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Introduction to Chemistry A Conceptual Approach
Second Edition Richard C. Bauer Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Richard C. Bauer, James P. Birk, Pamela Marks
ISBN(s): 9780073511078, 0073511072
Edition: 2nd
File Details: PDF, 67.03 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
 BAUER

A volcanic eruption is an awesome phenomenon, resulting in a

BIRK
MARKS
2
edition

flow of lava (magma—molten rock) that rises from deep within

Earth. The lava flow is often accompanied by the escape of gases

CHEMISTRY
dissolved in the magma, including carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen chloride. In the photo, we see
lava flowing down the volcano into the ocean, where heat is
transferred from the lava to the water, causing the lava to cool
and solidify, and causing the water to heat up, evaporate, and
form steam. Under these conditions, sulfur in the lava reacts with

INT RODUC TION TO

water to form sulfuric acid as shown in the molecular-level image.
Chemists examine such processes and think about why they
occur, about what happens to the atoms and molecules, and
about how energy is involved. In this text, we emphasize how
and why phenomena occur, not only in dramatic events, such as
lava flowing into the ocean, but also in common events that
occur in our environment every day.

Student Solutions Manual INT RODUC TION TO

(ISBN-10: 0-07-322658-0; ISBN-13: 978-0-07-322658-3)
This manual contains detailed solutions and explanations for all
odd-numbered problems in the text.

CHEMISTRY
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 EDI T ION

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Richard C. Bauer
Arizona State University

James P. Birk
Arizona State University

Pamela S. Marks
Arizona State University

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 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY: A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH, SECOND EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bauer, Richard C., 1963 Nov. 24-

Introduction to Chemistry: a conceptual approach / Richard C. Bauer, James P. Birk, Pamela S. Marks. -
2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: A conceptual introduction to chemistry. c2007.
Includes index.
ISBN 978−0−07−351107−8 --- ISBN 0−07−351107−2 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Chemistry--Textbooks. I.
Birk, James P. II. Marks, Pamela. III. Bauer, Richard C., 1963 Nov. 24- Conceptual introduction to chemis-
try. IV. Title.
QD33.2.B38 2010
540--dc22
2008028919

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bau11072_FM.indd ii 11/20/08 9:56:58 AM

 To my sister Sara, who is a source of personal and professional
support and helps me keep my life in perspective; and to Trey who, in
spite of the distance between us now, is always at my side.
—Rich Bauer

To my wife, Kay Gunter, who encouraged me through battles with

blank pages and shared the joys of completed chapters; and in memory
of my parents, Albert and Christine Birk, who taught me to love books
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enough to see blank pages as a worthwhile challenge.
—Jim Birk

To my husband Steve, for his love and support, and to my children,

Lauren, Kelsey, and Michael, for their ability to make me laugh every
day; also to my mother, Jewel Nicholls, who inspired my love of
chemistry at a very young age.
—Pam Marks

iii

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 About the Authors

Richard C. Bauer, Pamela S. Marks, and James P. Birk

Richard C. Bauer was born and raised in Saginaw, ical education after moving to Arizona State University
Michigan and completed his B.S. degree in chemistry at as Coordinator of General Chemistry. Dr. Birk’s teaching
Saginaw Valley State University. While pursuing his under- responsibilities have been in General Chemistry, Intro-
graduate degree he worked at Dow Chemical as a student ductory Chemistry, Chemistry for Engineers, Inorganic
technologist. He pursued Masters and Ph.D. degrees in Chemistry, Methods of Teaching Chemistry, and gradu-
Chemistry Education at Purdue University under the direc- ate courses on Inorganic Reaction Mechanisms, Chemi-
tion of Dr. George Bodner. After Purdue, he spent two years cal Education, and Science Education. He has received
at Clemson University as a visiting assistant professor. several teaching awards, including Awards for Distinction
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Dr. Bauer is currently the Faculty Director for Natural in Undergraduate Teaching, Teaching Innovation Awards,
Sciences and Mathematics at the Downtown Phoenix the National Catalyst Award, and the President’s Medal
Campus of Arizona State University. He was the General for Team Excellence. He has been a feature editor for the
Chemistry Coordinator on the Tempe Campus where Journal of Chemical Education, editing the columns: Fil-
he implemented an inquiry-based laboratory program. trates and Residues, The Computer Series, and Teaching
Dr. Bauer has taught Introductory and General Chemis- with Technology. Recent research has focused on visual-
try courses for 15 years, and also teaches a Methods of ization (such as Dynamic Visualization in Chemistry and
Chemistry Teaching course. He is especially fond of teach- The Hidden Earth), on inquiry-based instruction, and on
ing Introductory Chemistry because of the diversity of misconceptions (Chemistry Concept Inventory).
students enrolled. In addition to General Chemistry lab
development, Dr. Bauer has interests in student visualiza- Pamela S. Marks is currently a Principal Lecturer at
tion of abstract, molecular-level concepts; TA training; and Arizona State University, where her main focus has been
methods of secondary school chemistry teaching. In addi- teaching Introductory Chemistry and General Chemistry
tion to his scholarly interests, he plays the piano, sings, and for the past 13 years. Recently, she has also been devoted
directs choirs. to the implementation of major General Chemistry cur-
riculum changes involving mediated collaborative recita-
James P. Birk is Professor Emeritus of Chemistry and tion classes at ASU. In the early 1990s, she coordinated the
Biochemistry at Arizona State University. Born in Cold general laboratory program at the College of St. Benedict
Spring, Minnesota, he received a B.A. degree in Chem- and St. John’s University in Minnesota. Previous publica-
istry from St. John’s University (Minnesota) and a Ph.D. tions include multimedia-based General Chemistry educa-
in Physical Chemistry from Iowa State University. After a tion materials on CD. She received her B.A. from St. Olaf
post-doctorate at the University of Chicago, he started his College in 1984 and her M.A. in Inorganic Chemistry at
academic career at the University of Pennsylvania, where the University of Arizona in 1988. She spends her free time
he was appointed to the Rhodes-Thompson Chair of Chem- with her husband Steve, and their three children, Kelsey,
istry. Initially doing research on mechanisms of inorganic Michael, and Lauren (when Lauren is home visiting from
reactions, he switched to research on various areas of chem- college).

iv

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 Brief Contents

1 Matter and Energy 2

2 Atoms, Ions, and the Periodic Table 52
3 Chemical Compounds 84
4 Chemical Composition 120
5 Chemical Reactions and Equations 158
6 Quantities in Chemical Reactions 200
7 Electron Structure of the Atom 244
8 Chemical Bonding 286
9 The Gaseous State 326
10 The Liquid and Solid States 372
11 Solutions 416 Apago PDF Enhancer
12 Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium 458
13 Acids and Bases 500
14 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 540
15 Nuclear Chemistry 584
16 Organic Chemistry 620
17 Biochemistry 662

Appendices
A Useful Reference Information A-1
B Math Toolboxes A-3
C Answers to Practice Problems A-4
D Answers to Selected Questions and Problems A-9
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
v

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 Contents

Preface xi 2.5 | THE PERIODIC TABLE 71

Classification of Elements 71
1 Matter and Energy 2 Ions and the Periodic Table 74
Summary 76
1.1 | MATTER AND ITS CLASSIFICATION 4 Key Terms 76
Composition of Matter 4 Questions and Problems 77
Representations of Matter 10
States of Matter 12 3 Chemical Compounds 84
1.2 | PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES AND
PROPERTIES OF MATTER 14 3.1 | IONIC AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS 86
Physical Properties 15
Physical Changes 24 3.2 | MONATOMIC AND POLYATOMIC IONS 91
Chemical Changes 25 Monatomic Ions 91
Chemical Properties 25 Polyatomic Ions 93

1.3 | ENERGY AND ENERGY CHANGES 28 3.3 | FORMULAS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS 96

1.4 | SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 31 3.4 | NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS 99

Observations 31 3.5 | NAMING AND WRITING FORMULAS
Hypotheses 32 FOR MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS 104
Laws 33
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3.6 | ACIDS AND BASES 107
Theories 33
Scientific Inquiry in Practice 34 3.7 | PREDICTING PROPERTIES
AND NAMING COMPOUNDS 111
Summary 35
Math Toolbox 1.1 Scientific Notation 36 Summary 112
Math Toolbox 1.2 Significant Figures 38 Key Terms 113
Math Toolbox 1.3 Units and Conversions 41 Questions and Problems 113
Key Relationships 45
Key Terms 45 4 Chemical Composition 120
Questions and Problems 45
4.1 | PERCENT COMPOSITION 123
2 Atoms, Ions, and the Periodic 4.2 | MOLE QUANTITIES 125
Table 52 Moles and Particles 125
Molar Mass 128
2.1 | DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY 54 4.3 | DETERMINING EMPIRICAL
2.2 | STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 56 AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS 133
Subatomic Particles 56 Empirical and Molecular Formulas 133
The Nuclear Atom 58 Determining Empirical Formulas 135
Isotopes, Atomic Number, and Mass Number 60 Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition 136
Empirical Formulas for Compounds Containing More
2.3 | IONS 65 Than Two Elements 137
2.4 | ATOMIC MASS 68 Empirical Formulas with Fractional Mole Ratios 139
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas 140
Determining Percent Composition 141

vi

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 Contents vii

4.4 | CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOLUTIONS 143 Summary 233

Concentration 143 Key Relationships 234
Percent by Mass 144 Key Terms 234
Molarity 145 Questions and Problems 234
Dilution 149
Summary 151 7 Electron Structure of the
Key Relationships 152 Atom 244
Key Terms 152
Questions and Problems 152 7.1 | ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND
ENERGY 246
5 Chemical Reactions and Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation 247
Equations 158 Atomic Spectra 251
7.2 | THE BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN
5.1 | WHAT IS A CHEMICAL REACTION? 160 ATOM 252

5.2 | HOW DO WE KNOW A CHEMICAL 7.3 | THE MODERN MODEL OF THE ATOM 255
REACTION OCCURS? 161 Orbital Diagrams for Multielectron Atoms 257
Electron Configurations 261
5.3 | WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 163
7.4 | PERIODICITY OF ELECTRON
5.4 | PREDICTING CHEMICAL REACTIONS 169 CONFIGURATIONS 262
Decomposition Reactions 173
Combination Reactions 175 7.5 | VALENCE ELECTRONS FOR THE MAIN-GROUP
Single-Displacement Reactions 177 ELEMENTS 267
Double-Displacement Reactions 180 7.6 | ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS FOR IONS 269
Combustion Reactions 185
7.7 | PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ATOMS 271
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5.5 | REPRESENTING REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS Chemical Reactivity
SOLUTION 187 and Electron Configurations 271
Summary 189 Ionization Energy 273
Atomic Size 277
Key Terms 190
Sizes of Ions 278
Questions and Problems 190
Summary 280
6 Quantities in Key Relationships 281
Chemical Reactions 200 Key Terms 281
Questions and Problems 281

6.1 | THE MEANING OF A BALANCED

EQUATION 203 8 Chemical Bonding 286
6.2 | MOLE-MOLE CONVERSIONS 204
8.1 | TYPES OF BONDS 288
6.3 | MASS-MASS CONVERSIONS 206 Ionic and Covalent Bonding 289
6.4 | LIMITING REACTANTS 209 Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds 291
Electronegativity 291
6.5 | PERCENT YIELD 219
8.2 | IONIC BONDING 294
6.6 | ENERGY CHANGES 221
Lewis Symbols 294
Law of Conservation of Energy 221
Structures of Ionic Crystals 296
Energy Changes That Accompany Chemical
Reactions 222 8.3 | COVALENT BONDING 297
Quantities of Heat 224 The Octet Rule 298
Lewis Formulas for the Diatomic Elements 298
6.7 | HEAT CHANGES IN CHEMICAL
Valence Electrons and Number of Bonds 299
REACTIONS 230
Structures of Covalent Molecules 301

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 viii Contents

Exceptions to the Octet Rule 306 10.2 | INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 388

Bonding in Carbon Compounds 307 London Dispersion Forces 388
8.4 | SHAPES OF MOLECULES 310 Dipole-Dipole Forces 390
The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Hydrogen Bonding 391
Theory 310 Trends in Intermolecular Forces 394
Polarity of Molecules 316 10.3 | PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS 397
Summary 319 Density 397
Key Terms 319 Viscosity 398
Questions and Problems 320 Surface Tension 398
10.4 | PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 401
9 The Gaseous State 326 Crystals and Crystal Lattices 401
Types of Crystalline Solids 401

9.1 | THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES 329 Summary 409

Temperature and Density 329 Key Relationships 409
Pressure 330 Key Terms 409
Questions and Problems 410
9.2 | FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PROPERTIES OF
GASES 333
Volume and Pressure 333 11 Solutions 416
Volume and Temperature 337
Volume, Pressure, and Temperature 340 11.1 | THE COMPOSITION OF SOLUTIONS 418
Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining 11.2 | THE SOLUTION PROCESS 422
Volumes 342
Avogadro’s Hypothesis 342 11.3 | FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOLUBILITY 426
Structure 426
9.3 | THE IDEAL GAS LAW 345
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Calculations with the Ideal Gas Law 346
Temperature 428
Pressure 429
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 348
11.4 | MEASURING CONCENTRATIONS OF
9.4 | KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES 350 SOLUTIONS 430
Postulates of Kinetic-Molecular Theory 350 Percent by Mass 432
Diffusion and Effusion 352 Percent by Volume 434
9.5 | GASES AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 353 Mass/Volume Percent 434
Product Volume from Reactant Volume 353 Parts per Million and Parts per Billion 435
Moles and Mass from Volume 355 Molarity 436
Molality 437
Summary 356
Math Toolbox 9.1 Graphing 357 11.5 | QUANTITIES FOR REACTIONS THAT OCCUR
Math Toolbox 9.2 Solving Simple Algebraic IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION 438
Equations 359 Precipitation Reactions 438
Key Relationships 361 Acid-Base Titrations 442
Key Terms 361 11.6 | COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES 444
Questions and Problems 361 Osmotic Pressure 444
Vapor Pressure Lowering 446
10 The Liquid and Solid States 372 Boiling Point Elevation 447
Freezing Point Depression 448
10.1 | CHANGES OF STATE 375 Colligative Properties and Strong
Liquid-Gas Phase Changes 377 Electrolytes 449
Liquid-Solid Phase Changes 380 Summary 450
Solid-Gas Phase Changes 381 Key Relationships 451
Cooling and Heating Curves 383 Key Terms 451
Energy Changes 384 Questions and Problems 451

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 Contents ix

13.5 | THE pH SCALE 520

12 Reaction Rates and Chemical
Calculating pH 520
Equilibrium 458 Calculating pOH 523
Calculating Concentrations
12.1 | REACTION RATES 461 from pH or pOH 524
12.2 | COLLISION THEORY 462 Measuring pH 526

12.3 | CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT REACTION 13.6 | BUFFERED SOLUTIONS 527

RATES 465 Summary 531
Concentration and Surface Area 466 Math Toolbox 13.1 Log and Inverse Log
Temperature 466 Functions 531
Catalysts 468 Key Relationships 534
12.4 | CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 473 Key Terms 534
Questions and Problems 534
12.5 | THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 474
The Equilibrium Constant Expression 475
Predicting the Direction of a Reaction 478
14 Oxidation-Reduction
Heterogeneous Equilibrium 480 Reactions 540
12.6 | LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE 483
Reactant or Product Concentration 483 14.1 | WHAT IS AN OXIDATION-REDUCTION
REACTION? 543
Volume of the Reaction Container 485
Temperature 488 14.2 | OXIDATION NUMBERS 547
Catalysts 490 14.3 | BATTERIES 552
Increasing Product Yield 490
14.4 | BALANCING SIMPLE OXIDATION-REDUCTION
Summary 491 EQUATIONS 559
Key Relationship 492 Apago PDF Enhancer
14.5 | BALANCING COMPLEX OXIDATION-REDUCTION
Key Terms 492
EQUATIONS 563
Questions and Problems 492
14.6 | ELECTROCHEMISTRY 568
13 Acids and Bases 500 Voltaic Cells 569
Electrolytic Cells 571

13.1 | WHAT ARE ACIDS AND BASES? 502 14.7 | CORROSION PREVENTION 574
Acid and Base Definitions 502 Summary 576
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 504 Key Terms 576
Acidic Hydrogen Atoms 506 Questions and Problems 577
13.2 | STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND BASES 506
Strong Acids 507 15 Nuclear Chemistry 584
Strong Bases 507
Weak Acids 508 15.1 | RADIOACTIVITY 586
Weak Bases 510 Nuclear Decay 586
13.3 | RELATIVE STRENGTHS OF WEAK ACIDS 513 Radiation 587
Acid Ionization Constants 513 15.2 | NUCLEAR REACTIONS 588
Polyprotic Acids 514 Equations for Nuclear Reactions 588
13.4 | ACIDIC, BASIC, AND NEUTRAL Particle Accelerators 595
SOLUTIONS 516 Predicting Spontaneous Nuclear Decay
The Ion-Product Constant of Water 516 Reactions 595
Calculating H3O+ and OH – Ion
Concentrations 517

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 x Contents

15.3 | RATES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 599 16.8 | AMINES 652

Detection of Radiation 599 16.9 | ORGANIC NOMENCLATURE 653
Half-Lives 600 Alkanes 653
Archeological Dating 602 Alkenes and Alkynes 653
Geological Dating 603 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 654
15.4 | MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF ISOTOPES 604 Other Naming Conventions 654
Power Generators 604 Summary 655
Medical Diagnoses 604 Key Terms 655
Positron Emission Tomography 605 Questions and Problems 656
Cancer Therapy 606
15.5 | BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
Radiation Exposure 606
606 17 Biochemistry 662
Radon 608
17.1 | PROTEINS 665
15.6 | NUCLEAR ENERGY 609 Composition of Proteins 665
Uranium-235 Fission 609 Hydrolysis of Proteins 672
Chain Reactions 610 Structure of Proteins 674
Fission Reactors 611 Denaturation of Proteins 679
Fusion Reactors 612
17.2 | NUCLEIC ACIDS 679
Summary 614 Structure of Nucleic Acids 680
Key Terms 615 Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Replication 683
Questions and Problems 615 Ribonucleic Acid, Transcription, and
Translation 684
16 Organic Chemistry 620 17.3 | CARBOHYDRATES 688
Simple Carbohydrates 689
16.1 | REPRESENTATIONS OF ORGANIC
Apago PDF Enhancer Complex Carbohydrates 691
MOLECULES 624 17.4 | LIPIDS 695
16.2 | HYDROCARBONS 628 Summary 700
Classes of Hydrocarbons 628 Key Terms 701
Petroleum 630 Questions and Problems 701
16.3 | ACYCLIC HYDROCARBONS 631
Alkanes 631 Appendices A-1
Alkenes and Alkynes 637
16.4 | CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS 641 A | USEFUL REFERENCE INFORMATION A-1
Cycloalkanes and Cycloalkenes 641
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 642
B | MATH TOOLBOXES A-3

16.5 | ALCOHOLS AND ETHERS 645 C | ANSWERS TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS A-4

Alcohols 645 D | ANSWERS TO SELECTED QUESTIONS
Ethers 647 AND PROBLEMS A-9
16.6 | ALDEHYDES AND KETONES 647 Glossary G-1
Aldehydes 647
Ketones 648 Credits C-1
16.7 | CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND ESTERS 648 Index I-1
Carboxylic Acids 648
Esters 649

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 Preface

As instructors of Introductory Chemistry, our lectures That is, macroscopic ideas about chemical behavior are
are significantly different from traditional lecture presen- discussed before descriptions of abstract, molecular-level
tations in many ways. Beginning with the first week of concepts associated with electron structure. The macro-
classes and continuing through the rest of the semester, scopic ideas that begin chapters or sections are grounded in
we follow a sequence of topics that allows us to explain real-life experiences. Where appropriate, the macroscopic
macroscopic phenomena from a molecular perspective. to molecular-level progression of ideas is carried over to
This approach places emphasis on conceptual understand- topic sequence within individual chapters or sections in
ing over algorithmic problem solving. To help students addition to the general sequence of chapters.
develop conceptual understanding, we use numerous still Each chapter begins with a chapter-opening outline
images, animations, video clips, and live demonstrations. and an opening vignette that personalizes the content by
Roughly a third of each class period is devoted to explain- telling a story about chemical phenomena encountered by
ing chemical phenomena from a conceptual perspective. students. These applications help students see how chem-
During the remaining time, students work in groups to istry relates to their daily lives.
discuss and answer conceptual and numerical questions.
Our desire to create a conceptually based text stems
from our own classroom experience, as well as from edu-
cational research about how students learn. This book is C H A P T E R

grounded in educational research findings that address

topic sequence, context, conceptual emphasis, and Chemical Bonding
concept-embedded numerical problem solving. Through-
out the text, we have made an effort to relate the content 8.1 Types of Bonds

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to students’ daily lives and show them how chemistry
8.2 Ionic Bonding
8.3 Covalent Bonding
8.4 Shapes of Molecules
es

allows us to understand the phenomena—both simple and Summary

Key Terms
blems
Questions and Problems
complex—that we encounter on a regular basis. Students’
initial exposure to chemical concepts should be in the realm
of their personal experience, to give context to the abstract
concepts we want them to understand later. This text pre-
sents macroscopic chemical phenomena early and uses
familiar contexts to develop microscopic explanations.
This textbook is designed for the freshman-level Intro-
ductory Chemistry course that does not have a chemistry
prerequisite and is suitable for either a one-semester course M ichael stops by the snack bar and picks up a hamburger, fries with extra salt,
and a soft drink. He takes his food to a park near campus, where he meets
Ashley and Amanda for lunch. Ashley brought a salad from home, made of a variety
of vegetables, including morel mushrooms that her family had picked in the woods

or a two-semester sequence. The book targets introductory the previous weekend. Amanda has a tuna sandwich on whole wheat bread.
As Michael slathers ketchup on his quarter-pound beef patty, his eating habits
draw a little good-natured chiding from Ashley, a serious vegetarian. Michael
defends his choices with a chuckle, saying he needs the protein in meat if he is going
courses taken by non-physical science majors who may 286
to lift weights at the gym. Ashley thinks for a moment and then counters that her
mushrooms also contain protein. Amanda interrupts, pointing out that it’s not the
protein itself that is necessary for good nutrition, but the amino acids that proteins

be in allied health, agriculture, or other disciplines that do are made from. The human body contains enzymes that can break down proteins and
other enzymes that reassemble the resulting amino acids into human proteins. Other
enzymes process carbohydrates and fats, also needed in a balanced diet.

not require the rigor of a science major’s General Chemis- The three students start to wonder what makes some foods more desirable than
others They decide that appearance,
others. appearance taste,
taste and odor attract us to food,
food but there is more
to food and nutrition than what we observe. Humans must eat food that contains
carbon, along with a number of other elements, in order to live, grow, develop, and
try course, or for students fulfilling university liberal arts stay healthy. But why do we have to consume carbon-based food? Carbon atoms form
the backbone of most of the molecules that are in our bodies, as well as in the plants
and animals that we eat. Carbon is also found in some nonliving things—including

requirements for science credits. In addition, students who rocks, ocean water, and the atmosphere—as well as in coal, oil, and natural gas, which
are the remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. Carbon atoms
are used over and over again. They move between and among organisms and the

lack a strong high school science background often take environment in a continuous cycle, called the carbon cycle (Figure 8.1).
To see how the carbon cycle works, let’s trace the possible history of a carbon
atom in a mushroom in Ashley’s salad. This carbon atom has been around for a long
time, but not always as a part of a molecule in the mushroom. Eons ago it was part
the course as a preparation for the regular General Chem- of a carbon dioxide molecule in the air. It was taken up by a leaf of a tree in a
swampy tropical forest. The tree, through the process of photosynthesis, incorpo-
rated the carbon atom along with hydrogen from water into a glucose molecule,
istry sequence. releasing oxygen from the water into the atmosphere. After a few centuries, the tree
died and decomposed. It sank into the swamp and formed part of a layer of peat,
partially carbonized vegetable matter often used as a fuel. Over time the swampy
area dried and a river deposited layers of sediment on top of it, burying the peat and
subjecting it to heat and pressure over millions of years. The carbon atom thus
became a part of a layer of coal.

FEATURES OF THIS TEXT CO2 in atmosphere

Photosynthesis

Decomposition
Plants
CO2 in plants
Fossil fuel burning

and respiration
Soil

Learning theory indicates that we should start with the Aquatic

CO2 in oceans plants
organic matter

concrete, macroscopic world of experience as the basis Calcium carbonate

sediments
Coal & oil

Limestone
CO2 in rocks

for developing student understanding of abstract, micro- FIGURE 8.1 The movement of carbon around our planet is summarized by the carbon cycle.
Some of the carbon transfer processes are rapid, while others take millions of years.

scopic concepts. This textbook follows a topic sequence 287

typically found in traditional General Chemistry texts.

xi

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 xii Preface

The chapter then offers some guiding questions typical

of inquiry instruction. These Questions for Consideration Math Toolbox 9.2 Solving Simple Algebraic Equations 359

serve as a guide in topic development through the chapter. Math Toolbox 9.1 (continued )

These data show that as 1/pressure increases, the volume also We can obtain values of the dependent variable at any value of

Margin notes contain further explanations and chemical increases. However, we cannot tell if the data are proportional
until we create a graph.
the independent variable found on the graph, even if we did not make
a measurement at that value. We can also determine the value of
the dependent variable that would occur for a desired value of the

applications, combined with visuals, to help students con- 6.0

Gas volume versus 1/pressure independent variable. This is illustrated for the gas volume versus
1/pressure graph in Example 9.16.

ceptualize lessons. 5.0 EXAMPLE 9.16 Reading Data from a Graph

Volume (L)
We want to know the value of pressure when the volume is 3.0 L,
4.0 using the graph of volume versus 1/pressure.

Solution:
More sophisticated solar energy 3.0
We find this volume on the graph and read the value of 1/pressure
systems use silicon semiconductor to be 1.35 from the position of the straight line. Taking the inverse
Questions for Consideration panels that convert sunlight into 2.0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
of this quantity, we get a pressure of 0.741 atm:
electricity. 1
6.1 What do the coefficients in balanced equations represent? 1/Pressure (1/atm)
Pressure
= 1.35

6.2 How can we use a balanced equation to relate the number of moles of Pressure =
1
= 0.741 atm
1.35
reactants and products in a chemical reaction? In general, if a graph of one variable versus the reciprocal
of another variable yields a straight line that would pass through
6.3 How can we use a balanced equation to relate the mass of reactants and the origin, then the two variables are inversely (or reciprocally) Practice Problem 9.16
proportional. That is, We can also determine the volume at any given pressure. Use the
products in a chemical reaction? 1 1 graph to find the volume when the pressure is 0.550 atm.
x^ and y^
6.4 How do we determine which reactant limits the amount of product that y x
Further Practice: Questions 9.9 and 9.10 at the end of the chapter
can form?
The general equation is y = k(1/x). (Find k by determining the
6.5 How can we compare the amount of product we actually obtain to the slope of the line.)
amount we expect to obtain?
6.6 How can we describe and measure energy changes?
6.7 How are heat changes involved in chemical reactions? Math Toolbox 9.2 | Solving Simple Algebraic Equations
Algebraic expressions represent many chemical principles, so We then divide both sides of the equation by 16:
understanding the principles requires solving and manipulating
Math Tools Used in This Chapter such equations. An algebraic equation is a simple statement of
16x 48
16
=
16
equality. For example, the equality 9x + 12x = 63 is confirmed
x=3
Significant Figures (Math Toolbox 1.2) when x = 3:
As a second example, consider the equation 41 x + 4 = 12. We
(9 × 3) + (12 × 3) = 63
Units and Conversions (Math Toolbox 1.3) subtract 4 from both sides of the equation:
1
Manipulating Equations 4x + 4 – 4 = 12 – 4
1
We can manipulate an equation in any way that does not destroy 4x = 8

the equality. The usual purpose is to obtain a value for an unknown Then we multiply each side of the equation by 4:
quantity. Operations that will maintain the equality are
4 × 41 x = 4 × 8
• adding the same number to both sides of the equation x = 32
• subtracting the same number from both sides of the
We believe that an Introductory Chemistry textbook equation
• multiplying or dividing both sides of the equation by the
Now consider 4x = 15 + x. To solve for x, we begin by mov-
ing all of the terms that contain x to one side of the equation. Sub-
tracting x from both sides of the equation will accomplish this:
same number

should maintain a focus on chemistry, rather than on math. • raising both sides of the equation to the same power
Consider the equation 16x – 32 = 16. To solve for x, we first add
4x – x = 15 + x – x
3x = 15
32 to both sides of the equation:

Students’ interest must be captured early in the semester 16x – 32 + 32 = 16 + 32

16x = 48

if they’re going to persevere in the class. Early in this text

we introduce chemical reactions from macroscopic per- bau11072_ch09.indd 359 11/11/08 2:10:10 PM

spectives. A general fundamental knowledge of chemical

behavior on a macroscopic level facilitates further develop- Toolboxes are referenced with toolbox icons,
ment of molecular-level ideas, such as atomic structure. where appropriate. As problem solving is developed
We believe that the best approach to incorporating within the text, emphasis is placed on the underly-
math involves development of associated math on an as- ing concepts, letting the numerical solutions emerge
needed basis with an emphasis on concepts that problems Apago PDF Enhancer from conceptual understanding. Numerical-type prob-
are trying to illustrate. This text integrates need-to-know lems often ask students to estimate answers and to con-
mathematical ideas that are important to chemists into sider the physical meaning of calculated quantities.
conceptual discussions. Math toolboxes include a thor- The problem-solving approach used in this text is sup-
ough explanation of the math, examples, worked-out solu- ported by worked example boxes that contain the fol-
tions, and practice problems. lowing steps: question(s), solution, practice problems, and
further practice.
358 Chapter 9 The Gaseous State

6.2 Mole-Mole Conversions 205

Math Toolbox 9.1 (continued )

6. A straight line can be drawn through all the data points. Fol- Consider another set of data: mole ratio
Moles C3H8 Moles CO2
lowing these steps yields the following graph:
Volume (L) Pressure (atm)
Gas volume versus absolute temperature
2.20 1.00
6
2.32 0.95
3 mol CO 2
2.59 0.85 mol CO 2  9.21 mol C3 H8 s  27.6 mol CO 2
5 1 mol C3 H8
2.93 0.75
Volume (L)

3.28 0.67
Example 6.1 gives you the opportunity to practice using mole ratios as conversion
4
factors.
3.67 0.60
3 4.40 0.50
5.12 0.43
2 EXAMPLE 6.1 | Mole-Mole Conversions
200 300 400 500 600 700 These data show that volume increases as pressure decreases,
Temperature (K) although we cannot tell if the relationship is proportional. Follow- If 1.14 mol of CO2 was formed by the combustion of C3H8, how many moles of
ing the steps for drawing a graph, we obtain the following plot: H2O were also formed?
Practice Problem 9.15 C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Gas volume versus pressure
The population of Earth increased over an 85-year period, as
shown in the table. Draw a graph to show the relationship between 6.0
Solution:
population and time. Do the data conform to a straight line?
5.0 We know the number of moles of CO2, and we want to know the moles of H2O:
Volume (L)

Population Year
(in billions) 4.0 ?
Moles CO2 Moles H2O
1.80 1920
2.00 1930 3.0
2.25 1940 The relationship we use to convert from moles of CO2 to moles of H2O is the
2.0 mole ratio we get from the balanced equation:
2.52 1950
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
2.69 1955 Pressure (atm) mole ratio
3.00 1960 Moles CO2 Moles H2O

3.29 1965 A smooth line through the data points forms a curve. The data
3.63 1970 reveal an inverse relationship between volume and pressure; that
is, volume decreases as pressure increases. However, we don’t
First we must ensure that the equation is balanced. Yes it is, so the coefficients in
4.07 1975 the equation give mole relationships between CO2 and H2O, which can be written
have a straight line, so it is not easy to see if the relationship is
4.44 1980 in two ways:
proportional. When scientists encounter such data, they often try
4.84 1985 to manipulate the values mathematically to see if a straight line 4 mol H 2 O
3 mol CO 2
5.28 1990 can be plotted. and
Let’s see what happens if we take the reciprocal of pressure. 4 mol H 2 O 3 mol CO2
5.69 1995
(The reciprocal is 1 divided by the quantity we are interested The mole ratio to be used as the conversion factor is selected so that multiply-
6.09 2000 in—in this case, 1/pressure.)
ing the known moles of CO2 by the ratio will cancel the old units (mol CO2) and
6.46 2005
Volume (L) 1/Pressure introduce the new units (mol H2O):
Further Practice: Questions 9.5 and 9.6 at the end of the chapter
2.20 1.00 MATH
4 mol H 2 O TOOLBOX
2.32 1.05 mol H 2 O  1.14 mol CO 2 s  1.52 mol H 2 O 1.3
3 mol CO 2
Proportional and Reciprocal Relationships 2.59 1.18
In general, a straight line through the data points shows that the 2.93 1.33 Notice that the units cancel properly. We would expect the moles of H2O to be
two variables are directly proportional if the line passes through 3.28 1.49
greater than the moles of CO2, based on the 4:3 ratio in the balanced equation, so
the origin (0,0). An extended graph would show that volume and this answer makes physical sense.
3.67 1.67
temperature are directly proportional. Their relationship can be
represented as y = kx. (The slope of the line equals k.) 4.40 2.00 Practice Problem 6.1
5.12 2.33 Pure methanol is used as a fuel for all race cars in the Indy Racing League and in
the Championship Auto Racing Teams. It is used because methanol fires are
easier to put out with water than the fires of most other fuels. The balanced equa-
tion for the combustion of methanol is
2CH3OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

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 Preface xiii

334 Chapter 9 The Gaseous State

NO3– Nitric acid
HNO3
H3O+
16
14
12

Volume (L)
10
8
6
4
2
A
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Pressure (atm)
Hydrochloric Sodium
FIGURE 9.15 This graph shows the relationship of volume and pressure for a gas at constant
acid chloride
HCl NaCl
temperature. What happens to volume when pressure increases?

If the volume and pressure are measured as the gas is compressed, these
?
quantities can be plotted on a graph as shown in Figure 9.15. From this graph, can Cl–
you determine a relationship between volume and pressure? What happens to the
B volume when the pressure increases? What happens to the pressure if the volume
increases? What happens to particles inside a container as pressure and volume
FIGURE 9.14 (A) Gas atoms in a
vary along the curve? Use your interpretation of the graph to answer the questions
cylinder with a movable piston. (B)
When the piston moves down, the
in Example 9.2. Cl–
volume decreases and atoms move
closer together, exerting a greater Na+
pressure on the walls of the cylinder. H3O+
EXAMPLE 9.2 | Graphical Relationship of Volume
and Pressure for a Gas
Acetic acid
The piston shown in the figure represents starting conditions for a helium gas
sample. Suppose the volume and pressure correspond to point A on the graph. If
CH3CO2H
the pressure increases by a factor of 2, what point along the curve corresponds to Methanol
the new volume and pressure conditions? H3O+ CH3OH

CH3CO2 –

CH3CO2H
16
CH3OH
14
B
12
Volume (L)

10
8
A
6
4
2
C
FIGURE 3.6 For each of the solutions, inspect the molecular-level images in which each type of
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
particle is labeled. If any of these substances dissociate into ions, separate particles of single
Pressure (atm)
atoms (or atom groups) are visible. Which of the compounds dissociate completely in solution?
Which only partially dissociate? Which do not dissociate at all? The acids do not simply
dissociate, but form H3O+ ions in solution.

bau11072_ch09.indd 334 11/11/08 2:09:05 PM

Problem solving in chemistry is much more than algo- There are several other features of this textbook that
rithmic number crunching. It involves applying principles support student learning. End-of-chapter materials include
to solve conceptual as well as numerical problems. Con- a summary, math toolboxes (when appropriate), key terms
ceptual problems are those that require students to apply list, and key relationships. Each chapter has extensive end-
their understanding of concepts instead of applying an of-chapter questions and problems that range in difficulty
algorithm. This text emphasizes the underlying concepts
Apago PDF Enhancer and conceptual/quantitative emphasis. The questions and
when discussing numerical problems within in-chapter problems are sorted by section and are paired, with odd-
worked examples. Many end-of-chapter problems also numbered answers appearing in Appendix D. There are
emphasize conceptual problem solving. also vocabulary identification questions at the beginning
of the end-of-chapter problems, as well as many questions
The Art Program involving interpretation of molecular-level images.
A conceptual understanding of chemistry requires stu-
dents to visualize molecular-level representations of mac- bau11072_ch03.indd 88 Questions and Problems 361
11/7/08 12:40:36 PM

roscopic phenomena, as well as to connect macroscopic KEY RELATIONSHIPS

and molecular-level understandings to symbolic represen- Relationship Equation
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 760 mm Hg

tations. To help students connect verbal descriptions to Pressure can be expressed in different units.

Pressure is inversely proportional to volume at constant temperature and moles (Boyle’s law).
= 760 torr = 14.7 lb/in2
P1V1 = P2V2 (constant T and n)

molecular-level representations, this book has an extensive Temperature is proportional to volume at constant pressure and moles (Charles’s law).
V1 V2
T1
=
T2
(constant P and n)

art program. You’ll notice many examples of zoomed art, Volume is proportional to temperature divided by the pressure if the amount of gas is constant
(combined gas law).
PV
1 1
T1
PV
= 2 2 (constant n)
T2

V1 V2
where pictures or other macroscopic images have close-ups Volume is proportional to the amount of gas (moles) at constant temperature and pressure
(Avogadro’s hypothesis).
The amount of gas (moles), and its pressure, volume, and temperature are related by the ideal
n1
=
n2
(constant T and P)

PV = nRT
that show the particular phenomena at a molecular level. gas law.
For a mixture of gases, the sum of the individual pressures is equal to the total pressure
(Dalton’s law of partial pressures).
Ptotal = PA + PB + PC + . . .

The average kinetic energy of gas particles is related to their mass and average velocity. KEav = 12 m(vav)2

382 Chapter 10 The Liquid and Solid States KEY TERMS

Avogadro’s hypothesis (9.2) Dalton’s law of partial ideal gas (9.2) molar volume (9.2)
FIGURE 10.13 When solid iodine is barometer (9.1) pressures (9.3) ideal gas constant, R (9.3) pressure (9.1)
Boyle’s law (9.2) diffusion (9.4)
heated, it sublimes into the gaseous state. ideal gas law (9.3) standard temperature and
Charles’s law (9.2) effusion (9.4) kinetic-molecular theory of pressure (STP) (9.2)
It returns to the solid state on the cold
combined gas law (9.2) Gay-Lussac’s law of gases (9.4)
surface of the upper tube filled with ice. combining volumes (9.2)

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

The following questions and problems, except for those in the Additional Questions section, are paired. Questions in a pair focus on the
same concept. Answers to the odd-numbered questions and problems are in Appendix D.
Matching Definitions with Key Terms (d) a gas that follows predicted behavior, as described by
the ideal gas law
9.1 Match the key terms with the descriptions provided.
(e) the amount of force applied per unit area
(a) the movement of gas particles through a small
(f) law stating that gases in a mixture behave
opening into a vacuum
independently and exert the same pressure they
(b) law stating that at constant temperature, the volume
would if they were in the container alone
occupied by a fixed amount of a gas is inversely
(g) the volume occupied by 1 mol of a gas, which equals
proportional to its pressure
22.414 L at STP for an ideal gas
(c) law that describes the relationship between initial and
(h) a constant used in the ideal gas law that relates
final conditions of pressure, volume, and temperature
pressure, volume, amount of gas, and temperature
for a fixed amount of a gas

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 xiv Preface

• New and Revised End-of-Chapter Problems. We

364

9.13
Chapter 9 The Gaseous State

Convert the following temperatures from degrees 9.22 The figure shows atoms of a gas at a particular
think it is important to keep problems fresh and up-to-
Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
(a) 212°F
(b) 80.0°F
temperature. Students were asked to select images that
show what happens when the temperature increases and
pressure remains constant. Many students selected the
date, so we have added more than 200 new problems
9.14
(c) 32.0°F
(d) −40.0°F
Convert the following temperatures from degrees Celsius
images shown. What is wrong with each of images (a) to
(d)? and more than 100 revised problems to this edition.
to degrees Fahrenheit.
(a) 37.0°C
(b) 212°C
(c) 100.0°C
(d) −40.0°C
9.15 Given that PV = nRT, solve for the unknown quantity.

P V n R T
DETAILED LIST OF CHANGES
(a) 1.00 1.00 0.500 0.08206 ? Before

(b) 0.750 3.00 ? 0.08206 237

(c) 3.25 ? 1.50 0.08206 455 Chapter 1

(d) ? 15.0 2.67 0.08206 322

9.16 Given that PV = nRT, solve for the unknown quantity. • New margin notes were added to aid students in their
(a) 3.55
P
1.75
V n
0.205
R
0.08206 ?
T
(a) (b)
understanding of the periodic table, amorphous solids,
(b)

(c)
1.00

0.125
22.5

?
?

3.00
0.08206

0.08206
298

535 relationships between volume and radius, Fahrenheit

(d) ?

The Behavior of Gases

6.25 1.57 0.08206 343
to Celsius conversion equations, trails on molecular
9.17
9.18
What are some general properties of gases?
In general, how do the properties of gases differ from the
(c) (d) art to show speed, and volume of spheres.
properties of liquids and solids?
9.19 How does the density of warm air differ from the density
of cooler air?
9.23
9.24
What is gas pressure?
Why do gases exert pressure on the walls of their
• Figure legends were expanded for Figures 1.5 and 1.15
9.20 Why does warm air rise?
9.21 The figure shows atoms of a gas at a particular
temperature. In the blank circle, show the arrangement
9.25
9.26
container?
How is pressure measured?
(a) What are the common units of pressure? (b) How are
to help clarify the figure concepts for the students.
of atoms when the temperature decreases and pressure
remains constant.
9.27
they related?
The figure shows atoms of a gas at a particular pressure.
In the blank circle show the arrangement of atoms when
• Example 1.5 was replaced with a new, more challeng-
the volume increases and temperature remains constant.
ing conversion for units of mass and volume.
• An English-metric conversion table was added to the
Before After
body of the text.
Before After
• Example 1.6 now includes an algebraic explanation for
rearranging the density equation to solve for volume.
• Example 1.9 was updated with an additional tempera-
bau11072_ch09.indd 364 11/11/08 2:10:18 PM
ture conversion.
Students who enroll in an Introductory Chemistry • A completely new figure, Figure 1.29, was added to
course often take an associated lab. Most of the explain and clarify the difference between kinetic and
experiments these students conduct involve working potential energy.
with solutions. To enhance this lab experience, a brief • The “Scientific Inquiry” section was expanded to
introduction to solution behavior appears early in the Apago PDF Enhancer include ideas of green chemistry and sustainability.
textbook (Chapter 4). This early introduction will allow • A photo was added to demonstrate combinatorial
students to better understand what they experience in the chemistry.
lab, as well as understand the multitude of solutions we • Explanations were added on how to use the calculator
encounter on a daily basis. to input numbers in exponential notation.
• “Units of Energy” moved to a more relevant location
in Chapter 6.
NEW FEATURES
Chapter 2
• All New Chapter 17, Biochemistry. In response to • The visual representations for nuclei art were
many faculty members who like the approach of this clarified.
textbook, but also need Biochemistry content, a Bio- • Discussion of isotopes was expanded.
chemistry chapter has been added to the text. The • A new figure was added to help identify the regions of
chapter discusses the four classes of biomolecules: the periodic table.
proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. • The explanations to answers in Example 2.10 were
expanded.
• Math Toolboxes have been reworked, expanded,
and now include accompanying end-of-chapter Chapter 3
problems. Worked examples and practice problems • The chapter introduction was modified for clarity and
have been added to the Math Toolboxes. To help stu- brevity.
dents easily reference Math Toolboxes, toolbox icons • Examples of compounds were added to the end boxes
have been added to the text margin which will of all nomenclature flowcharts.
point students to the appropriate review material. • Tables in the end-of-chapter problems were modified
• New and Expanded Applications. Because we know to create a consistent, easy-to-read design.
how important it is for students to apply chemistry to • End-of-chapter problems were adjusted to focus on
their world, we have added or expanded applications, common student misconceptions.
especially medical and environmental applications, Chapter 4
throughout the text, margin notes, worked examples, • Photos were added in worked examples to give stu-
and end-of-chapter problems. dents a visual reference to the material.

bau11072_FM.indd xiv 11/20/08 10:10:00 AM

 Preface xv

• The chapter was reorganized to begin with percent • A new resonance example featuring O3 was
composition, a macroscopic property, and then move introduced.
on to mole quantities, which relates macroscopic and • The discussion of rules for Lewis structures of oxo-
molecular levels. acids was expanded, as well as the solution to Example
• To help clarify percent composition, a new example 8.9 (“VSEPR and Parent Structures”).
on the subject was added. • A short discussion of expanded octets was included.
• Explanations were expanded in Figure 4.15 (formula
Chapter 9
units) and in the text for formula units and counting
• A new figure (9.21) was added to explain partial
particles.
pressure.
• This chapter contains a new in-text example convert-
• Two marginal notes were added: one to explain Gra-
ing moles to particles and a new worked example that
ham’s law, and the other to explain how to calculate
demonstrates moles present in a solution of known
vapor pressure.
molarity.
• A new equation was added to Figure 9.2 to aid stu-
• A completely new figure was added that shows a
dents in their lab work.
molecular-level representation of CuCl2 dissolving.
• Inquiry questions were written into the main text to
Chapter 5 help students analyze new concepts.
• A modified introduction has been written for this
Chapter 10
chapter to make it more engaging.
• Figures 10.7 and 10.9 were updated to clarify atoms
• A step-wise approach to balancing equations has been
coming from the surface of liquid.
added to the section on writing chemical equations.
• Emphasis was added to energy changes that accom-
• To help clarify concepts, the solution to Example 5.10
pany physical changes.
and the caption to Figure 5.27 were extended.
• Worked examples were enhanced with an added
• The discussion of net ionic equations was expanded to
energy component.
include single-displacement examples.
• A worked example was added for calculating the total
Chapter 6 energy associated with a series of phase changes.
• Explanations to Examples 6.1 and 6.5 were expanded • Vector arrows were overlaid on molecular models to
to help clarify mole-to-mole conversions and help students determine polarity of molecules.
Apago PDF Enhancer
molecular-level limiting reactants. • A comparison of intermolecular force strength to
• A margin note on green chemistry was added. covalent bonding in hydrogen was added.
• A less challenging example was written to explain
Chapter 11
limiting reactants.
• The chapter was reorganized to move the discussion
• The discussion on energy was reorganized from
on “Structure and Solubility” to a more fitting location
Chapter 1 into this chapter.
within Section 11.3, “Factors That Affect Solubility.”
• A new section (6.7) was added that discusses heat
• New medical and environmental applications have been
changes in chemical reactions.
added to examples and end-of-chapter problems.
Chapter 7 • A new example on ppm and ppb applications was
• New marginal notes were added to cover the follow- created for this chapter.
ing: algebra for solving the speed-of-light equation for
Chapter 12
frequency, orbital filling orders, counting d-electrons
• To aid in student understanding, the solutions in
as valence electrons, and what happens when elec-
Examples 12.4 (“The Effect of a Catalyst on Activa-
trons are added to an atom.
tion Energy”) and 12.6 (“Determining Keq from Equi-
• Figure 7.5 was enhanced with two additional wave-
librium Concentrations”) were expanded.
length bars.
• A new marginal note to explain equilibrium quotient
• Clarification statements were added to the discussion
was added.
of the periodic table blocks and the effect of shielding
on periodic properties. Chapter 13
• The “Atomic Spectra” section was enhanced with an • New marginal notes were added to explain conjugate
explanation of neon lights. base strengths of strong acids and Lewis acids and
bases.
Chapter 8
• Explanations were added to clarify discussions on indi-
• The discussion was expanded on electronegativity and
cators, acidity of ammonium salts, the source of ions
relative bond polarity using electronegativity trends.
that are conjugate bases of weak acids, pH’s effect on
• The procedure for drawing Lewis structures was
hydrangeas, and the bicarbonate buffer systems.
modified.

bau11072_FM.indd xv 11/20/08 10:10:12 AM

 xvi Preface

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 Preface xvii

SupplementS for the Student Joseph M. Bergman, Illinois Central College

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 xviii Preface

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 IN T RODUC TION TO

CHEMISTRY
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bau11072_ch01.indd i 11/7/08 12:32:04 PM

 C H A P T E R

Matter and
Energy
1.1 Matter and Its
fication
Classifi cation
al and Chemical
1.2 Physical
es and Properties
Changes
ter
of Matter
1.3 Energy and Energy
es
Changes
fic Inquiry
1.4 Scientifi
ary
Summary
oolbox 1.1
Math Toolbox
fic Notation
Scientifi
oolbox 1.2
Math Toolbox Apago PDF Enhancer
Significant Figures
oolbox 1.3 Units
Math Toolbox
nversions
and Conversions
lationships
Key Relationships
rms
Key Terms
ons and Problems
Questions

bau11072_ch01.indd 2 11/7/08 12:32:05 PM

 A nna and Bill are enrolled in an introductory chemistry course. For their first
assignment, the professor has asked them to walk around campus, locate objects
that have something to do with chemistry, and classify the things they find according
to characteristics of structure and form.
Anna and Bill begin their trek at the bookstore. They spot a fountain, a large
metallic sculpture, a building construction site, and festive balloons decorating the
front of the store. They notice water splashing in the fountain and coins that have
collected at the bottom. The metallic sculpture has a unique color and texture. At the
building construction site they notice murals painted on the wooden safety barricade.
Through a hole in the fence, they see a construction worker doing some welding.
Bill and Anna make a list of the things that attracted their attention and start
trying to classify them. Inspecting the fountain, they notice that it appears to be
composed of pebbles embedded in cement. As water circulates in the fountain, it
travels in waves on the water’s surface. The coins in the fountain, mostly pennies,
vary in their shininess. Some look new, with their copper color gleaming in the
bright sunshine. Others look dingy, brown, and old. The metal sculpture has a
unique, modern design, but it’s showing signs of age. A layer of rust covers its entire
surface. Anna and Bill decide to classify the sculpture as a metal, like the coins in
the fountain. They also conclude that the water, pebbles, and concrete in the fountain
are not metals.
As they approach the construction site, Anna and Bill examine the painted
mural. Through the peephole in the mural, they see gravel, cinder blocks, metallic
tubes for ductwork, steel beams, and copper pipe. They add more nonmetals and
metals to their list. A welder is joining two pieces of metal. Sparks are flying every-
where. Anna and Bill wonder what is in the sparks. Since the sparks are so small and
vanish so rapidly, they don’t know how to classify them.
Apago PDF Enhancer
As they continue their walk, they pass the intramural fields and the gym where
they see students using tennis rackets, baseball bats, bicycles, and weight belts. They
wonder how they will classify these items. For lunch, Bill and Anna buy pizza. They
sip soft drinks from aluminum cans. They settle on a bench to enjoy their lunch in
the sunshine and watch students playing volleyball in a sandpit. As they put on their
sunscreen, they wonder how they might classify sunlight. After lunch, they hurry off
to an afternoon class. On the way, they notice a variety of vehicles on campus. Some
are gasoline-powered cars and buses, but others have signs on them saying they
operate on alternative fuels. Trucks lumber by, exhaust fumes spewing from their
tailpipes. Bill and Anna feel the hoods of parked cars. Some are still warm from their
engine’s heat.
How are Bill’s and Anna’s observations related to chemistry? What characteris-
tics have they identified that they can use for classification purposes? They have
started their classification with metals and nonmetals. What other categories should
they devise?
Now it’s your turn. Make a list of things relevant to chemistry in the location
where you are reading this. How will you classify the things on your list? What
characteristics will you use to organize the items into categories? Most important,
why bother to classify things at all?
In this chapter we will explore some answers to these questions. As you learn
what chemistry is, you’ll begin to develop explanations for how substances look,
change, and behave.

Questions for Consideration

1.1 What characteristics distinguish different types of matter?
1.2 What are some properties of matter?
1.3 What is energy and how does it differ from matter?
1.4 What approaches do scientists use to answer these and other questions?

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 4 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

Math Tools Used in This Chapter

This icon refers to a Math Scientific Notation (Math Toolbox 1.1)
Toolbox that provides more Significant Figures (Math Toolbox 1.2)
detail and practice. Units and Conversions (Math Toolbox 1.3)

1.1 | MATTER AND ITS CLASSIFICATION

th things
All the hi th
thatt A
Anna andd Bill observed
b d on campus are examplesl off matter.
tt Th The
fountain, the metal sculpture, the construction site, the balloons outside the book-
store, the exhaust fumes from buses, the pizza they had for lunch, even Bill and
Anna themselves—all are matter. Matter is anything that occupies space and has
mass. Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. The interaction of mass with
gravity creates weight, which can be measured on a scale or balance.
Some of Bill’s and Anna’s observations, however, were not of matter. Sunlight,
the light from welding, and the heat of automobile engines are not matter. They do
not occupy space, and they have no mass. They are forms of energy. Energy is the
capacity to move an object or to transfer heat. We’ll discuss energy in Section 1.3,
but for now, let’s focus on matter.
All of Anna’s and Bill’s observations are relevant to chemistry, because chem-
istry is the study of matter and energy. Since the entire physical world is matter and
energy, chemistry would be an overwhelming subject of study if we did not classify
phenomena in manageable ways. Anna and Bill used characteristics like shininess
and hardness when they decided some materials were metals and others were not.
Let’s explore some other characteristics that can be used to classify matter.

Apago PDF Enhancer

Composition of Matter
One way to classify matter is by its chemical composition. Some types of matter
always have the same chemical composition, no matter what their origin. Such
matter is called a pure substance or more briefly, a substance. A pure substance has
the same composition throughout and from sample to sample. It cannot be separated
into components by physical means.
Some pure substances can be observed. For example, the aluminum in Anna’s
soda can is pure. It is not combined with any other substances, although it is coated
with plastic and paint. Consider also the sandpit where Bill and Anna watched the
volleyball game. The sand is not a pure substance, but if we removed all the dirt,
minerals, and other contaminants, it would be the pure substance, silica, which is
one kind of sand (Figure 1.1). Grains of silica differ in size, but they all have the
same chemical composition, which can be determined in the laboratory.
In contrast to pure substances, other materials are mixtures. A mixture consists of
two or more pure substances and may vary in composition. The fountain, for example,
is made from a mixture of gravel, concrete, and pebbles. Even the water in the fountain
is not a pure substance since small amounts of gases and minerals are dissolved in it.
Like sand, however, it could be made pure if all the other substances were removed.
Are there any things where you are now that might be pure substances? Actu-
ally, pure substances are rare in our world. Most things are mixtures of some kind.
Pure substances are found most often in laboratories where they are used to deter-
mine the properties and behavior of matter under controlled conditions.

FIGURE 1.1 Sand is composed of Elements All matter consists of pure substances or mixtures of substances. Pure
a mineral, silica. It contains the substances, in turn, are of two types: elements and compounds. An element is a
elements silicon and oxygen in substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances even by a chemical
specific proportions. reaction. For example, suppose we first purified the water in a fountain to remove

bau11072_ch01.indd 4 11/7/08 12:32:36 PM

 1.1 Matter and Its Classification 5

contaminants. Then we used a chemical process called electrolysis to separate it into

its component elements. Water can be broken down by chemical means into hydro-
gen and oxygen, as shown in Figure 1.2, so water is not an element. The hydrogen
and oxygen, however, are elements. We cannot break them down into any simpler
substances using heat, light, electricity, or any chemical process. We can convert
them into more complex substances, but not into simpler ones.
Elements are the building blocks of all matter. Of the 111 elements that have
been given names, 83 can be found in natural substances and in sufficient quantity
to isolate. The many examples of matter that we use, see, and read about are all
built up of different elements in different combinations. The elements that are not
isolated from natural sources on Earth have been synthesized by scientists. Some
are so unstable that they have only a fleeting existence, including those that have not
yet been formally named. To classify elements, chemists use a periodic table, like
that shown in Figure 1.3. The elements in each column, called groups or families of FIGURE 1.2 When electric current is
elements in the periodic table, share similar characteristics, or properties. passed through water, the water
Elements are generally classified into two main categories: metals and nonmet- decomposes into the elements
als. Generally, a metal can be distinguished from a nonmetal by its luster (shini- hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen
(left) and oxygen (right) can be seen
ness) and ability to conduct electricity (electrical conductivity). Copper, aluminum,
bubbling to the tops of the tubes.
iron, and other metals are good conductors of electricity. Nonmetal elements, such
as carbon (in the form of diamond), chlorine, and sulfur, normally are not. Note the

MAIN-GROUP Metals (main-group) MAIN-GROUP

ELEMENTS Metals (transition) ELEMENTS
Metals (inner-transition)
IA Metalloids VIIIA
(1) Nonmetals (18)
1 2
1 H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.008 (2) Apago PDF Enhancer (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 TRANSITION ELEMENTS 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Period

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.41 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
(223) (226) (227) (263) (262) (266) (267) (277) (268) (281) (272) (285) (284) (289) (289) (292)

INNER-TRANSITION ELEMENTS
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
6 Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
7 Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0 (231) 238.0 (237) (242) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260)

FIGURE 1.3 The periodic table organizes the known elements according to their properties. The letters are symbols for the names
of the elements.

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 6 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

Phosphorus Copper Bromine Nickel Lead

Gold Carbon Aluminum Sulfur Tin

FIGURE 1.4 Some elements. Which

of these are metals?
difference in appearance of the metals and nonmetals shown in Figure 1.4. Not all
elements fit neatly into such categories. In Chapter 2 we’ll discuss elements that
have properties somewhere between metals and nonmetals.

Apago PDF
EXAMPLE 1.1 Enhancer
| Metals and Nonmetals
Which of the elements pictured are metals? Why do you think so?

Iron Carbon Magnesium

Sulfur Aluminum

Solution:
Notice that three of the elements—iron, aluminum, and magnesium—have a
luster; that is, they shine. They are metals. If you could handle and test the sub-
stances, you could use other properties, such as electrical conductivity, to distin-
guish between metals and nonmetals.

Practice Problem 1.1

Identify the nonmetals in Figure 1.4. Explain the characteristics you considered
in making your decision.
Further Practice: Questions 1.29 and 1.30 at the end of the chapter

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 1.1 Matter and Its Classification 7

TABLE 1.1 | Symbols of Selected Elements

English Original English Original
Symbol Symbol
Name Name Name Name
copper cuprum Cu potassium kalium K
gold aurum Au silver argentum Ag
iron ferrum Fe sodium natrium Na
lead plumbum Pb tin stannum Sn
mercury hydrargyrum Hg tungsten wolfram W

To avoid having to write out the name of an element every time we refer to it, we
use a system of symbols. An element symbol is a shorthand version of an element’s To become familiar with the
longer name. Often, the symbol is one or two letters of the element’s name (C for periodic table, you should learn the
carbon, He for helium, Li for lithium). The first letter is uppercase, and the second names and symbols for the first 36
elements, as well as the symbols for
letter, if present, is lowercase. When the names of two elements start with the same
silver, tin, gold, mercury, and lead.
two first letters (magnesium and manganese, for example), the symbol uses the first Your instructor may ask you to learn
letter and a later letter to distinguish them (Mg for magnesium, Mn for manganese). others.
For a few elements, the symbols are based on their Latin names or on names
from other languages. These are listed in Table 1.1. Some recently synthesized ele-
ments have been named for famous scientists. Others have not been given perma-
nent names. You’ll find a list of the modern names and symbols on the inside front
cover of this book.

EXAMPLE 1.2 | Element Symbols

Apago PDF Enhancer
Potassium is a soft, silver-colored metal that reacts vigorously with water. Write
the symbol for the element potassium.

Solution:
The symbol for potassium is K. In the periodic table, potassium is element 19 in
group (column) IA (1) of the periodic table.

Practice Problem 1.2

(a) Lead is a soft, dull, silver-colored metal. Write the symbol for the element
lead.
(b) The symbol for a common element used to make jewelry is Ag. What is the Iron pyrite
name of this element?
Further Practice: Questions 1.37 and 1.38 at the end of the chapter
Iron
Sulfur

Compounds A compound, sometimes called a chemical compound, is a sub-

stance composed of two or more elements combined in definite proportions. A com-
pound has properties different from those of its component elements. For example,
iron pyrite can be broken down into its component elements, iron and sulfur, but its
FIGURE 1.5 Iron pyrite is composed
characteristics are different from both (Figure 1.5). Anna and Bill saw many com-
of the elements iron and sulfur. Iron
pounds that can be chemically separated into their component elements. Sand is a is magnetic and can be separated
compound of silicon and oxygen. Water, as discussed earlier, is composed of hydro- from sulfur when the two exist as
gen and oxygen. The cheese on their pizza contains many complex compounds, elements mixed together. Iron pyrite,
but each of the compounds contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and a few a compound of iron and sulfur, is
other elements. not magnetic.

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 8 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

Chemists represent compounds with formulas based on the symbols for the ele-
ments that are combined in the compound. (Chemical formulas are not the same as
the mathematical formulas that may be familiar to you, such as A = π r 2 for the area
of a circle.) A chemical formula describes the composition of a compound, using
the symbols for the elements that make up the compound. Subscript numbers show
the relative proportions of the elements in the compound. If no subscript number
is given for an element in a formula, then you may assume that the element has a
relative proportion of one. For example, water is known to consist of one unit of
oxygen and two units of hydrogen. This compound is represented by the formula
H2O. Sodium chloride, the chemical compound commonly called table salt, con-
tains equal portions of the elements sodium and chlorine. Its formula is therefore
NaCl. We will discuss formulas in detail in Chapter 3.

Graphite leaves a mark similar to

Mixtures Some forms of matter, such as pencil lead, do not have the same com-
that made by dragging a rod of lead position in every sample. (Pencil lead isn’t the element lead. It is a mixture of graph-
along a surface, so it was called ite and clay.) A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds. It is
lead. A hardness number indicates possible to separate mixtures into their component pure substances. The separation
the relative amounts of graphite and can be done physically, using procedures such as grinding, dissolving, or filtering.
clay in a pencil lead. A number 2 Chemical processes are not needed to separate mixtures.
pencil is fairly soft, while a number We can illustrate the difference between pure substances and mixtures by
6 pencil is quite hard. Which has looking at salt water. Water that has been purified is a pure substance that is com-
more graphite? posed of hydrogen and oxygen, always in the same proportions. Salt water, on the
other hand, is water mixed with salt and many other substances in varying propor-
tions. For example, the Great Salt Lake in Utah is approximately 10% salt, while the
Dead Sea is about 30% salt. In either case, we can readily separate salt from water
by evaporating the water (Figure 1.6).

FIGURE 1.6 To collect salt, water is diverted

Apago PDF Enhancer
into large ponds. The water evaporates, leaving
solid salt behind.

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 1.1 Matter and Its Classification 9

Mixtures differ in uniformity of composition. A homogeneous mixture has a

Not all solutions are liquids. For
uniform composition throughout and is often called a solution. Most solutions that
example, consider air that has been
we commonly encounter are composed of compounds dissolved in water. They are filtered to remove suspended solid
often clear. For example, a well-mixed sample of salt water prepared in a kitchen is particles. Filtered air is a gaseous
uniform in appearance. The salt dissolved in it is invisible. Furthermore, any micro- solution containing a mixture of
scopically small portion of the sample would have the same composition as any primarily oxygen and nitrogen gases,
other. The particles in the mixture might not be arranged in exactly the same pattern, along with several other gases in
but each sample, regardless of size, would have the same components in the same lesser quantities. Solid solutions
proportions. also exist and are called alloys. For
A mixture that is not uniform throughout—a mixture of salt and pepper, for example, the 14-carat gold used in
instance—is a heterogeneous mixture. Different samples have their components rings is a solution of gold, silver,
present in different proportions. Which of the things that Bill and Anna had for lunch and copper.
is a homogeneous mixture? Which is heterogeneous? How about your own lunch?
How can you tell?
We have considered a number of classes and subclasses of matter: mixtures,
solutions, heterogeneous mixtures, pure substances, compounds, elements, metals,
and nonmetals. A method for classifying matter into these categories is outlined in
Figure 1.7. Note in the figure that yes or no answers to several questions distinguish
one type of matter from another. First, we ask if the material can be separated physi-
cally. If so, then it is a mixture. If not, it must be a pure substance. If this substance
can be decomposed (broken down into simpler substances) by chemical reactions,
it is a compound. If it cannot, it is an element.

Apago
Matter
PDF Enhancer
Can it be physically
separated?

No Yes

Pure substance Mixture

Can it be decomposed Is it homogeneous?

chemically?

No Yes No Yes

Element Compound Heterogeneous Solution

mixture

Does it conduct
electricity?

No Yes

Nonmetal Metal or Graphite

FIGURE 1.7 We can classify matter by answering the short series of questions in this flowchart.

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 10 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

EXAMPLE 1.3 | Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Which of the following pictures represent pure substances?

Solution:
Apago
The copper on PDF
the outsideEnhancer
of the coin and the helium inside the balloons are pure
substances. (However, the helium and balloons considered together provide an
example of a mixture.)

Practice Problem 1.3

Which of the pictures represent mixtures? Which are heterogeneous? Which are
homogeneous?
Further Practice: Questions 1.43 and 1.44 at the end of the chapter

Although chemists generally use

Representations of Matter
color coding to distinguish between Chemists and other scientists view the world on several different levels. So far we
atoms of different elements in rep- have considered matter on a macroscopic scale. That is, we’ve discussed matter and
resentations, the atoms themselves phenomena we can see with our eyes. But simple observation is limited. Sometimes
do not have colors. Macroscopic we cannot classify things merely by looking at them as Anna and Bill did. What do
samples of matter may have color, we do then? Chemists try to make sense of the structure of matter and its behavior
but these colors do not usually
on a scale that is much, much smaller than what we can see with our eyes.
match those used to represent
atoms. In accurate representations,
Consider the copper pipe at the construction site, for example. If we could
the sizes of the spheres change to enlarge the tiniest unit that makes up the pipe, what would we see? Experimental
reflect the relative differences in the evidence tells us copper is made up of discrete, spherical entities that all appear
sizes of atoms of different elements. to be identical (Figure 1.8). Chemists identify these entities as atoms. An atom is
the smallest unit of an element that has the chemical properties of that element.
For example, we can imagine the helium inside a balloon as many, many atoms of
helium, which we represent symbolically as He. In Figure 1.9, each sphere repre-
sents a single helium atom. Similarly, if we could magnify the structure of water,
we would find two small hydrogen atoms bound separately to a single larger oxygen

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 1.1 Matter and Its Classification 11

Copper atom Helium atom

FIGURE 1.8 A copper pipe consists of a FIGURE 1.9 Helium atoms are present inside
regular array of copper atoms. the balloon.

Oxygen
atom

Hydrogen
atom

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FIGURE 1.10 Molecules containing hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms make up the water in FIGURE 1.11 Oxygen molecules are
the fountain. made up of two interconnected
oxygen atoms and are represented
symbolically as O2.
atom. Such a combination of elemental units is a molecule. Molecules are made up
of two or more atoms bound together in a discrete arrangement. Several molecules
of water, H2O, are shown in Figure 1.10, where the central red sphere represents an
oxygen atom and the two smaller, white spheres stand for hydrogen atoms. (Some B H2O
compounds do not exist as molecules. We will discuss them in Chapter 3.)
In addition to molecules of compounds, molecules can also be formed by the H O
C
H
combination of atoms of only one element. For example, as shown in Figure 1.11,
the oxygen we breathe consists of molecules of two oxygen atoms joined together.
We represent oxygen molecules symbolically as O2. D
Chemists use many different ways to represent matter. Some are shown in
Figure 1.12. Element symbols with subscripts represent a ratio of elements in a
compound. One example is Figure 1.12B. To describe how the atoms are attached E
to one another, chemists often use lines and element symbols as shown in Figure A
1.12C. In Figure 1.12D spheres represent the atoms, and sticks show how they are
connected. Figure 1.12E represents how the atoms fit together and their relative FIGURE 1.12 Different ways of
sizes. Macroscopic, molecular-level, and symbolic representations like these all representing water: (A) macroscopic,
have their advantages, and sometimes one is more convenient than another. You’ll (B and C) symbolic, and (D and E)
use them all as you progress through this course. molecular.

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 12 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

EXAMPLE 1.4 | Representations of Matter

(a) Which of these images best represents a mixture of elements?

A B C

D E
(b) If image A represents nitrogen, write its formula.

Solution:
(a) There are two mixtures represented in the images. Since the spheres (repre-
senting atoms) in image C have different colors and sizes, we can conclude
ANIMATION: Three States of Matter
that image C is a mixture of two elements. Image D is also a mixture, but it
is a mixture of an element and a compound.
(b) The formula of the substance represented in image A is N2. Note that two
atoms are connected in the molecule.

Practice Problem 1.4

(a) Which of the images represents an element that exists as a molecule?
(b) If image E represents a compound of oxygen (red) and sulfur (yellow), what
Apago PDF Enhancer
is its formula? (Write the symbol for sulfur first.)
Further Practice: Questions 1.49 and 1.50 at the end of the chapter

States of Matter
Earlier we considered the classification of matter based on composition. Let’s look
at a different way to classify matter: by its physical state. A physical state is a form
that matter can take. The three most familiar to us are solid, liquid, and gas. Some
substances, including some of those Anna and Bill observed, can be found in all three
states under more or less ordinary conditions. Water, for example, can be a solid (ice),
a liquid (flowing water), or a gas (water vapor) at environmental temperatures.
Other substances require extreme conditions to change from one state to another.
For example, while carbon dioxide is a gas under normal conditions, it becomes a
solid, called dry ice, at very low temperatures (Figure 1.13).
How do we know if a substance is in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state? Each
FIGURE 1.13 Dry ice is the solid state has characteristics that we can observe with our eyes and characteristics that
state of carbon dioxide. It converts are detectable or measurable at the molecular level. These characteristics are sum-
from a gas to a solid at a very low marized in Table 1.2.
temperature. A solid has a fixed shape that is not related to the shape of the container holding
it. When you place an iron pipe in a box, the pipe does not change shape. Some
solids can be made to change shape if enough force is applied. However, if you try
to squeeze a solid to make it smaller, you’ll fail. A solid cannot be compressed
Some solids, called amorphous
solids, do not have the high order
because its particles are arranged in a tightly packed, highly ordered structure that
that most crystalline solids have. does not include much free space into which they might be squeezed. Note the
closely packed particles in the solid state of iron shown in Figure 1.14.

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 1.1 Matter and Its Classification 13

TABLE 1.2 | Characteristics of the Physical States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas
fixed shape shape of container (may or shape of container (fills it)
may not fill it)
its own volume its own volume volume of container
no volume change under slight volume change under large volume change
pressure pressure under pressure
particles are fixed in place in particles are randomly particles are widely
a regular (crystalline) array arranged and free to move separated and move
about until they bump into independently of one
one another another

FIGURE 1.14 The liquid and solid states

of iron.

Liquid iron

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Solid iron

A liquid is different from a solid in that it has no fixed shape. It takes the shape
of the filled portion of its container, and it can be poured. Although they touch, the
particles in a liquid are not arranged in ordered structures like those in a solid; they
are free to move past one another. A liquid can be compressed slightly because its
particles have a little free space between them. Note the differences between the
liquid and solid states of iron shown in Figure 1.14.
A gas has no fixed shape; it adopts the shape of its container, expanding to fill
the available space completely. A gas is easily compressed. When squeezed, gases
can undergo large changes in volume. The particles of a gas are widely separated
with much empty space between them. When a gas is compressed, the amount of
space between the particles is reduced. This happens when pressure is applied,
such as when a bicycle tire is filled with air, as shown in Figure 1.15. Another
characteristic of gases is that they move through space quickly. When Bill and Anna
smelled the pizza they had for lunch, they were detecting particles that migrated as
gases from the source of the food to their noses. When gases cool sufficiently, they
become liquids or even solids. This occurs, for example, when water vapor in the air
liquefies on the surface of a cold glass. Note the differences between the liquid and
gaseous states of water shown in Figure 1.16.

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 14 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

N2

O2

Low pressure Water vapor in

Normal air humid air

High pressure Condensed water

Compressed air on glass

FIGURE 1.15 At the same temperature, a gas under high pressure has FIGURE 1.16 Water condenses from a gas to a liquid on a cold
particles closer together than at low pressure. Notice that the composition surface. Air molecules (e.g., oxygen and nitrogen) are not
(1 O2:4 N2) does not change with an increase in pressure. shown.

It is often convenient to show the physical state of a substance when representing

it Apago PDF
symbolically. For Enhancer
example, solid, liquid, and gaseous water can be represented as
H2O(s), H2O(l), and H2O(g), respectively. The symbol (aq) represents an aqueous
solution, a solution in which a substance is dissolved in water. A salt and water
solution, for instance, can be written as NaCl(aq). These symbols for physical state
are listed in Table 1.3.

TABLE 1.3 | Symbols for Physical State

Physical State Symbol Example (bromine)
solid (s) Br2(s)
liquid (l) Br2(l)
gas (g) Br2(g)
aqueous (dissolved in water) (aq) Br2(aq)

1.2 | PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Bill and Anna observed some of the properties of matter, including changes in
matter. Their observations could be either qualitative, based on some quality of the
matter; or quantitative, based on a numerical value. When making qualitative obser-
vations, they described color, shape, texture, shininess, and physical state. Quantita-
tive observations are different. They are numbers or measurements, and they must
be carefully made and carefully reported.

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 1.2 Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties of Matter 15

Since quantitative data used to describe matter can involve both very large
MATH
and very small numbers, it is often useful to express such numbers in scientific or TOOLBOX
exponential notation. Math Toolbox 1.1 (located at the end of this chapter) provides 1.1
a review of this notation. In addition, it is necessary to express numbers in such a
MATH
way as to indicate how accurately the value is known and how precisely it has been TOOLBOX

measured. The use of significant figures to properly express numerical values is 1.2
presented in Math Toolbox 1.2.

Physical Properties
When reporting qualitative data, we can classify properties as either physical or
chemical. When Bill and Anna observed the color, shape, texture, shininess, and
physical state of things around them, they were noting their physical properties.
A physical property is a characteristic that we can observe or measure without
changing the composition of a substance. Other examples of physical properties
are odor, taste, hardness, mass, volume, density, magnetism, conductivity, and the
temperatures at which a substance changes from one physical state to another. Let’s
take a close look at mass, volume, density, and temperature. These four properties
are quantitative; they involve numerical values.
MATH
TOOLBOX
Mass Recall that mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. We usually 1.3
measure the mass of an object by weighing it on a balance. In chemistry, masses
are often reported in units of grams (g). Large masses, like people or elephants,
may be reported in units of kilograms (kg); and small masses, such as salt crystals TABLE 1.4 | Metric
or impurities in water, may be reported in units of milligrams (mg) or micrograms Conversions
(μg), as shown in Figure 1.17. (Math Toolbox 1.3 summarizes the relationships
among units such as these.) Sometimes the mass of something is reported in Prefix Factor Symbol
grams, but we might want to know the mass in another mass unit such as mil- 109
Apago PDF Enhancer
ligrams or kilograms. We can easily convert a measurement from one unit to
giga
6
G
mega 10 M
another if we know the relationship between the units. Tables 1.4 and 1.5 summa-
rize common relationships between metric and English units. Example 1.5 shows kilo 103 k
–1
how to convert between mass units. (See Math Toolbox 1.3 for more information deci 10 d
on unit conversions.) centi 10 –2
c
–3
milli 10 m
micro 10–6 μ
–9
nano 10 n
–12
pico 10 p

TABLE 1.5 | Some

English-Metric Conversions

English Unit Metric Unit

1 lb = 16 oz 453.6 g
2.54 cm
1 in
(exactly)
1 yd 0.9144 m
1 mi 1.609 km
1 fluid oz 29.57 mL
1 qt 0.9464 L
Mass: 50 mg, 0.05 g, or 5 × 10 kg
–5
Mass: 7 × 10 mg, 7 × 10 g, or 70 kg
7 4
1 gal 3.785 L

FIGURE 1.17 A salt crystal has a mass of about 50 mg, while a person has a mass of about 70 kg. 1 ft3 28.32 L

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 16 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

EXAMPLE 1.5 | Units of Mass

Anna and Bill notice that there are 50.0 mg of sodium in the soda they bought to
go with their lunch. How many grams of sodium are present in the can of soda?
How many pounds?

Solution:
MATH One way to solve this problem uses the dimensional-analysis approach. Consult
TOOLBOX
Math Toolbox 1.3 for details. The general approach to solving the first part of the
1.3 problem can be summarized by the following diagram:

?
Mass in
Mass in grams
milligrams

The mass in milligrams has to be converted to the mass in grams. We need to find a
relationship between these two quantities: 10–3 g = 1 mg or 1 g = 1000 mg (obtained
from Table 1.4). Using this relationship, we get the following conversion:

1000 mg = 1 g
Mass in
Mass in grams
milligrams

We use the equivalence to set up possible conversion ratios:

1g 1000 mg
and
1000 mg 1g
To convert milligrams to grams, we can multiply 50.0 mg by the ratio (conversion
Apago
factor) that willPDF Enhancer
allow like units to cancel:
1g
Mass in mg = 50.0 mg s  0.0500 g
1000 mg
Note that the milligram units cancel to leave the appropriate unit of grams. Also
MATH
TOOLBOX notice that the answer is reported to three significant figures because the mea-
1.2 sured quantity (50.0 mg) is reported to three significant figures and the other
numbers in the calculation (1 g and 1000 mg) are exact quantities. (Consult Math
MATH Toolbox 1.2 for details about significant figures.) For convenience, we could
report the answer in scientific notation: 5.00 × 10–2. (See Math Toolbox 1.1 for a
TOOLBOX

1.1
discussion of scientific notation.)
The second part of the question asks you to convert milligrams to pounds:

?
Mass in Weight in
milligrams pounds

There isn’t a direct relationship between milligrams and pounds listed in

Tables 1.4 and 1.5. However, Table 1.5 lists a relationship between pounds and
grams: 1 lb = 453.6 g. We can convert the grams we found in the first part of this
example to pounds using the relationship summarized in the following diagram:

453.6 g = 1 lb
Weight in
Mass in grams
pounds

The ratios for converting between grams and pounds are

1 lb 453.6 g
and
453.6 g 1 lb

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 1.2 Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties of Matter 17

To convert grams to pounds, we can multiply 0.0500 g by the ratio (conversion

factor) that will allow like units to cancel:
1 lb –4
Weight in pounds = 0.0500 g s = 1.10 s 10 lb
453.6 g
Does this answer make sense? Yes, it does. There are a lot of grams (453.6)
in a pound, so we would expect the answer to be very small. Would the answer
22.7 lb make sense? No.
Without a single conversion from milligrams to pounds, the problem we just
solved involves multiple steps:
1000 mg = 1 g 453.6 g = 1 lb
Mass in Weight in
Mass in grams
milligrams pounds

The sequence of steps can be summarized as:

1g 1 lb –4
Weight in pounds = 50.0 mg s s = 1.10 s 10 lb
1000 mg 453.6 g

Practice Problem 1.5

Anna and Bill see an aluminum recycling truck pass by on their way to class. If
there are 765 lb of aluminum in the truck how many grams are there? How many
kilograms?
Further Practice: Questions 1.65 and 1.66 at the end of the chapter

Apago PDF Enhancer

Volume Volume is the amount of space a substance occupies. We can determine
the volume of a cube by measuring its length, width, and height and then multiply-
ing them. For example, the volume of a cube that is 2.0 centimeters (cm) on each
side is 8.0 cubic centimeters (cm3):
If you need to determine the volume
Volume of a cube = length × width × height of a sphere, the relationship between
4
Volume = 2.0 cm × 2.0 cm × 2.0 cm = 8.0 cm3
3
volume and radius is V = Pr .
3
The volumes of liquids are usually measured in units of liters (L) or milliliters
(mL), as shown in Figure 1.18. One cubic centimeter is equal to 1 mL, so the
volume of 8.0 cm3 could also be reported as 8.0 mL. Larger volumes, such as
big bottles of soda, are usually reported in liters. A 1-L bottle of soda contains
1000 mL. Example 1.6 shows how to convert between volume units.

FIGURE 1.18 Some 250-mL, 500-mL,

and 1-L containers.

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 18 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

EXAMPLE 1.6 | Units of Volume

For lunch, Anna and Bill had 12-ounce (oz) cans of soda. What is the volume of a
12.0-oz can of soda in units of milliliters? What is its volume in units of liters?

Solution:
MATH To solve this problem using the dimensional-analysis approach (see Math Toolbox
TOOLBOX
1.3), we determine if there is a relationship between fluid ounces and milliliters:
1.3
?
Volume in Volume in
ounces milliliters

To convert fluid ounces to milliliters we use the following relationship from

Table 1.5: 1 oz = 29.57 mL.

1 oz = 29.57 mL
Volume in Volume in
ounces milliliters

We use the equivalence to set up possible conversion ratios:

29.57 mL 1 oz
and
1 oz 29.57 mL
To convert ounces to milliliters, we can multiply 12.0 oz by the ratio (conversion
factor) that will allow like units to cancel:
29.57 mL
Volume in milliliters = 12.0 oz s = 355 mL
Apago PDF Enhancer 1 oz
MATH
TOOLBOX The answer is reported to three significant figures, because the quantity we’re given
1.2 (12.0 oz) has three significant figures. Consult Math Toolbox 1.2 for details.
The second part of this problem asks you to convert milliliters to liters:

?
Volume in Volume in
milliliters liters

To convert volume in milliliters to volume in liters, we use the following relation-

ship from Table 1.4: 1 mL = 10–3 L or 1000 mL = 1 L.

1000 mL = 1 L
Volume in Volume in
milliliters liters

This is a unit conversion similar to the conversion we just did for mass. The ratios
for converting between milliliters and liters are
1L 1000 mL
and
1000 mL 1L
To convert from milliliters to liters, we can multiply 355 mL by the conversion
factor that allows like units to cancel:
1L
Volume in L = 355 mL s = 0.355 L
1000 mL
Without a single conversion from ounces to liters, the problem we just solved
involves multiple steps:

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 1.2 Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties of Matter 19

1 oz = 29.57 mL 1000 mL = 1 L
Volume in Volume in Volume in
ounces milliliters liters

The sequence of steps can be summarized as:

29.57 mL 1L
Volume in liters = 12.0 oz s s = 0.355 L
1 oz 1000 mL

Practice Problem 1.6

Anna and Bill saw some balloons outside the bookstore. The volume of gas inside
one of the helium balloons was 4.60 L. What is the volume of gas in units of mil-
liliters? In units of cubic centimeters? In units of gallons (4 qt = 1 gal)?
Further Practice: Questions 1.69 and 1.70 at the end of the chapter

Density The density of an object is the ratio of its mass to its volume. While
mass and volume both depend on the size of the object or sample, density does not.
Density is an unvarying property of a substance no matter how much of it is present,
as long as temperature and pressure are constant. The densities of a few substances
are listed in Table 1.6.
As Anna and Bill noted when they observed the fountain, a copper coin sinks in
water. It sinks because copper (and the other metals in a penny) have a greater density
than water. Conversely, air bubbles, just like other gases, rise to the top of water
because gases are less dense than liquids. Oil floats on water for this same reason.
The density column in Figure 1.19 shows a variety of liquids with different
Apago PDF Enhancer
densities. Which liquid has the greatest density? Which is the least dense?
FIGURE 1.19 The densities of
If we compare equal volumes of two different substances, such as aluminum and
antifreeze, corn oil, dish detergent,
gold, as shown in Figure 1.20, the substance with the greater mass has the greater maple syrup, shampoo, and water in
density. How, though, can we compare densities if we do not have equal volumes? g/mL are 1.13, 0.93, 1.03, 1.32, 1.01,
The mathematical relationship of mass, volume, and density reveals the answer: and 1.00, respectively, Which layer is
mass which substance?
Density 
volume
For example, a 1.0-cm3 sample of copper has a mass of 8.9 g. An 8.0-cm3 sample of
copper has a mass of 71 g. A 27-cm3 sample of copper has a mass of 240 g. In all Au Al
these samples (Figure 1.21), the mass of copper divided by its volume is 8.9 g/cm3.
This is the density of copper. If we know the mass and volume of an object, we can
determine its density by substituting directly into the density equation. FIGURE 1.20 Gold (Au) has a
greater density than aluminum (Al)
TABLE 1.6 | Densities of Some Common Substances because gold has a greater mass per
unit volume.
Substance Physical State Density (g/mL)*
helium gas 0.000178
oxygen gas 0.00143
cooking oil liquid 0.92
water liquid 1.00
mercury liquid 13.6
8.9 g 71 g 240 g
gold solid 19.3 1.0 cm3 8.0 cm3 27.0 cm3
copper solid 8.92
FIGURE 1.21 The density of copper
zinc solid 7.14
is 8.9 g/cm3. All three samples have
ice solid 0.92 the same ratio of mass to volume.
*At room temperature and at normal atmospheric pressure, except gases at 0 degrees Celsius (°C) and water at 4°C.

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 20 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

ANIMATION: Density of Liquids and

Additionally, if we know the density of a substance and its mass in our sample,
Solids we can determine its volume. For example, suppose we want to know the volume
occupied by 100 g of copper. Should the volume be greater than or less than 100
cm3? There are many approaches to this problem. One way is to rearrange the
density equation to solve for volume. Another way is to solve for the unknown
volume in a set of equivalent ratios because density is a ratio of mass and volume
that is constant for a given substance at a particular temperature. Both of these
methods are shown in Example 1.7.

These samples of metals have the EXAMPLE 1.7 | Density, Volume, and Mass
same mass. Which has the greater
density? What is the volume of 100.0 g of copper? The density of copper is 8.9 g/cm3.

Solution:
We need to carry out the following conversion:

?
Volume in
Mass in grams
milliliters

The relationship between mass and volume is given by density:

Density = mass
volume
Volume in
Mass in grams
milliliters

First, we rearrange the density equation to get volume on one side by itself. This
MATH
TOOLBOX Apago PDFcross
manipulation involves Enhancer
multiplication, which is described in Math Toolbox 1.3
1.3 (Ratio Approach). In the expression for density there is an implied 1:
mass
Density 
volume
Density mass

A can of diet cola floats in water, 1 volume
but a can of regular cola sinks. Cross multiplying this density expression, we get:
Suggest a reason why. How can
you use this information to quickly Density × volume = mass × 1
select your preferred type of soft
drink from a cooler filled with ice Since we are trying to find the volume, we want to isolate it on one side of the
water at a party? equation. We can do this by dividing both sides by the density. (We’ll also drop
the “× 1” because any quantity times 1 is that quantity.)

Density s volume mass


Density density
Now we have an expression that solves for the volume:
mass
Volume 
density
Then, we substitute the known values of mass and density into the equation and
solve for the value of volume:
100.0 g
Volume   11 cm 3
8.9 g/cm 3

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 1.2 Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties of Matter 21

In a second approach to this problem, consider that since the density of cop-
per is always the same, the ratio of mass to volume is the same for both what we
know and what we don’t:
8.9 g 100.0 g

1 cm 3 x cm 3
Cross multiply to solve for x:

3 (1 cm 3 ) s (100.0 g )
x cm   11 cm 3
8.9 g
In both approaches, the gram units cancel to give the expected volume unit of cm3.
There is yet another approach to solving this problem that involves using
density as a conversion factor:
1 cm3
Volume  100.0 g s  11 cm3
8.9 g
Does the answer make sense? Yes. The density tells us that 8.9 g of copper occupy
a volume of 1 cm3. The mass given, 100.0 g, is over 10 times greater than 8.9 so
we would expect it to occupy a volume that is over 10 times greater than 1 cm3.

Practice Problem 1.7

Solve the following problems.
(a) The density of pure gold is 19.3 g/cm3. What is the volume of 1.00 g of pure
gold?
(b) 14-Carat gold is a homogeneous mixture of metals containing 58% gold
by mass. The other 42% is a mixture of silver and copper. Silver and copper
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are both less dense than gold. Which of the following could be the mass of
1.00 cm3 of 14-carat gold: 16.0 g, 19.3 g, or 23.0 g?
Further Practice: Questions 1.75 and 1.76 at the end of the chapter

Why do substances have different densities? Gases, in general, have very low Water is unique among liquids
densities because gas particles spread out and occupy large volumes. Metals tend to because its solid form (ice) floats on
its liquid form. This results from the
have high densities because their atoms pack together efficiently. Because ice floats
relatively open structure adopted by
on water, we can infer that water in its solid form must have a lesser density than
water molecules in the solid state.
water in its liquid form. Example 1.8 shows how to use molecular pictures to predict What would happen to fish during
relative densities. the winter if ice were like other
solids that sink in their liquid form?

EXAMPLE 1.8 | Explanations for Density

How do the molecular diagrams of ice and water help explain why ice is less
dense than water? ANIMATION: Unique Properties of
Water

Ice Liquid water

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 22 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

Solution:
In ice, the H2O molecules have more space between them than in liquid water.
The total volume occupied by a given number of molecules is greater in ice.
Because density is a ratio of mass to volume, the larger volume accounts for the
lower density.

Practice Problem 1.8

Helium balloons rise in air, which is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen molecules,
so we know helium is less dense than air. Look at the molecular-level diagrams
of helium and carbon dioxide. Predict whether a helium balloon rises or falls in
an atmosphere of carbon dioxide.

Helium Carbon dioxide

Further Practice: Questions 1.79 and 1.80 at the end of the chapter

Temperature Bill and Anna weren’t happy with their lunches. The pizza was
cold and their sodas were warm. When we make such comparisons, we are observ-
ing relative temperatures. Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something
is relative to some standard. We measure temperature with a thermometer.
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In the United States, we often use the Fahrenheit scale to measure body tem-
Temperatures are written differ-
perature and air temperature. Fahrenheit is rarely used in science. Two other tem-
ently for the different scales. While perature scales are standard: the Celsius scale and the kelvin scale. The relationships
Celsius and Fahrenheit use the between the three temperature scales, Fahrenheit (°F), Celsius (°C), and kelvin (K),
superscript ° to indicate degrees, are shown in Figure 1.22.
the kelvin scale does not. The unit Another property of matter that is independent of sample size is the tem-
is written as K (the capital letter), perature at which the substance changes from one physical state to another. The
but temperatures are measured in boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid form of a substance changes
kelvins (lowercase). to the gaseous form. At the melting point, the substance changes from a solid to
a liquid. Between these two temperatures, the substance is normally in its liquid
state. For example, on the Celsius scale, the boiling point of water is 100°C. Water

FIGURE 1.22 The Fahrenheit, Celsius,

and kelvin temperature scales.
212oF 100oC 373.15 K
Liquid water boils/
water vapor condenses

77oF 25oC 298.15 K

Room temperature
32oF 0oC 273.15 K
Ice melts/
liquid water freezes

Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin

Lowest possible temperature: –460oF –273.15oC 0K

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 1.2 Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties of Matter 23

melts (or freezes, depending on its original state) at 0°C. On the kelvin scale, these
values are 373.15 K and 273.15 K, respectively. On the Fahrenheit scale, they are
212°F and 32°F, respectively.
There are no negative values on the kelvin scale. It is an absolute temperature
scale because its zero point is the lowest possible temperature observable in the uni-
verse. This value is absolute zero, which is equivalent to –273.15°C. The tempera-
ture increments on the kelvin scale are the same as those on the Celsius scale. The
difference in temperature between the boiling point of water and the freezing point
of water is 100 in both the Celsius (100°C – 0°C) and kelvin (373.15 K – 273.15 K)
scales, while the difference is 180 on the Fahrenheit scale (212°F – 32°F). Because
the temperature in kelvins is always 273.15 greater than the temperature in degrees
Celsius, we can easily convert between them:
TK = T°C + 273.15
When converting between the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, the calculation is more
complicated, because the degree increments are not equal:
T°F = 1.8(T°C) + 32
The equation can be rearranged, solving for degrees Celsius:
T°F – 32
T°C 
1.8

EXAMPLE 1.9 | Units of Temperature

The melting point of copper is 1083°C. Above what temperature, in kelvins and
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degrees Fahrenheit, is copper a liquid?

Solution:
Copper becomes a liquid above its melting point. In units of kelvin this tempera-
ture is
TK = T°C + 273.15
We substitute the value of the Celsius temperature into the expression and solve
for the temperature in kelvins:
TK = 1083 + 273.15 = 1356 K
To convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit we use the equation:
T°F = 1.8(T°C) + 32
Substituting the temperature in degrees Celsius we get:
T°F = 1.8(1083) + 32 = 1981°F

Practice Problem 1.9

(a) The boiling point of acetylene is –28.1°C. Below what temperature, in kel-
vins and degrees Fahrenheit, is acetylene a liquid?
(b) The boiling point of helium is 4 K. Below what temperature, in degrees Cel-
sius, is helium a liquid?
(c) Human body temperature is normally 98.6°F. What is this temperature on the
Celsius and kelvin scales?
Further Practice: Questions 1.83 and 1.84 at the end of the chapter

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 24 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

Physical Changes
A process that changes the physical properties of a substance without changing its
chemical composition is a physical change. For example, we can change liquid
water to water vapor by heating it. This change from a liquid to a gas, called boiling
or vaporization, is a physical change, since both forms involve the same chemical
substance, water (H2O).
To represent such changes, we can refine the symbolic representations we
developed for elements and for compounds. We write the chemical formula for the
initial condition and composition of the matter we are considering, then an arrow,
and finally the chemical formula for the final condition and composition. The arrow
is used to show that a change has occurred and in which direction. Using this sym-
bolism, the change of water from a liquid to a gas would be represented as
H2O(l) H2O(g)
The molecular and symbolic representations in Figure 1.23 show that the water mol-
ecules do not themselves change, but their physical state does. All the processes that
change water from one physical state into another are summarized in Figure 1.24.
Another example of a physical change is the separation of different substances
in a mixture. For example, a magnet divides magnetic materials from nonmagnetic
materials without changing their identities. A filter separates solid materials from
liquid substances without changing either one chemically.

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H2O(l) H2O(g)

FIGURE 1.23 Molecular-level and symbolic representations of the evaporation of water.

Gas
Vaporization
Sublimation Condensation
Deposition

Melting

Freezing

Solid Liquid

FIGURE 1.24 The physical states of solid, liquid, and gas can all change into one another either
directly or by going through two changes of state. The names of these processes are shown here
next to arrows that designate the direction of the change.

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 1.2 Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties of Matter 25

Chemical Changes
Remember the pennies in the fountain that Anna and Bill observed? Some were
shiny and others looked dingy and brown. They might describe these less-shiny
pennies as “tarnished.” The pennies have undergone a chemical change, a process
in which one or more substances are converted into one or more new substances.
When pennies tarnish, some of the copper and zinc metal atoms in them combine
with oxygen, forming compounds called metal oxides. The compounds are chemi-
cally different from either of the elements that formed them.
Suppose we clean a tarnished penny. Is the process a physical or a chemical
change? It can be either. If you simply rub off the metal oxide coating with an eraser, Many metals combine with oxygen
the change is physical. Most penny collectors, however, prefer a chemical change to form a metal oxide compound at
that removes less metal. Rubbing ketchup on a penny is a great way to make it shiny. the surface of the metal. When this
The vinegar in the ketchup reacts chemically with the metal oxides, freeing them occurs with iron, we call it rust.
from the surface of the penny. When the penny is rinsed, the result of the chemical
change is easy to see.
Anna and Bill observed other examples of chemical change during their
campus walk. When gasoline-powered cars burn fuel, a chemical change occurs.
The gasoline reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water vapor. This
chemical change releases the energy that runs the car. Chemical changes that
involve burning are often accompanied by the release of energy. Anna and Bill
also observed vehicles that run on alternative fuels. In hydrogen-powered vehicles,
the hydrogen fuel combines with oxygen to form water vapor—and to release a
lot of energy. The molecular-level and symbolic representations for this chemical
change are shown in Figure 1.25. A chemical change is often called a chemical
reaction. What are some examples of chemical reactions that you can observe
around you?
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Chemical Properties
The copper and zinc in a penny, the gasoline in a car, and the hydrogen in an
alternative-fuel vehicle all share a common chemical property: They react with
oxygen. However, they differ in how they react and what products they form.
Only the latter two release sufficient energy rapidly enough to make their use as
fuels possible.
A chemical property of a substance is defined by what it is composed of and
what chemical changes it can undergo. For example, let’s compare hydrogen and
helium. Although they have similar physical properties (colorless gases, similar
densities), their chemical properties are very different. While hydrogen reacts
with many other elements and compounds, helium is considered inert (Figure
1.26). It has not yet been shown to react with any other element or compound.

O2 H2O
H2

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)

FIGURE 1.25 A chemical change occurs when the atoms in H2 and O2 rearrange to form H2O.

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 26 Chapter 1 Matter and Energy

FIGURE 1.26 The Hindenburg was a giant, rigid balloon filled with hydrogen gas. In 1937, it
was destroyed when its hydrogen caught fire. Today, blimps are filled with helium, an inert gas
that will not explode.

EXAMPLE 1.10 | Physical and Chemical Changes

Which of the following are physical changes and which are chemical changes?
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(a) evaporation
(b) burning methane gas to form carbon dioxide and water
(c) using a magnet to separate metal and plastic paperclips
(d) rusting (the conversion of iron to iron oxide)

Solution:
(a) Evaporation is a physical change because it involves only a change of state.
(b) Burning methane gas is a chemical change because new substances form.
(c) Separating components of a mixture is a physical change.
(d) Rusting is a chemical change because a new substance forms.

Practice Problem 1.10

Which of the following are physical properties and which are chemical
properties?
(a) boiling point of ethanol
(b) ability of propane to burn
(c) tendency for silver to tarnish
(d) density of aluminum
Further Practice: Questions 1.89 and 1.90 at the end of the chapter

Sometimes simple observation cannot tell us whether a change is chemical or

physical. For example, bubbles appear when baking soda and vinegar mix. Bubbles
also appear when water boils, but the change that produces the bubbles is different
in these two cases. Baking soda and vinegar release bubbles because a chemical
change takes place. They react to form carbon dioxide gas. However, when we warm
water in a pan on the stove, small bubbles rise due to the release of dissolved air

bau11072_ch01.indd 26 11/7/08 12:34:35 PM

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
slavery recommended itself entirely to the Dutch mind. Taking him
altogether we shall own that he was not a cruel slave owner; but he was one
to whom slavery of itself was in no way repugnant. That he as the master
should have a command of labour seemed to him to be only natural. To
throw away this command for the sake of putting the slave into a condition
which,—as the Dutchman thought,—would be worse for the slave himself
was to him an absurdity. He regarded the matter as we regard the doctrine of
equality. The very humanitarianism of it was to him a disgusting pretence.
The same feeling exists still. It strikes one at every corner in the Colony. A
ready mode to comfort, wealth, and general prosperity was, as the Dutchman
thinks,—and also some who are not Dutch,—absolutely thrown away. Then
came the question of compensation. Some of us are old enough to remember
the difficulty in distributing the twenty millions which were voted for the
slave owners. The slaves of the Cape Colony were numbered at 35,745, and
were valued at £3,000,000. The amount of money which was allowed for
them was £1,200,000. But even this was paid in such a manner that much of
it fell into the hands of fraudulent agents before it reached the Boer. There
was delay and the orders for the money were negotiated at a great discount.
The sum expected dwindled down to so paltry a sum that some of the
farmers refused to accept what was due to them. Then there was further
trekking away from a land which in the minds of the emigrants was so
abominably mismanaged. But the slaves fell into the body of the coloured
population without any distinction, and were added of course to the free
labour of the country. The ordinary labourer in all countries earns so little
more than board lodging and clothes for himself and his children, and it is so
indispensable a necessity on the slave owner to provide board lodgings and
clothes for his slaves, that the loss of slaves, when all owners lose them
together, ought not to impoverish any one. There may be local
circumstances, as there were in Jamaica, which upset the working of this
rule. In the Cape Colony there were no such circumstances; and it seems that
those who remained and accepted the law were not impoverished. There can
be no doubt, however, that the inhabitants of the Colony generally were
disgusted. The measure was brought into effect in 1838, an apprenticeship of
four years having been allowed.
But we must go back for a moment to the Kafir war of 1835,—the third
Kafir war, for there was a second, of which as being less material I have
spared the reader any special mention. Of all our Kafir wars this was
probably the most bitter. There had been continual contests, in all of which
the Kafirs had undoubtedly thought themselves to be ill used, but in all of
which the evils inflicted upon them had been perpetrated in punishment and
reprisal for thefts of cattle. The Kafir thefts were in comparison small but
were often repeated. Then the Europeans sent out what were called
“Commandos,”—which consisted of an armed levy of mounted men intent
upon seizing cattle by way of restitution. The reader of the histories of the
period is compelled to think that the unfortunate cattle were always being
driven backwards and forwards over the borders. During the period,
however, more than once cattle were restored by the colonists to the Kafirs
which were supposed to have been taken from them in excess of just
demands. In December 1834 this state of things was brought to a crisis by an
attempt which was made by a party of Europeans to recover some stolen
horses. Some cattle were seized, and others were voluntarily surrendered,
but the result was that in December a large body of Kafirs invaded the
European lands, and massacred the farmers to their hearts’ content. They
overran the border country to the number of ten or twelve thousand, and then
returned, carrying with them an immense booty. It all reads as a story out of
Livy, in which the Volsci will devastate the Roman pastures and then return
with their prey to one of their own cities. The reader is sure that the Romans
are going to get the best of it at last;—but in the meantime the Roman people
are nearly ruined.
Sir Benjamin D’Urban was then Governor, and he took strong and
ultimately successful steps to punish the Kafirs. I have not space here to tell
how Hintsa, the Kafir chief, was shot down as he was attempting to escape
from the British whom he had undertaken to guide through his country, or
how the Kafirs were at last driven to sue for peace and to surrender the
sovereignty of their country. The war was not only bloody, but ruinous to
thousands. The cattle were of course destroyed, so that no one was enriched.
Ill blood, of which the effects still remain, was engendered. Three hundred
thousand pounds were spent by the British. But at last the Kafirs were
supposed to have been conquered, and Sir Benjamin D’Urban supposed to
be triumphant.
The triumph, however, to Sir Benjamin D’Urban was not long-lived. At
this time Lord Glenelg was Secretary of State for the Colonies in England,
and Lord Glenelg was a man subject to what I may perhaps not improperly
call the influences of Exeter Hall. When the full report of the Kafir war
reached him a certain party at home had been loud in expressions of pity and
perhaps of admiration for the South African races. Hottentots and Kafirs had
been taken home,—or at any rate a Hottentot and a Kafir,—and had been
much admired. No doubt Lord Glenelg gave his best attention to the reports
sent to him;—no doubt he consulted those around him;—certainly without
doubt he acted in accordance with his conscience and with a full
appreciation of the greatness of the responsibility resting upon him;—but I
think he acted with very bad judgment. He utterly repudiated what Sir
Benjamin D’Urban had done, and asserted that the Kafirs had had “ample
justification” for the late war. He declared in his despatch that “they had a
perfect right to hazard the experiment of extorting by force that redress
which they could not expect otherwise to obtain,” and he caused to be
returned to the Kafirs the land from which they had been driven,—which
land has since that again become a part of the British Colony. There was a
correspondence in which Sir B. D’Urban supported his own views,—but this
ended in the withdrawal of the Governor in 1838, Lord Glenelg declaring
that he was willing to take upon himself the full responsibility of what he
had done, and of all that might come from it.
I think I am justified in saying that since that time public opinion has
decided against Lord Glenelg, and has attributed to his mistake the further
Kafir wars of 1846 and 1850. It is often very difficult in the beginning of
such quarrels to say who is in the right, the Savage or the civilized invader of
the country. The Savage does not understand the laws as to promises,
treaties, and mutual compacts which we endeavour to impose upon him, and
we on the other hand are determined to live upon his land whether our doing
so be just or unjust. In such a condition of things we,—meaning the civilized
intruders,—are obliged to defend our position. We cannot consent to have
our throats cut when we have taken the land, because our title to possession
is faulty. If ever a Governor was bound to interfere for the military defence
of his people, Sir Benjamin D’Urban was so bound. If ever a Savage was
taken red-handed in treachery, Hintsa was so taken, and was so shot down.
The full carrying out of Lord Glenelg’s views would have required us to give
back all the country to the Hottentots, to compensate the Dutch for our
interference, and to go back to Europe. Surely no man was ever so sorely
punished for the adequate performance of a most painful public duty as Sir
Benjamin D’Urban.
 In 1838 slavery was abolished;—and as one of the consequences of that
abolition, the Dutch farmers again receded. Their lands were occupied by the
English and Scotch who followed them, and in the hands of these men the
growth of wool began to prevail. Merino sheep were introduced, and wool
became the most important production of the colony.
During the whole of this period the practice was continued by the old-
fashioned farmers of receding from their farms in quest of new lands in
which they might live without interference. The Colony in spite of Kafirs
had prospered under English rule, whilst the Dutch farmers had no doubt
enjoyed the progress as well as their English neighbours. Their condition
was infinitely more free than it had ever been under Dutch rule, and very
much more comfortable. But still they were dissatisfied. British ideas as to
Hottentots and Kafirs and British ideas as to slavery were in their eyes
absurd, unmanly and disagreeable. And therefore they went away across the
Orange River; but we shall be able to deal better with their further
journeyings when we come to speak of the colony of Natal, of the Orange
Free State, and of the Transvaal Republic.
In 1846 came another Kafir war, called the war of the axe,[3] which lasted
to the end of 1847. This too grew out of a small incident. A Kafir prisoner
was rescued and taken into Kafir land, and the Kafirs would not give him up
when he was demanded by the Authorities. It seems that whenever any slight
act of rebellion on their parts was successful, the whole tribe and the
neighbouring tribes would be so elated as to think that now had come the
time for absolutely subduing the white strangers. They were at last beaten
and starved into submission, but at a terrible cost; and it seems to have been
acknowledged at home that Lord Glenelg had been wrong. Sir Harry Smith
was sent out, and he again extended the Colony to the Kei River, leaving the
district between that and the Keiskamma as a British home for Kafirs, under
the name of British Kafraria.
In 1849, when Earl Grey was at the Colonial Office, an attempt was made
to induce the Cape Colony to receive convicts, and a ship laden with such a
freight was sent to Table Bay. But they were never landed. With an
indomitable resolution which had about it much that was heroic the
inhabitants resolved that the convicts should not be allowed to set foot on the
soil of South Africa. The Governor, acting under orders from home, no doubt
was all powerful, and there was a military force at hand quite sufficient to
enforce the Governor’s orders. Nothing could have prevented the landing of
the men had the Governor persevered. But the inhabitants of the place
agreed among themselves that if the convicts were landed they should not be
fed. No stores of any kind were to be sold to any one concerned should the
convicts once be put on shore. The remedy then seemed to be rebellious and
has since been called ridiculous;—but it was successful, and the convicts
were taken away. For four wretched months the ship with its miserable
freight lay in the bay, but not a man was landed. No such freight had ever
been brought to the Cape before since the coming of a party of criminals
from the Dutch East India possessions, who were sold as slaves,—and no
such attempt has been made since. Those who know anything of the history
of our Australian Colonies are aware that there is nothing to which the
British Colonist has so strong an objection as the presence of a convict from
the mother country. Whatever the mother country may send let it not send
her declared rascaldom. The use of a Colony as a prison is no doubt in
accordance with the Dutch theory that the paramount object of the outlying
settlement is the welfare of the parent state,—but it is not at all compatible
with the existing British idea that the paramount object is the well-being of
the Colonists themselves. It seems hard upon England that with all her
territories she can find no spot of ground for the reception of her thieves and
outcasts,—that she, with all her population, sending out her honest folks
over the whole world, should be obliged to keep her too numerous rascals at
home. But it seems that where the population is which creates the crime,
there the criminals must remain. The Colonies certainly will not receive
them.
Then came the fifth Kafir war, which of all these wars was the bloodiest.
It began in 1850, and seems to have been instigated by a Kafir prophet. It
would be impossible in a short sketch such as this to give any individual
interest to these struggles of the natives against their invaders. Through them
all we see an attempt, made at any rate by the British rulers of the land, to
bind these people by the joint strength of treaties and good offices. “If you
will only do as we bid you, you shall be better off than ever you were. We
will not hurt you, and the land will be enough for both of us.” That is what
we have said all along with a clear intention of keeping our word. But it has
been necessary, if we were to live in the land at all, that we should bind them
to keep their word whether they did or did not understand what it was to
which they pledged themselves. Lord Glenelg’s theory required that the
British holders of the land should recognise and respect the weakness of the
Savage without using the strength of his own civilization. Colonization in
such a country on such terms is impossible. He may have had abstract justice
on his side. On that point I say nothing here. But if so, and if Great Britain is
bound to reconcile her conduct to the rules which such justice requires, then
she must abandon the peculiar task which seems to have been allotted to her,
of peopling the world with a civilized race. In 1850 the fifth Kafir war arose,
and the inhabitants of one advanced military village after another were
murdered. This went on for nearly two years and a half, but was at last
suppressed by dint of hard fighting. It cost Great Britain upwards of two
millions of money, with the lives of about four hundred fighting men. This
was the last of the Kafir wars,—up to that of 1877, if that is to be called a
Kafir war.
After that, in 1857, occurred what seems to be the most remarkable and
most unintelligible of all the events known to us in Kafir history. At this time
Sir George Grey was Governor of the Colony,—a most remarkable man,
who had been Governor of South Australia and of New Zealand, who had
been once recalled from his office of Governor at the Cape and then
restored, who was sent back to New Zealand as Governor in the hottest of
the Maori warfare, and who now lives in that Colony and is at this moment,
—the beginning of 1878,—singularly enough Prime Minister in the
dependency in which he has twice been the Queen’s vicegerent. Whatever he
may be, or may have been, in New Zealand, he certainly left behind him at
the Cape of Good Hope a very great reputation. There can be no doubt that
of all our South African Governors he was the most popular,—and probably
the most high-handed. In his time there came up a prophecy among the
Kafirs that they were to be restored to all their pristine glories and
possessions not by living aid, but by the dead. Their old warriors would
return to them from the distant world, and they themselves would all become
young, beautiful, and invincible. But great faith was needed. They would
find fat cattle in large caves numerous as their hearts might desire; and rich
fields of flowing corn would spring up for them as food was required. Only
they must kill all their own cattle, and destroy all their own grain, and must
refrain from sowing a seed. This they did with perfect faith, and all
Kafirdom was well nigh starved to death. The English and Dutch around
them did what they could for their relief;—had indeed done what they could
to prevent the self-immolation; but the more that the white men interfered
the more confirmed were the black men in their faith. It is said that 50,000 of
them perished of hunger. Since that day there has been no considerable Kafir
war, and the spirit of the race has been broken.
Whence came the prophecy? There is a maxim among lawyers that the
criminal is to be looked for among those who have profited by the crime.
That we the British holders of the South African soil, and we only, were
helped on in our work by this catastrophe is certain. No such prophecy,—
nothing like to it,—ever came up among the Kafirs before. They have ever
been a superstitious people, given to witchcraft and much afraid of witches.
But till this fatal day they were never tempted to believe that the dead would
come back to them, or to look for other food than what the earth gave them
by its natural increase. It is more than probable that the prophecy ripened in
the brain of an imaginative and strong-minded Anglo-Saxon. This occurred
in 1857 when the terrible exigences of the Indian Mutiny had taken almost
every redcoat from the Cape to the Peninsula. Had the Kafirs tried their old
method of warfare at such a period it might have gone very hard indeed with
the Dutch and English farmers of the Eastern Province.
During the last twenty years of our government there have been but two
incidents in Colonial life to which I need refer in this summary,—and both
of them will receive their own share of separate attention in the following
chapters. These two are the finding of the Diamond Fields, and the
commencement of responsible government at the Cape Colony.
In 1867 a diamond was found in the hands of a child at the south side of
the Orange River. Near to this place the Vaal runs into the Orange, and it is
in the angle between the two that the diamonds have been found. This
particular diamond went through various hands and was at last sold to Sir
Philip Wodehouse, the Governor, for £500. As was natural, a stream of
seekers after precious stones soon flowed in upon the country, some to
enrich themselves, and many to become utterly ruined in the struggle. The
most manifest effect on the Colony, as it has always been in regions in which
gold has been found, has been the great increase in consumption. It is not the
diamonds or the gold which enrich the country in which the workings of
Nature have placed her hidden treasures, but the food which the diggers eat,
and the clothes which the diggers wear, and, I fear, the brandy which the
diggers drink. Houses are built; and a population which flows in for a
temporary purpose gradually becomes permanent.
In 1872 responsible government was commenced at Capetown with a
Legislative Council and House of Assembly, with full powers of passing
laws and ruling the country by its majorities;—or at any rate with as full
powers as belong to any other Colony. In all Colonies the Secretary of State
at home has a veto; but such as is the nature of the constitution in Canada or
Victoria, such is it now in the Cape Colony. For twenty years previous to this
there had been a Parliament in which the sucking legislators of the country
were learning how to perform their duties. But during those twenty years the
Ministers were responsible to the Governors. Now they are responsible to
Parliament.

CHAPTER IV.

POPULATION AND FEDERATION.

In a former chapter I endeavoured to give a rough idea of the geographical

districts into which has been divided that portion of South Africa which
Europeans have as yet made their own. I will now attempt to explain how
they are at present ruled and will indulge in some speculations as to their
future condition.
How the Cape Colony became a Colony I have already described. The
Dutch came and gradually spread themselves, and then the English
becoming owners of the Dutch possessions spread themselves further. With
the natives,—Hottentots as they came to be called,—there was some trouble
but not very much. They were easily subjected,—very easily as compared
with the Kafirs,—and then gradually dispersed. As a race they are no longer
troublesome;—nor are they very profitable to the Cape Colony. The labour
of the Colony is chiefly done by coloured people, but by people who have
mainly been immigrants,—the descendants of those whom the Dutch
brought, and bastard Hottentots as they are called, with a sprinkling of Kafirs
and Fingos who have come from the East in quest of wages. The Colony is
divided into a Western and Eastern Province, and these remarks refer to the
whole of the former and to the western portion of the latter district. In this
large portion of the Colony there is not now nor has there been for many
years anything to be feared from pugnacious natives. It is in the eastern half
of the Eastern Province that Kafirs have been and still are troublesome.
The division into Provinces is imaginary rather than real. There are
indeed at this moment twenty-one members of the Legislative Council of
which eleven are supposed to have been sent to Parliament by the Western
District, and ten by the Eastern;—but even this has now been altered, and the
members of the next Council will be elected for separate districts,—so that
no such demarcation will remain. I think that I am justified in saying that the
constitution knows no division. In men’s minds, however, the division is
sharp enough, and the political feeling thus engendered is very keen. The
Eastern Province desires to be separated and formed into a distinct Colony,
as Victoria was separated from New South Wales, and afterwards
Queensland. The reasons for separation which it puts forward are as follows.
Capetown, the capital, is in a corner and out of the way. Members from the
East have to make long and disagreeable journeys to Parliament, and, when
there, are always in a minority. Capetown and the West with its mongrel
population is perfectly safe, whereas a large portion of the Eastern Province
is always subject to Kafir “scares” and possibly to Kafir wars. And yet the
Ministry in power is, and has been, and must be a Western Ministry,
spending the public money for Western objects and ruling the East according
to its pleasure. It was by arguments such as these that the British
Government was induced to sanction the happy separation of Queensland
from New South Wales. Then why not separate the Eastern from the Western
Province in the Cape Colony? But the western people, as a matter of course,
do not wish to see a diminution of their own authority. Capetown would lose
half its glory and more than half its importance if it were put simply on a par
with Grahamstown, which is the capital of the East. And the western
politicians have their arguments which have hitherto prevailed. As to the
expenditure of public money they point to the fact that two railway
enterprises have been initiated in the East,—one up the country from Port
Elizabeth, and the other from East London,—whereas there is but the one in
the West which starts from Capetown. Of course it must be understood that
in the Colonies railways are always or very nearly always made by
Government money. The western people also say that the feeling produced
by Kafir aggression in the Eastern Province is still too bitter to admit of calm
legislation. The prosperity of South Africa must depend on the manner in
which the Kafir and cognate races, Fingos and Basutos, Pondos, Zulus and
others are amalgamated and brought together as subjects of the British
Crown; and if every unnecessary scare is to produce a mixture of fear and
oppression then the doing of the work will be much protracted. If the Eastern
Province were left alone to arrange its affairs with the natives the chances of
continual Kafir wars would be very much increased.
 Arguments and feelings such as these have hitherto availed to prevent a
separation of the Provinces; but though a belief in this measure is still the
eastern political creed, action in that direction is no longer taken. No eastern
politician thinks that he will see simple separation by a division of the
Colony into two Colonies. But another action has taken place in lieu of
simple separation which, if successful, would imply something like
separation, and which is called Federation. Here there has been ample
ground for hope because it has been understood that Federation is popular
with the authorities of the Colonial Office at home.
It will hardly be necessary for me to explain here what Federation means.
We have various Groups of Colonies and the question has arisen whether it
may not be well that each group should be bound together under one chief or
Federal Government, as the different States of the American Union are
bound. It has been tried, as we all believe successfully, with British North
America. It has been recommended in regard to the Australian Colonies. It
has been attempted, not as yet successfully, in the West Indies. It has been
talked of and become the cause of very hot feeling in reference to Her
Majesty’s possessions in South Africa.
I myself have been in favour of such Federation since I have known
anything of our colonial possessions. The one fact that at present the produce
of a Colony, going into an adjacent district as closely connected with it as
Yorkshire is with Lancashire, should be subjected to Custom duties as
though it came from a foreign land, is a strong reason for such union. And
then the mind foresees that there will at some future time be a great
Australia, and probably a great South Africa, in which a division into
different governments will, if continued, be as would be a Heptarchy
restored in England. But it is this very feeling,—the feeling which
experience and foresight produce among us in England,—which renders the
idea of Federation unpalatable in the Colonies generally. The binding
together of a colonial group into one great whole is regarded as a preparation
for separation from the mother country. It is as though we at home in
England were saying to our children about the world;—“We have paid for
your infantine bread and butter; we have educated you and given you good
trades; now you must go and do for yourselves.” There is perhaps no such
feeling in the bosom of the special Colonial Minister at home who may at
this or the other time be advocating this measure; but there must be an idea
that some preparation for such a possible future event is expedient. We do
not want to see such another colonial crisis as the American war of last
century between ourselves and an English-speaking people. But in the
Colonies there is a sort of loyalty of which we at home know nothing. It may
be exemplified to any man’s mind by thinking of the feeling as to home
which is engendered by absence. The boy or girl who lives always on the
paternal homestead does not care very much for the kitchen with its dressers,
or for the farmyard with its ricks, or the parlour with its neat array. But let
the boy or girl be banished for a year or two and every little detail becomes
matter for a fond regret. Hence I think has sprung that colonial anger which
has been entertained against Ministers at home who have seemed to prepare
the way for final separation from the mother country.
Federation, though generally unpopular in the Colonies, has been
welcomed in the Eastern Province of South Africa, because it would be a
means of giving if not entire at any rate partial independence from Capetown
domination. If Federation were once sanctioned and carried out, the Eastern
Province thinks that it would enter the union as a separate state, and that it
would have such dominion as to its own affairs as New York and
Massachusetts have in the United States.
But there would be various other States in such a Federation besides the
two into which the Cape Colony might be divided, and in order that my
readers may have some idea of what would or might be the component parts
of such a union, I will endeavour to describe the different territories which
would be included, with some regard to their population.
At present that South African district of which the South African
politician speaks when he discusses the question of South African
Federation, contains by a rough but fairly accurate computation,[4] 2,276,000
souls, of whom 340,000 may be classed as white men and 1,936,000 as
coloured men. There is not therefore one white to five coloured men. And
these coloured people are a strong and increasing people,—by no means
prone to die out and cease to be either useless or useful, as are the Maoris in
New Zealand and the Indians in North America. Such as they are we have
got to bring them into order, and to rule them and teach them to earn their
bread,—a duty which has not fallen upon us in any other Colony. The
population above stated may be divided as follows:—
Estimated Population of European South Africa.
 White Coloured
Names of Districts. Total.
persons. persons.
Orange Free State 30,000 15,000 45,000
Transkeian districts — 501,000 501,000
The Cape Colony 235,000 485,000 720,000
Native districts belonging to the Cape Colony — 335,000 335,000
The Diamond Fields 15,000 30,000 45,000
Natal 20,000 320,000 340,000
Transvaal 40,000 250,000 290,000
Total 340,000 1,936,0002,276,000
I must first remark in reference to this table that the district named first,
—the one containing by far the smallest number of native inhabitants, called
the Orange Free State—is not a British possession nor, as far as I am aware,
is it subject to British influences. It is a Dutch Republic, well ruled as
regards its white inhabitants, untroubled by the native question and content
with its own position. It is manifest, however, that it has succeeded in
making the natives understand that they can live better outside its borders,
and it has continued by its practice to banish the black man and to rid itself
of trouble on that score. My reader if he will refer to the map will see that
now, since the annexation of the Transvaal by Great Britain, the Free State is
surrounded by British territory,—for Basuto land, which lies to the west of
the Free State between the Cape Colony and Natal, is a portion of the Cape
Colony. This being so I cannot understand how the Orange Free State can be
comprised in any political Confederation. The nature of such a
Confederation seems to require one Head, one flag, and one common
nationality. I cannot conceive that the Savoyards should confederate with the
Swiss,—let their interests be ever so identical,—unless Savoy were to
become a Swiss Canton. The Dutch Republic is no doubt free to do as she
pleases, which Savoy is not; but the idea of Confederation presumes that she
would give herself up to the English flag. There may no doubt be a
Confederation without the Orange Free State, and that Confederation might
offer advantages so great that the Dutchmen of the Free State should
ultimately feel disposed to give themselves up to Great Britain; but the
question for the present must be considered as subject to considerable
disturbance from the existence of the Republic. The roads from the Cape
Colony to the Transvaal and the Diamond Fields lie through the Free State,
and there would necessarily arise questions of transit and of Custom duties
which would make it expedient that the districts should be united under one
flag; but I can foresee no pretext for compulsion.
In the annexation of the Transvaal there was at any rate an assignable
cause,—of which we were not slow to take advantage. In regard to the
Orange Free State nothing of the kind is to be expected. The population is
chiefly Dutch. The political influence is altogether Dutch. A reference to the
above table will show how the Dutchman succeeds,—whether for good or
ill,—in ridding himself of the coloured man. The Free State is a large
district; but it contains altogether only 45,000 inhabitants,—and there are on
the soil no more than 15,000 natives.
I will next say a word as to the Transkeian districts, which also have been
supposed to be outside the dominion of the British Crown and which
therefore it would seem to be just to exclude were we to effect a
Confederation of our British South African Colonies.[5] But all these districts
would certainly be included in any Confederation, with great advantage to
the British Colonies, and with greater advantages to the Kafirs themselves
who live beyond the Kei. I must again refer my readers to the map. They
will see on the South Eastern Coast of the continent a district called Kafraria,
—as distinct from British Kafraria further west,—the independence of which
is signified by its name. Here they will find the river Kei, which till lately
was supposed to be the boundary of the British territories,—beyond which
the Kafir was supposed to live according to his own customs, and in
undisturbed possession of independent rule. But this, even before the late
Kafir outbreak, was by no means the case. A good deal of British annexation
goes on in different parts of the world of which but little mention is made in
the British Parliament, and but little notice taken even by the British press. It
will be seen that in this territory there live 501,000 natives, and it is here, no
doubt, that Kafir habits are to be found in their fullest perfection. The red
Kafir is here,—the man who dyes himself and his blanket and his wives with
red clay, who eschews breeches and Christianity, and meditates on the
coming happy day in which the pestilent interfering European may be driven
at length into the sea. It is here that Kreli till lately reigned the
acknowledged king of Kafirdom as being the chief of the Galekas. Kreli had
foughten and been conquered and been punished by the loss of much of his
territory;—but still was allowed to rule over a curtailed empire. His
population is now not above 66,000. Among even these,—among the
Pondos, who are much more numerous than the Galekas, our influence is
maintained by European magistrates, and the Kafirs, though allowed to do
much according to their pleasures, are not allowed to do everything. The
Pondos number, I believe, as many as 200,000. In the remainder of Kafraria
British rule is nearly as dominant to the east as to the west of the Kei. Adam
Kok’s land,—or no man’s land, as it has been called,—running up north into
Natal, we have already annexed to the Cape Colony, and no parliamentary
critic at home is at all the wiser. The Fingos hold much of the remainder, and
wherever there is a Fingo there is a British subject. There would now be no
difficulty in sweeping Kafraria into a general South African Confederation.
I will now deal with those enumerated in the above table who are at
present undoubtedly subjects of Her Majesty, and who are bound to comply
with British laws. The Cape Colony contains nearly three-quarters of a
million of people, and is the only portion of South Africa which has what
may be called a large white population; but that population, though
comparatively large,—something over a quarter of a million,—is less in
number than the inhabitants of the single city of Melbourne. One colonial
town in Australia, and that a town not more than a quarter of a century old,
gives a home to more white people than the whole of the Cape Colony,
which was colonized with white people two hundred years before Melbourne
was founded. And on looking at the white population of the Cape Colony a
further division must be made in order to give the English reader a true idea
of the Colony in reference to England. A British colony to the British mind is
a land away from home to which the swarming multitudes of Great Britain
may go and earn a comfortable sustenance, denied to them in the land of
their birth by the narrowness of its limits and the greatness of its population,
and may do so with the use of their own language, and in subjection to their
own laws. We have other senses of the word Colony,—for we call military
garrisons Colonies,—such as Malta, and Gibraltar, and Bermuda. But the
true Colony has, I think, above been truly described; and thus the United
States of America have answered to us the purpose of a Colony as well as
though they had remained under British rule. We should, therefore,
endeavour to see how far the Cape Colony has answered the desired
purpose.
The settlement was Dutch in its origin, and was peopled by Dutchmen,—
with a salutary sprinkling of Protestant French who assimilated themselves
after a time to the Dutch in language and religion. It is only by their religion
that we can now divide the Dutch and the English; and on enquiry I find that
about 150,000 souls belong to the Dutch Reformed and Lutheran Churches,
—leaving 85,000 of English descent in the Colony. If to these we add the
20,000 white persons inhabiting Natal, and 15,000 at the Diamond Fields,
we shall have the total English population of South Africa;—for the
Europeans of the Transvaal, as of the Orange Free State, are a Dutch people.
There are therefore about 120,000 persons of British descent in these South
African districts,—the number being little more than that of the people of the
small unobtrusive Colony which we call Tasmania.
I hope that nobody will suppose from this that I regard a Dutch subject of
the British Crown as being less worthy of regard than an English subject. My
remarks are not intended to point in that direction, but to show what is the
nature of our duties in South Africa. Thus are there about 220,000[6] persons
of Dutch descent, though the emigrants from Holland to that land during the
present century have been but few;—so few that I have found no trace of any
batch of such emigrants; and there are but 120,000 of English descent
although the country has belonged to England for three-quarters of a
century! The enquirer is thus driven to the conclusion that South Africa has
hardly answered the purpose of a British Colony.
And I hope that nobody will suppose from this that I regard the coloured
population of Africa as being unworthy of consideration. My remarks, on the
other hand, are made with the object of showing that in dealing with South
Africa the British Parliament and the British Ministers should think,—not
indeed exclusively,—but chiefly of the coloured people. When we speak of
Confederation among these Colonies and districts we should enquire
whether such Confederation will be good for those races whom at home we
lump under the name of Kafirs. As a Colony, in the proper sense of the word,
the Cape Colony has not been successful. Englishmen have not flocked there
in proportion to its area or to its capabilities for producing the things
necessary for life. The working Englishman,—and it is he who populates the
new lands,—prefers a country in which he shall not have to compete with a
black man or a red man. He learns from some only partially correct source
that in one country the natives will interfere with him and that in another
they will not; and he prefers the country in which their presence will not
annoy him.
But then neither have Englishmen flocked to India, which of all our
possessions is the most important,—or to Ceylon, which as being called a
Colony and governed from the Colonial Office at home may afford us the
nearest parallel we can find to South Africa. No doubt they are in many
things unlike. No English workman takes his family to Ceylon because the
tropical sun is too hot for a European to work beneath it. South Africa is
often hot, but it is not tropical, and an Englishman can work there. And again
in Ceylon the coloured population have from the first British occupation of
the island been recognised as “the people,”—an interesting and submissive
but still foreign and coloured people, whom she should not dream of inviting
to govern themselves. It is a matter of course that Ceylon should be
governed as a Crown Colony,—with edicts and laws from Downing Street,
administered by the hand of a Governor. A Cingalee Parliament would be an
absurdity in our eyes. But in the Cape Colony we have, as I shall explain in
another chapter, all the circumstances of parliamentary government. The real
Governor is the Colonial Prime Minister for the time, with just such
restraints as control our Prime Minister at home. Therefore Ceylon and the
Cape Colony are very unlike in their circumstances.
But the likeness is much more potential than the unlikeness. In each
country there is a vast coloured population subject to British rule,—and a
population which is menaced by no danger of coming extermination. It must
always be remembered that the Kafirs are not as the Maoris. They are
increasing now more quickly than ever because, under our rule, they do not
kill each other off in tribal wars. No doubt the white men are increasing too,
—but very slowly; so that it is impossible not to accept the fact a few white
men have to rule a great number of coloured men, and that that proportion
must remain.
A coloured subject of the Queen in the Cape Colony has all the privileges
possessed by a white subject,—all the political privileges. The elective
franchise under which the constituencies elect their members of Parliament
is given under a certain low property qualification. A labourer who for a year
shall have earned £25 in wages and his diet may be registered as a voter, or
if a man shall have held for a year a house, or land, or land and house
conjointly, worth £50, he may be registered. It is certainly the case that even
at present a very large number of Kafirs might be registered. It has already
been threatened in more than one case that a crowd of Kafirs should be taken
to the poll to carry an election in this or that direction. The Kafirs themselves
understand but little about it,—as yet; but they will come to understand. The
franchise is one which easily admits of a simulated qualification. It depends
on the value of land,—and who is to value it? If one Kafir were now to
swear that he paid another Kafir 10s. a week and fed him; no registrar would
perhaps believe the oath. But it will not be long before such oath might
probably be true, or at any rate impossible of rejection. The Registrar may
himself be a Kafir,—as may also be the member of Parliament. We have
only to look at the Southern States of the American Union to see how
quickly the thing may run when once it shall have begun to move. With two
million and a quarter of coloured people as against 340,000 white, all
endowed with equal political privileges, why should we not have a Kafir
Prime Minister at Capetown, and a Kafir Parliament refusing to pay salary to
any but a Kafir Governor?
There may be those who think that a Kafir Parliament and a Kafir
Governor would be very good for a Kafir country. I own that I am not one of
them. I look to the civilization of these people, and think that I see it now
being effected by the creation of those wants the desire for supplying which
has since the creation of the world been the one undeviating path towards
material and intellectual progress. I see them habituating their shoulders to
the yoke of daily labour,—as we have all habituated ours in Europe, and I do
not doubt the happiness of the result. Nor do I care at present to go into the
question of a far distant future. I will not say but that in coming ages a Kafir
may make as good a Prime Minister as Lord Beaconsfield. But he cannot do
so now,—nor in this age,—nor for many ages to come. It will be sufficient
for us if we can make up our minds that at least for the next hundred years
we shall not choose to be ruled by him. But if so, seeing how greatly
preponderating is his number, how are we to deal with him when he shall
have come to understand the meaning of his electoral privileges, but shall
not yet have reached that intellectual equality with the white man which the
more ardent of his friends anticipate for him? Such are the perils and such
the political quagmire among which the Southern States of the Union are
now floundering. In arranging for the future government of South Africa,
whether with, or without, a Confederation, we should I think be on the alert
to guard against similar perils and a similar quagmire there.
I have now spoken of the Queen’s subjects in the Cape Colony. Then
come on my list as given above the inhabitants of native districts which are
subject to the Cape Colony, either by conquest or by annexation in
accordance with their own wishes. These are so various and scattered that I
can hardly hope to interest my reader in the tribes individually. The Basutos
are probably the most prominent. They are governed by British magistrates,
pay direct and indirect taxes,—are a quiet orderly people, not given to
fighting since the days of their great King Moshesh, and are about 127,000
in number. Then there are the Damaras and Namaquas of the Western coast,
people allied to the Hottentots, races of whom no great notice is taken
because their land has not yet been good enough to tempt colonists. But a
small proportion of these people as yet live within electoral districts and
therefore at present they have no votes for members of Parliament. But were
any scheme of Confederation carried out their position would have to be
assimilated to that of the other natives.
The Diamond Fields are in a condition very little like that of South Africa
generally. They are now, so to say, in the act of being made a portion of the
Cape Colony, the bill for this purpose having been passed only during the
last Session. They were annexed to the British Dominions in 1871, and have
been governed since that time by a resident Sub-Governor under the
Governor and High Commissioner of the Cape Colony. The district will now
have a certain allotment of members of Parliament, but it has not any strong
bearing on the question we are considering. The population of the district is
of a shifting nature, the greater portion of even the coloured people having
been drawn there by the wages offered by capitalists in search of diamonds.
The English have got into the way of calling this territory the Diamond
Fields, but its present proper geographical name is Griqualand West.
We then come to Natal with its little handful of white people,—20,000
Europeans among 320,000 Kafirs and Zulus. Natal at present is under a
separate Governor of its own and a separate form of government. There is
not a Parliament in our sense of the word, but a Legislative Council. The
Executive Officers are responsible to the Governor and not to the Council.
Natal is therefore a Crown Colony, and is not yet afflicted with any danger
from voting natives. I can understand that it should be brought into a
Confederation with other Colonies or Territories under the same flag without
any alteration in its own Constitution,—but in doing so it must consent to
take a very subordinate part. Where there is a Parliament, and the clamour
and energy and strife of parliamentary life, there will be the power. If there
be a Confederation with a central Congress,—and I presume that such an
arrangement is always intended when Confederation is mentioned,—Natal
would demand the right to elect members. It would choose its own franchise,
and might perhaps continue to shut out the coloured man; but it would be
subjected to and dominated by the Institutions of the Cape Colony, which, as
I have endeavoured to show, are altogether different from its own. The
smaller States are generally those most unwilling to confederate, fearing that
they will be driven to the wall. The founders of the American Constitution
had to give Rhode Island as many Senators as New York before she would
consent to Federation.
There remains the Transvaal, which we have just annexed with its 40,000
Dutchmen and its quarter of a million of native population,—a number
which can only be taken as a rough average and one which will certainly be
greatly exceeded as our borders stretch themselves in their accustomed
fashion. Here again we have for the moment a Crown Colony, and one
which can hardly get itself into working order for Confederation within the
period allowed by the Permissive Bill of last Session. The other day there
was a Dutch Parliament,—or Volksraad,—in which the Dutchman had
protected himself altogether from any voting interference on the part of the
native. Downing Street can make the Transvaal confederate if she so please,
but can hardly do so without causing Dutch members to be sent up to the
general Parliament. Now these Dutchmen do not talk English, and are
supposed to be unwilling to mix with Englishmen. I fear that many years
must pass by before the Transvaal can become an operative part of an Anglo-
South African Confederation.
I have here simply endeavoured to point at the condition of things as they
may affect the question of Confederation;—not as intending to express an
opinion against Confederation generally. I am in doubt whether a
Confederation of the South African States can be carried in the manner
proposed by the Bill. But I feel sure that if such a measure be carried the
chief object in view should be the amelioration of the coloured races, and
that that object cannot be effected by inviting the coloured races to come to
the polls. Voting under a low suffrage would be quite as appropriate to the
people of the Indian Provinces and of Ceylon as it is at the present moment
to the people of South Africa. The same evil arose in Jamaica and we know
what came from it there.
 THE CAPE COLONY.
CHAPTER V.

CAPETOWN; THE CAPITAL.

I had always heard that the entrance into Capetown, which is the capital of
the Cape Colony, was one of the most picturesque things to be seen on the
face of the earth. It is a town lying close down on the seashore, within the
circumference of Table Bay so that it has the advantage of an opposite shore
which is always necessary to the beauty of a seashore town; and it is backed
by the Table Mountain with its grand upright cliffs and the Lion with its
head and rump, as a certain hill is called which runs from the Table
Mountain round with a semicircular curve back towards the sea. The “Lion”
certainly put me in mind of Landseer’s lions, only that Landseer’s lions lie
straight. All this has given to Capetown a character for landscape beauty,
which I had been told was to be seen at its best as you enter the harbour. But
as we entered it early on one Sunday morning neither could the Table
Mountain nor the Lion be seen because of the mist, and the opposite shore,
with its hills towards The Paarl and Stellenbosch, was equally invisible.
Seen as I first saw it Capetown was not an attractive port, and when I found
myself standing at the gate of the dockyard for an hour and a quarter waiting
for a Custom House officer to tell me that my things did not need
examination,—waiting because it was Sunday morning,—I began to think
that it was a very disagreeable place indeed. Twelve days afterwards I
steamed out of the docks on my way eastward on a clear day, and then I
could see what was then to be seen, and I am bound to say that the
amphitheatre behind the place is very grand. But by that time the hospitality
of the citizens had put me in good humour with the city and had enabled me
to forget the iniquity of that sabbatical Custom House official.
But Capetown in truth is not of itself a prepossessing town. It is hard to
say what is the combination which gives to some cities their peculiar
attraction, and the absence of which makes others unattractive. Neither
cleanliness, nor fine buildings, nor scenery, nor even a look of prosperity
will effect this,—nor will all of them combined always do so. Capetown is
not specially dirty,—but it is somewhat ragged. The buildings are not grand,
but there is no special deficiency in that respect. The scenery around is really
fine, and the multiplicity of Banks and of Members of Parliament,—which
may be regarded as the two most important institutions the Colonies
produce,—seemed to argue prosperity. But the town is not pleasing to a
stranger. It is as I have said ragged, the roadways are uneven and the
pavements are so little continuous that the walker by night had better even
keep the road. I did not make special enquiry as to the municipality, but it
appeared to me that the officers of that body were not alert. I saw a market
out in the open street which seemed to be rather amusing than serviceable.
To this criticism I do not doubt but that my friends at the Cape will object;—
but when they do so I would ask whether their own opinion of their own
town is not the same as mine. “It is a beastly place you know,” one
Capetown gentleman said to me.
“Oh no!” said I in that tone which a guest is obliged to use when the
mistress of a house speaks ill of anything at her own table. “No, no; not
that.”
But he persisted. “A beastly place,”—he repeated. “But we have plenty to
eat and plenty to drink, and manage to make out life very well. The girls are
as pretty as they are any where else, and as kind;—and the brandy and water
as plentiful.” To the truth of all these praises I bear my willing testimony,—
always setting aside the kindness of the young ladies of which it becomes no
man to boast.
The same thing may be said of so many colonial towns. There seems to
be a keener relish of life than among our steadier and more fastidious folk at
home, with much less to give the relish. So that one is driven to ask oneself
whether advanced Art, mechanical ingenuity, and luxurious modes of living
do after all add to the happiness of mankind. He who has once possessed
them wants to return to them,—and if unable to do so is in a far worse
position than his neighbours. I am therefore disposed to say that though
Capetown as a city is not lovely, the Capetowners have as good a time of it
as the inhabitants of more beautiful capitals.
The population is something over 30,000,—which when we remember
that the place is more than two centuries old and that it is the capital of an
enormous country, and the seat of the colonial legislature, is not great.
Melbourne which is just two hundred years younger than Capetown contains
above a quarter of a million of inhabitants. Melbourne was of course made
what it is by gold;—but then so have there been diamonds to enhance the
growth of Capetown. But the truth, I take it, is that a white working
population will not settle itself at any place where it will have to measure
itself against coloured labour. A walk through the streets of Capetown is
sufficient to show the stranger that he has reached a place not inhabited by
white men,—and a very little conversation will show him further that he is
not speaking with an English-speaking population. The gentry no doubt are
white and speak English. At any rate the members of Parliament do so, and
the clergymen, and the editors—for the most part, and the good-looking
young ladies;—but they are not the population. He will find that everything
about him is done by coloured persons of various races, who among
themselves speak a language which I am told the Dutch in Holland will
hardly condescend to recognise as their own. Perhaps, as regards labour, the
most valuable race is that of the Malays, and these are the descendants of
slaves whom the early Dutch settlers introduced from Java. The Malays are
so-called Mahommidans, and some are to be seen flaunting about the town
in turbans and flowing robes. These, I understand, are allowed so to dress
themselves as a privilege in reward for some pious work done,—a journey to
Mecca probably. Then there is a Hottentot admixture, a sprinkling of the
Guinea-coast negro, and a small but no doubt increasing Kafir element. But
all this is leavened and brought into some agreement with European modes
of action and thought by the preponderating influence of Dutch blood. So
that the people, though idle, are not apathetic as savages, nor quite so
indifferent as Orientals. But yet there is so much of the savage and so much
of the oriental that the ordinary Englishman does not come out and work
among them. Wages are high and living, though the prices of provisions are
apt to vary, is not costly. Nor is the climate averse to European labourers,
who can generally work without detriment in regions outside the tropics. But
forty years ago slave labour was the labour of the country, and the stains, the
apathy, the unprofitableness of slave labour still remain. It had a curse about
it which fifty years have not been able to remove.
The most striking building in Capetown is the Castle, which lies down
close to the sea and which was built by the Dutch,—in mud when they first
landed, and in stone afterwards, though not probably as we see it now. It is a
low edifice, surrounded by a wall and a ditch, and divided within into two
courts in which are kept a small number of British troops. The barracks are
without, at a small distance from the walls. In architecture it has nothing to
be remarked, and as a defence would be now of no avail whatever. It belongs
to the imperial Government, who thus still keep a foot on the soil as though
to show that as long as British troops are sent to the Cape whether for
colonial or imperial purposes, the place is not to be considered free from
imperial interference. Round the coast at Simon’s Bay, which is at the back
or eastern side of the little promontory which constitutes the Cape of Good
Hope, Great Britain possesses a naval station, and this is another imperial
possession and supposed to need imperial troops for its defence. And from
this possession of a naval station there arises the fiction that for its need the
British troops are retained in South Africa when they have been withdrawn
from all our other self-governing Colonies. But we have also a station for
ships of war at Sydney, and generally a larger floating force there than at
Simon’s Bay. But the protection of our ships at Sydney has not been made an
excuse for having British troops in New South Wales. I will, however, recur
again to this subject of soldiers in the Colony,—which is one that has to be
treated with great delicacy in the presence of South African Colonists.
There was lately a question of selling the Castle to the Colony,—the price
named having been, I was told, something over £60,000. If purchased by the
municipality it would I think be pulled down. Thus would be lost the most
conspicuous relic of the Dutch Government;—but an ugly and almost
useless building would be made to give way to better purposes.
About thirty years ago Dr. Gray was appointed the first bishop of
Capetown and remained there as bishop till he died,—serving in his
Episcopacy over a quarter of a century. He has been succeeded by Bishop
Jones, who is now Metropolitan of South Africa to the entire satisfaction of
all the members of the Church. Bishop Gray inaugurated the building of a
Cathedral, which is a large and serviceable church, containing a proper
ecclesiastical throne for the Bishop and a stall for the Dean; but it is not
otherwise an imposing building and certainly is anything but beautiful. That
erected for the use of the Roman Catholics has been built with better taste.
Near to the Cathedral,—behind it, and to be reached by a shady walk which
is one of the greatest charms of Capetown, is the Museum, a handsome
building standing on your right as you go up from the Cathedral. This is
under the care of Mr. Trimen who is well known to the zoologically
scientific world as a man specially competent for such work and whose
services and society are in high esteem at Capetown. But I did not think
much of his African wild beasts. There was a lion and there were two
lionesses,—stuffed of course. The stuffing no doubt was all there; but the
hair had disappeared, and with the hair all that look of martial ardour which
makes such animals agreeable to us. There was, too, a hippopotamus who
seemed to be moulting,—if a hippopotamus can moult,—very sad to look at,
and a long since deceased elephant, with a ricketty giraffe whose neck was
sadly out of joint. I must however do Mr. Trimen the justice to say that when
I remarked that his animals seemed to have needed Macassar oil, he
acknowledged that they were a “poor lot,” and that it was not by their merits
that the Capetown Museum could hope to be remembered. His South African
birds and South African butterflies, with a snake or two here and there, were
his strong points. I am but a bad sightseer in a museum, being able to detect
the deficiencies of a mangy lion, but unable from want of sight and want of
education to recognise the wonders of a humming bird. But I saw a hideous
vulture, and an eagle, and some buzzards, with a grand albatross or two, all
of which were as glossy and natural as glass eyes and well brushed feathers
could make them. A skeleton of a boa-constrictor with another skeleton of a
little animal just going to be swallowed interested me perhaps more than
anything else.
Under the same roof with the Museum is the public library which is of its
nature very peculiar and valuable. It would be invidious to say that there are
volumes there so rare that one begrudges them to a distant Colony which
might be served as well by ordinary editions as by scarce and perhaps
unreadable specimens. But such is the feeling which comes up first in the
mind of a lover of books when he takes out and handles some of the
treasures of Sir George Grey’s gift. For it has to be told that a considerable
portion of the Capetown library,—or rather a small separate library itself
numbering about 5,000 volumes,—was given to the Colony by that eccentric
but most popular and munificent Governor. But why a MS. of Livy, or of
Dante, should not be as serviceable at Capetown as in some gentleman’s
country house in England it would be hard to say; and the Shakespeare folio
of 1623 of which the library possesses a copy,—with a singularly close cut
margin,—is no doubt as often looked at, and as much petted and loved and
cherished in the capital of South Africa, as it is when in the possession of a
British Duke. There is also a wonderful collection in these shelves of the
native literature of Africa and New Zealand. Perhaps libraries of greater
value have been left by individuals to their country or to special institutions,
but I do not remember another instance of a man giving away such a treasure
in his lifetime and leaving it where in all human probability he could never
see it again.
The remaining, or outer library, contains over thirty thousand volumes, of
which about 5,000 were left by a Mr. Dessin more than a hundred years ago
to the Dutch Reformed Church in Capetown. These seem to have been
buried for many years, and to have been disinterred and brought into use
when the present public library was established in 1818. The public are
admitted free, and ample comforts are supplied for reading,—such as
warmth, seats, tables and a handsome reading-room. A subscription of £1 per
annum enables the subscriber to take a set of books home. This seems to us
to be a munificent arrangement; but it should always be remembered that at
Boston in the United States any inhabitant of the city may take books home
from the public library without any deposit and without paying anything.
Among all the philanthropical marvels of public libraries that is the most
marvellous. I was told that the readers in Capetown are not very numerous.
When I visited the place there were but two or three.
A little further up along the same shady avenue, and still on the right hand
side is the entrance to the Botanic Gardens. These, I was told, were valuable
in a scientific point of view, but were, as regards beauty and arrangement,
somewhat deficient, because funds were lacking. There is a Government
grant and there are subscriptions, but the Government is stingy,—what Good
Government ever was not stingy?—and the subscriptions are slender. I
walked round the garden and can imagine that if I were an inhabitant of
Capetown and if, as would probably be the case, I made frequent use of that
avenue, I might prolong my exercise by a little turn round the garden. But
this could only be three times a week unless my means enabled me to
subscribe, for on three days the place is shut against the world at large. As a
public pleasure ground the Capetown gardens are not remarkable. As I
walked up and down this somewhat dreary length I thought of the glory and
the beauty and the perfect grace of the gardens at Sydney.
Opposite to the Museum and the Gardens is the Government House in
which Sir Bartle Frere with his family had lately come to reside. In many
Colonies, nay in most that I have visited, I have heard complaints that
Government Houses have been too small. Seeing such hospitality as I have
seen in them I could have fancied that Governors, unless with long private
purses, must have found them too large. They are always full. At Melbourne,
in Victoria, an evil-natured Government has lately built an enormous palace
which must ruin any Governor who uses the rooms placed at his disposal.
When I was there the pleasant house at Tourac sufficed, and Lord
Canterbury, who has now gone from us, was the most genial of hosts and the
most sage of potentates. At Capetown the house was larger than Tourac, and
yet not palatial. It seemed to me to be all that such a house should be;—but I
heard regrets that there were not more rooms. I know no office in which it
can be less possible for a man to make money than in administering the
government of a constitutional Colony. In a Colony that has no constitution
of its own,—in which the Governor really governs,—the thing is very
different. In the one there is the salary and the house, and that is all. In a
Crown Colony there is no House of Commons to interfere when this and the
other little addition is made. We all know what coals and candles mean at
home. The constitutional Governor has no coals and candles.
Wherever I go I visit the post-office, feeling certain that I may be able to
give a little good advice. Having looked after post-offices for thirty years at
home I fancy that I could do very good service among the Colonies if I could
have arbitrary power given to me to make what changes I pleased. My
advice is always received with attention and respect, and I have generally
been able to flatter myself that I have convinced my auditors. But I never
knew an instance yet in which any improvement recommended by me was
carried out. I have come back a year or two after my first visit and have seen
that the things have been just as they were before. I did not therefore say
much at Capetown;—but I thought it would have been well if they had not
driven the public to buy stamps at a store opposite, seeing that as the Colony
pays salaries the persons taking the salaries ought to do the work;—and that
it would be well also if they could bring themselves to cease to look at the
public as enemies from whom it is necessary that the officials inside should
be protected by fortifications in the shape of barred windows and closed
walls. Bankers do their work over open counters, knowing that no one would
deal with them were they to shut their desks up behind barricades.
But I am bound to say that my letters were sent after me with that
despatch and regularity which are the two first and greatest of post-official
virtues. And the services in the Colony generally are very well performed,
and performed well under great difficulties. The roads are bad, and the
distances long, and the transit is necessarily rough. I was taken out to see
such a cart as I should have to travel on for many a weary day before I had
accomplished my task in South Africa. My spirit groaned within me as I saw
it,—and for many a long and weary hour it has since expanded itself with
external groanings though not quite on such a cart as I saw then. But the task
has been done, and I can speak of the South African cart with gratitude. It is
very rough,—very rough indeed for old bones. But it is sure.
I should weary my reader were I to tell him of all the civilized
institutions,—one by one,—which are in daily use in Capetown. There is a
Custom House, and a Sailors’ Home, and there are hospitals, and an
observatory,—very notable I believe as being well placed in reference to the
Southern hemisphere,—and a Government Herbarium and a lunatic asylum
at Robben Island. Of Mr. Stone, the Astronomer Royal and lord of the
Observatory, I must say one word in special praise. “Do you care for the
stars?” he asked me. In truth I do not care for the stars. I care, I think, only
for men and women, and so I told him. “Then,” said he, “I won’t bother you
to come to the Observatory. But if you wish to see stars I will show them to
you.” I took him at his word and did not then go to the Observatory. This I
had said with some fear and trembling as I remembered well the disgust
which Agazziz once expressed when I asked permission not to be shown his
museum at Cambridge, Massachusetts. But Mr. Stone seemed to understand
my deficiency, and if he pitied me he abstained from expressing his pity.
Afterwards I did make a special visit to the Observatory,—which is
maintained by the imperial Government and not by the Colony,—and was
shown all the wonders of the Southern Heavens. They were very beautiful,
but I did not understand much about them.
There is a comfortable and hospitable club at Capetown, to which, as at
all colonial clubs, admission is given to strangers presumed to be of the same
social standing as the members. The hour of lunch seems to be the hour of
the day at which these institutions are most in request. This is provided in
the form of a table d’hôte, as is also a dinner later on in the day. This is less
numerously attended, but men of heroic mould are thus enabled to dine
twice daily.
Capetown would be no city without a railway. The Colony at present has
three starting-points for railways from the coast, one of which runs out of
Capetown, with a branch to Wynberg which is hardly more than a suburb
and is but eight miles distant, and a second branch to Worcester which is
intended to be carried up the country to the distant town of Graaf Reynet and
so on through the world of Africa. The line to Wynberg is of infinite
importance to the city as giving to the inhabitants easy means of access to a
charming locality. Capetown itself is not a lovely spot on which to reside,
but the district at the back of the Table Mountain where are Mowbray,
Rondebusch, Wynberg and Constantia,—which district is reached by the
railway,—supplies beautiful sites for houses and gardens. There are bits of
scenery which it would be hard to beat either in form or colour, so grand are
the outlines of the mountain, and so rich and bountiful the verdure of the
shrubs and timbers. It would be difficult to find a site for a house more
charming than that occupied by the bishop, which is only six miles from
town and hardly more than a mile distant from a railway station. Beyond
Wynberg lies the grape district of Constantia so well known in England by
the name of its wine;—better known, I think, forty years ago than it is now.
All these places, Rondebusch, Wynberg, Constantia and the rest lie on
that promontory which when we look at the map we regard as the Cape of
Good Hope. The Dutch had once an idea of piercing a canal across the
isthmus from sea to sea, from Table Bay to False Bay,—in which lies
Simon’s Bay where is our naval station,—and maintaining only the island so
formed for its own purposes, leaving the rest of South Africa to its savagery.
And, since the time of the Dutch, it has been suggested that if England were
thus to cut off the Table Mountain with its adjacent land, England would
have all of South Africa that it wants. The idea is altogether antagonistic to
the British notion of colonization, which looks to a happy home for colonists
or the protection natives, rather than the benefit or glory of the Mother
Country. But were such a cutting off to be effected, the morsel of land so
severed would be very charming, and would demand I think a prettier town
than Capetown.
Beyond and around Wynberg there is a little world of lovely scenery.
Simonstown is about twelve miles from Wynberg, the road passing by the
now growing bathing-place of Kalk bay. It is to Kalk bay that the ladies of
Capetown go with their children when in summer they are in search of fresh
air, and sea breezes, and generally improved sanitary arrangements. A most
delightful spot it would be if only there were sufficient accommodation. The
accommodation of course will come as years roll on. Beyond Kalk bay are
Simonstown and Simon’s Bay, where lives the British Commodore who has
the command of these waters. The road, the whole way down, lies between
the mountain and the sea. Beyond Simonstown I rode out for six or seven
miles with the Commodore along the side of the hill and through the rocks
till we could see the lighthouse at the extremity of the Cape. It is impossible
to imagine finer sea scenery or a bolder coast than is here to be seen. There
is not a yard of it that would not be the delight of tourists if it were in some
accessible part of Europe,—not a quarter of a mile that would not have its
marine villa if it were in England.
Before I returned home I stayed for a week or two at an Inn, a mile or two
beyond Wynberg, called Rathfelders. I suppose some original Dutchman of
that name once kept the house. It is of itself an excellent place of resort, cool
in summer, being on the cool side of the Table Mountains and well kept;—a
comfortable refuge to sojourners who do not object to take their meals at a
public table; but peculiarly pleasant as being in the midst of mountain
scenery. From here there is a ride through the mountains to Hout’s Bay,—a
little inlet on the other side of the Cape promontory,—which cannot be
beaten for beauty of the kind. The distance to be ridden may be about ten
miles each way, and good riding horses are kept at Rathfelders. But I did not
find that very many had crossed the pass. I should say that in the
neighbourhood of Wynberg there are various hotels and boarding houses so
that accommodation may always be had. The best known of these is Cogill’s
Hotel close to the Wynberg Railway Station. I did not stay there myself, but
I heard it well spoken of.
Altogether the scenery of the Promontory on which the Dutch landed, the
southern point of which is the Cape of Good Hope, and on which stands
Capetown, is hardly to be beaten for picturesque beauty by any landskip
charms elsewhere within the same area.
I was taken down to Constantia where I visited one of the few grape
growers among whom the vineyards of this district are divided. I found him
with his family living in a fine old Dutch residence,—which had been built I
was told by one of the old Dutch Governors when a Governor at the Cape
was a very aristocratic personage. Here he keeps a few ostriches, makes a
great deal of wine, and has around him as lovely scenery as the eye of man
can desire. But he complained bitterly as to the regulations,—or want of
regulations,—prevailing in regard to labour. “If an idle people could only be
made to work for reasonable wages the place would become a very
Paradise!” This is the opinion as to labour which is left behind in all lands in
which slavery has prevailed. The man of means, who has capital either in
soil or money, does not actually wish for a return to slavery. The feelings
which abolished slavery have probably reached his bosom also. But he
regrets the control over his fellow creatures which slavery formerly gave
him, and he does not see that whether a man be good or bad, idle by nature
and habits or industrious, the only compulsion to work should come from
hunger and necessity,—and the desire of those good things which industry
and industry alone will provide.
On the other side of Capetown,—the other side from the direction
towards Wynberg,—there is another and the only other road out of
Capetown which leads down to Sea Point, where there is a second pleasant
suburb and a second clustering together of villa residences. Here the
inhabitants look direct on to Table Bay and have the surges of the Atlantic
close to their front doors. The houses at Sea Point are very nice, but they
have nothing of the Elysian scenery of Wynberg. Continuing the road from
Sea Point the equestrian, or energetic walker, may return by the Kloof,—
anglice Cleft,—which brings him back to town by a very picturesque route
between the Lion and Table Mountains. This is almost too steep for wheels,
or it would claim to be called a third road out of the town.
I was taken to see two schools, the high school at Rondebusch, and a
school in the town for coloured lads. At the high school the boys were away
for their holidays and therefore I could see nothing but the outside material. I
do not doubt but that lads are educated there quite as well as at similar
institutions in England. It is under the guidance of a clergyman of the
Church of England, and is thoroughly English in all its habits. I found a
perfect menagery of interesting animals attached to it, which is an advantage
which English schools seldom possess. The animals, which, though wild by
nature, were at this place remarkably tame, had, fortunately for me, not gone
home for their holidays,—so that, wanting the boys, I could amuse myself
with them. I will not speak here of the coloured school, as I must, as I
progress, devote a short chapter to the question of Kafir education.
In speaking of the Capital of the Colony I need only further remark that it
possesses a completed and adequate dock for the reception of large ships,
and a breakwater for the protection of the harbour. The traffic from England
to the Cape of Good Hope is now mainly conducted by two Steam Ship
Companies, the Union and Donald Currie & Co., which carry the mails with
passengers and cargo each way weekly. Many of these vessels are of nearly
3,000 tons burden, some even of more, and at Capetown they are brought
into the dock so that passengers walk in and out from the quay without the