release of toxic and
explosive vapors to atmosphere
– Corrosion of containers holding hazardous wastes

Consequently some special criteria will be

required for
– Selection of landfill sites
– Engineering design of landfills
– Operation of landifills

Landfill for final Disposal of Hazardous Wastes

A landfill for final disposal of hazardous waste should be

doubly lined with impermeable materials to prevent leakage
of hazardous substances in the soil and groundwater. A
secure doubly lined landfill for hazardous waste is shown in
the following figure.
Factors to be Considers for Sitting Landfills for
Hazardous Wastes
– Groundwater
– Floodplain
– Surface water
– Air quality
– Operational Safety
– Disease Transmission
– Impact of food chain and crop land
– Endangered species
Design Considerations of a Hazardous Waste Landfill

1. Type and volume of hazardous and nonhazardous wastes to

be landfilled
2. Expected active operating period of the landfill
3. Topography and soil characteristics at the site and the vicinity
4. Climatic conditions throughout the year
5. Surface water and groundwater levels in the vicinity
6. Soil cover requirement for individual containment cells
7. Anticipated quality and volume of leachate
8. Collection and treatment of leachate
9. Montoring of surface and groundwater
10. Collection and treatment of gaseous products
11. Selection of flexible membrane and other impermeable liners
12. Environmental Monitoring Plan
13. Closure and post closure plan
14. Final cover of the landfill
15. Alternative uses during post closure period
16. Possible effect on human health and environment

HOSPITAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction
• The solid wastes produced in hospitals and clinics are
called hospital/biomedical wastes.
• Hospital wastes contain chemical, biological and
sometimes radiological wastes that pose a substantial
danger, immediate or over a time to human and
classified as hazardous wastes.
• About 10 -15 percent of hospital wastes in Bangladesh
are hazardous and reaming 85 to 90 percent are similar
to general municipal (residential) wastes.
 Classification of Hospital Wastes
Hospital Wastes in Bangladesh can be classified into
following categories for management purpose:
• General Wastes (about 85%)
– Kitchen(food) wastes
– Paper, cans
– Cardboard boxes
– Non-infectious plastics
• Hazardous Wastes (about 15%)
– Sharps (Needles, blades, knife, broken glass)
– Infectious Wastes ( Pathological waste , soiled cotton &
dressing, patient's excreta, organs, placenta, lab wastes,
cytotoxic wastes, chemical wastes)
– Infectious Plastic and containers ( containers, syringes,
catheters, cannulas, clips, valves etc.)
– Radioactive wastes

Management of Hospital Wastes

Management of hospital waste need internal and external

management of the waste generated in the hospital.

The steps in the internal management of hospital wastes include:

– Identification of the type of waste (Hazardous and non-hazardous)
– Separation of wastes
– Internal Collection and storage

Training of ward boy/girl and nurses is required on classification, safe

handling, proper storage of hospital wastes.

The steps in the external management of hospital wastes include:

• Collection of wastes
• Transportation of wastes
• Treatment and final disposal
Identification of Wastes
Identification of the waste is the first and important aspect of internal
management of hospital wastes. It is important to identify the type of waste
into hazardous and non hazardous wastes for separation and storage. The
common hazardous wastes generated in the hospital were listed before.

Separation
Hospital wastes contains general solid wastes and hazardous wastes. At the
generation point the wastes are to be separated into hazardous and non
hazardous waste for safety and economy in handling, treatment and final
disposal.
The main sources of infectious or contaminated wastes in the hospitals are:
– Wards and Cabins
– Operation Theatre
– Pathology and laboratories
– Stores and Pharmacy
– Emergency
– Work areas of Doctor and Nurses

Storage
Hospital wastes is required to be separated into different categories
and collected in containers or bags of different colors for easy
identification. The following three colored containers are
recommended for the collection of three major categories of
hospital wastes:
– General Wastes in green colored containers
– Sharps in yellow containers
– Infectious wastes in red containers.

The containers are shown in the Figure below. An additional hard

container with device for separation of infected needles from syringe
is provided for safe storage of used needles. The sharp blades and
broken glasses can be stored in a separate yellow container.
 The storage bins are located area-wise, not far from the
generation points. The infectious hospital wastes are
to be collected every day for processing and safe
disposal.

Collection and Transportation

• Hazardous hospital wastes are to be collected from
the locations where it is located and transported in
closed containers separately for intermediate
processing and treatment.
• The general wastes can be collected separately and
dumped in the municipal bin for collection .
Installation of bins at different locations in the
hospital or clinics is not required, which become a
focus of pollution.

Treatment and Disposal

The general modes of treatment and disposal of the most common hazardous wastes from
hospital is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Processing, Treatment and Disposal of Hospital Wastes

Types of Waste Treatment and Disposal

Human Anatomical Waste Incineration/deep burial
-Human tissue, organ, body parts
Animal Wastes Incineration/deep burial
Microbiology and Biotechnical Wastes Autoclaving/microwaving/incineration
Sharp wastes Disinfection ( Chemical treatment/
autoclaving/ microwaving) and
mutilation/shredding
Discarded Medicine and Cytotoxic Drug Incineration/destruction and drug
disposal in a secured landfills
Solid Wastes Incineration/autoclaving/microwaving
- items contaminated with blood and body
fluid etc.
 Table 1: Continued………..

Types of Waste Treatment and Disposal

Solid wastes Disinfection/autoclaving/microwaving
-Wastes generated from disposable and mutilation/shredding
items such as tubings, catheters,
intravenous sets etc
Liquid Wastes Disinfecting and discharge into drains
-Waste from laboratories,
washing, cleaning, house keeping,
disinfecting activities etc
Incineration Ash Disposal in secured landfills
Chemical Wastes Chemical treatment and discharge
into drains for liquids and secured
landfills for solids

Autoclaving
Autoclaving or steam sterilization is a low-heat process designed to provide direct contact
of t he waste with steam in a controlled manner in orde1 to disinfect the waste
materials. Three types of autoclaves are commonly used viz Gravity Type, Pre-vacuum
type and Retort type.

Standards for Autoclaving

a. When autoclaving in a gravity flow autoclave, the medical waste is subjected to :
A temperature of not less than 1210C and a pressure of 15 psi for an autoclave
residence time of not less than 60 minutes or
A temperature of not less than 1350C and a pressure of 31 psi for an autoclave
residence time of not less than 45 minutes or
A temperature of not less than l490C and a pressure of 52 psi for an autoclave
residence time of not less than 30 minutes
b. When operating a vacuum autoclave, medical waste shall be subjected to a minimum
of one pre-vacuum pulse to purge the autoclave of all air. The waste shall be subjected
to the following:
A temperature of not less than 1210C and a pressure of 15 psi for an autoclave
residence time of not less than 45 minutes.
A temperature of not less than 1350C and a pressure of 31 psi for an autoclave
residence time of not less than 30 minutes.
c. Biomedical waste shall not be considered to be properly treated unless the time,
temperature and pressure indicator s indicate that the proper time, temperature and
pressure were reached during the autoclave process. If not, the entire load of medical
waste must be autoclaved again until the proper time temperature and pressure and
resident time are achieved.
Incineration
Incineration is the controlled burning of waste at temperatures required for complete
destruction of the waste.

Standard for Incinerators

All incinerators shall meet the following standards
The combustion efficiency (CE) shall be at least 99%. The combustion efficiency is
computed as follows:
CE = 100 (%CO2) / (%CO2 + %CO)
The temperature of primary combustion shall be 800 ± 500C
The secondary combustion gas residence time shall be at least 1 (one) second at
1050±500C with at least 3% oxygen in the stack gas.
The minimum stack height shall be 30m above ground or as recommended by
regulation
Volatile organic compound in the gas shall not be more that 0.01%
Suitably designed pollution control device shall be installed/retrofitted with
the incinerator the achieve the emission standard of the country.
Waste to be incinerated shall not be chemically treated with any chlorinated
disinfectants.
Chlorinated plastics shall not be disinfected.
Toxic metals in incineration ash shall be limited within the regulatory quantities
and disposed off as defined under hazardous waste regulation.
Only low sulfur fuel shall be used as fuel for incineration.

Deep Burial

Standard for Deep Burial

The deep burial site should be at distant location from human
habitation and sited so that no contamination occurs of any surface
or ground waters. The area should not be probe to flooding or
erosion
The deep burial site should be relatively impermeable and no
shallow well should be closed to the site
The location of the deep burial site will be authorized by the relevant
authority.
The pits or trenches for deep burial should be made at least 2 meter
deep.
On each occasion, when wastes are added to the pit, a layer of 10 cm
of soil shall be added to cover the wastes
A layer of minimum 30 cm lime cover should be provided before final
cover by at least 30 cm soil is provided to complete a pit.
It must be ensured that the animals do not have any access to the
burial site. Covers of galvanized iron/wire meshes may be used.
Burial must be performed under close and dedicated supervision
The hospital must maintain a record of all pits made for deep burial.
A general flow diagram of hospital waste management in shown in the Figure below.