Endocrine System progesterone, testosterone, prostaglandins.

Endocrine chemical messengers are called

HORMONES OF THE ENDOCRINE hormones
SYSTEM COORDINATE AND CONTROL
GROWTH, METABOLISM, TEMPERATURE
REGULATION, THE STRESS RESPONSE,
REPRODUCTION, AND MANY OTHER
FUNCTIONS.

Classes Of Chemical Messengers

AUTOCRINE
Secreted by cells in a local area; influences
the activity of the same cell from which it was Characteristics Of The Endocrine
secreted.
System
 The endocrine system includes glands and
specialized endocrine cells that secrete
hormones into the bloodstream.
 A hormone is a chemical messenger that is
PARACRINE secreted into the blood, travels to a distant
Produced by a wide variety of tissues and target tissue, and binds to specific receptors
secreted into extracellular fluid; has a localized to produce a coordinated set of events in that
effect on nearby tissues. target tissue.

Comparison Of The Nervous And

Endocrine Systems
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM ARE CLOSELY RELATED.
NEUROTRANSMITTER  They share anatomical structures in the brain.
Produced by neurons; secreted into a  They share molecules that are both
synaptic cleft by presynaptic nerve terminals; neurotransmitters and hormones.
travels short distances; influences postsynaptic  They cooperate to regulate important
cells. processes.
 They both have chemical messengers that
bind to the same receptor type.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM HAVE IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES
 Neurotransmitters deliver their chemical
messengers directly to their target, whereas
ENDOCRINE hormones travel in the bloodstream.
Secreted into the blood by specialized cells;  The endocrine system is slower than the
travels some distance to target tissues; results in nervous system.
coordinated regulation of cell function.  The endocrine system has longer-lasting
Examples: Thyroid hormones, growth effects than the nervous system.
hormone, insulin, epinephrine, estrogen,
 over a fairly long period, up to several weeks. This
Major Endocrine Glands And Tissues pattern is exemplified by the thyroid hormones.

ACUTE HORMONE SECRETION

A hormone rapidly increases in the blood
for a short time in response to a specific
stimulus—for example, insulin (the blood sugar-
regulating hormone) secretion following a meal.
Note that the size of the stimulus arrow
General Characteristics Of Hormones represents the stimulus strength. A smaller
stimulus does not activate as much hormone
 Hormones have several characteristics in secretion as a larger stimulus.
common: stability, communication, and
distribution.
 The length of time a hormone is active in
the circulation is termed its half-life.
 The half-life of some hormones is
prolonged because they circulate in the
blood bound to binding proteins.
 Hormones not bound to binding proteins are
called free hormones, and they can interact
with their receptor
EPISODIC HORMONE SECRETION
A hormone is stimulated so that it
Hormones increases and decreases in the blood at a relatively
consistent time and to roughly the same amount.
CHEMICAL NATURE
Examples are the reproductive hormones
 Lipid-soluble hormones are nonpolar and
regulating menstruation.
include steroid hormones, thyroid hormones,
and fatty acid derivative hormones, such as
certain eicosanoids.
 Water-soluble hormones are polar molecules;
they include protein hormones, peptide
hormones, and most amino acid derivative
hormones.

Patterns Of Hormone Secretion

CHRONIC HORMONE SECRETION
A relatively stable concentration of
hormone is maintained in the circulating blood
 Control Of Hormone Secretion
STIMULATION OF HORMONE RELEASE
 Humoral stimulation is exhibited by
hormones that are sensitive to circulating
blood levels of certain molecules, such as
glucose or calcium.  Positive feedback is a self-promoting system
 Neural stimuli cause hormone secretion in whereby the stimulation of hormone
direct response to action potentials in secretion increases over time.
neurons, as occurs during stress or exercise.
Hormones from the hypothalamus that cause
the release of other hormones are called
releasing hormones.
 Hormonal stimulation of other hormone
secretion is common in the endocrine system.
Hormones from the anterior pituitary that
stimulate hormones from other endocrine
glands are called tropic hormones.

INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE

Although the stimulus of hormone
secretion is important, inhibition is equally
important.
 Humoral substances can inhibit the secretion
of hormones.
 Neural stimuli can prevent hormone
secretion.
 Inhibiting hormones prevent hormone
release.
Hormone Receptors And Mechanisms Of
Action
REGULATION OF HORMONE LEVELS IN THE AGONISTS AND ANTAGONISTS
BLOOD  Agonists mimic the actions of a natural
Two processes regulate the overall blood hormone.
levels of hormones: negative feedback and  Antagonists block the actions of a natural
positive feedback hormone.
 Negative feedback prevents further hormone
secretion once a set point is achieved. DECREASE IN RECEPTOR NUMBER
 Hormones stimulate their targets by binding
to proteins in the target cell called receptors.
 A target cell may decrease its sensitivity to a
hormone through desensitization, which can
occur through a decrease in receptor number,
a process called downregulation.

INCREASE IN RECEPTOR NUMBER

A target cell may increase its sensitivity to
a hormone through sensitization, which can
occur through an increase in receptor number, a  Hormone binds to a membrane- bound
process called upregulation. receptor, and G proteins are activated.
 The α subunit of the G protein binds to
CLASSES OF RECEPTORS ion channels and causes them to open or
The two groups of hormones each have change the rate of synthesis of
their own class of receptors. intracellular mediators, such as cAMP,
 Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear cGMP, IP3, and DAG
receptors located inside the nucleus of the  Intracellular enzymes can be activated directly,
target cell. which in turn causes the synthesis of
 Water-soluble hormones bind to intracellular mediators, such as cGMP, or adds
membrane-bound receptors, which are a phosphate group to intracellular enzymes,
integral membrane proteins. which alters their activity.
 Second-messenger systems act rapidly,
ACTION OF NUCLEAR RECEPTORS because they act on already existing enzymes
to amplify the signal
 Nuclear receptors have portions that allow
them to bind to the DNA in the nucleus
once the hormone is bound. Amplification
 The hormone-receptor complex activates
genes, which in turn activate the DNA to
produce mRNA.
 The mRNA increases the synthesis of
certain proteins that produce the target
cell’s response.
 Nuclear receptors cannot respond
immediately, because it takes time to
produce the mRNA and the protein

Nuclear Receptor Model

 The combination of a hormone with a

membrane-bound receptor initiates a cascade
effect that activates several G proteins.
 The G proteins, in turn, activate many
inactive adenylate cyclase enzymes, which
cause the synthesis of a large number of
cAMP molecules.
 The large number of cAMP molecules, in
Membrane-Bound Receptors And Signal turn, activate many inactive protein kinase
enzymes, which produce a rapid and amplified
Amplification response.
 Membrane-bound receptors activate a
cascade of events once the hormone binds.
 Some membrane-bound receptors are
associated with membrane proteins called G
proteins.
 The hypothalamus regulates pituitary gland
Main Regulatory Functions Of The 
activity through neurohormones and action
Endocrine System potentials.

 Regulation of metabolism. The endocrine

system controls the rate of nutrient Structure Of The Pituitary Gland
utilization and energy production.  The posterior pituitary develops from the
 Control of food intake and digestion. The floor of the brain and consists of the
endocrine system regulates the level of infundibulum and the neurohypophysis.
satiation (fullness) and the breakdown of  The anterior pituitary develops from the roof
food into individual nutrients. of the mouth.
 Modulation of tissue development. The
endocrine system influences the development
of tissues, such as those of the nervous Subdivision Of The Pituitary Gland
system.
 Regulation of ion levels. The endocrine
system helps monitor blood pH, as well as
Na+, K+, and Ca2+ concentrations in the
blood.
 Control of water balance. The endocrine
system regulates water balance by controlling
the solute concentration of the blood.
 Changes in heart rate and blood pressure. The
endocrine system helps regulate the heart rate
and blood pressure and prepare the body for
physical activity.
 Control of blood glucose and other nutrients.
The endocrine system regulates the levels of
glucose and other nutrients in the blood.
 Control of reproductive functions. The
endocrine system controls the development
and functions of the reproductive systems in
males and females.
 Stimulation of uterine contractions and milk
release. The endocrine system regulates
uterine contractions during delivery and Relationship Of The Pituitary Gland
stimulates milk release from the breasts in
lactating females.
To The Brain: The Hypothalamus
 Modulation of immune system function. The  The hypothalamohypophysial portal system
endocrine system helps control the connects the hypothalamus and the anterior
production of immune cells. pituitary.
 Neurohormones are produced in
hypothalamic neurons.
Endocrine Glands: Pituitary Gland And  Through the portal system, the
neurohormones inhibit or stimulate
Hypothalmus hormone production in the anterior
 The pituitary gland secretes at least nine pituitary.
hormones that regulate numerous body  The hypothalamohypophysial tract connects
functions as well as other endocrine glands. the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary.
  Neurohormones are produced in adrenal cortex and increases skin
hypothalamic neurons. pigmentation.
 The neurohormones move down the  Several hormones in addition to ACTH are
axons of the tract and are secreted from derived from proopiomelanocortin.
the posterior pituitary  Lipotropins cause lipid breakdown.
 β endorphins play a role inanalgesia.
 MSH increases skin pigmentation
Hypothalamic Control Of The Anterior  LH and FSH are major gonadotropins.
Pituitary  Both hormones regulate the production
of gametes and reproductive hormones
(testosterone in males, estrogen and
progesterone in females).
 GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates
LH and FSH secretion.
 Prolactin stimulates milk production in
lactating females. Prolactin releasing
hormone (PRH) and prolactin-inhibiting
hormone (PIH) from the hypothalamus
affect prolactin secretion.

Hormones Of The Pituitary Gland

 ADH promotes water retention by the
kidneys.
 Oxytocin promotes uterine contractions
during delivery and causes milk letdown in
lactating women.
 GH is sometimes called somatotropin.
 GH stimulates growth in most tissues and
regulates metabolism.
Hormones Of The Hypothalamus
 GH stimulates the uptake of amino acids
and their conversion into proteins and
stimulates the breakdown of lipids and
the synthesis of glucose.
 GH stimulates the production of
somatomedins; together, they promote
bone and cartilage growth. GH secretion
increases in response to an increase in
blood amino acids, low blood glucose, or Thyroid Gland
stress.  The thyroid gland is just inferior to the larynx.
 GH is regulated by GHRH and GHIH or  The thyroid gland is composed of small,
by somatostatin. hollow balls of cells called follicles, which
 TSH, or thyrotropin, causes the release of contain thyroglobulin.
thyroid hormones.  Parafollicular cells are scattered throughout
 ACTH is derived from proopiomelanocortin; the thyroid gland.
it stimulates cortisol secretion from the
  Increased TSH from the anterior pituitary
Anatomy And Histology Of The increases T3 and T4 secretion.
Thyroid Gland  TRH from the hypothalamus increases
TSH secretion. TRH increase as a result of
chronic exposure to cold, food
deprivation, and stress.
 T3 and T4 inhibit TSH and TRH secretion.

Hormones Of The Thyroid And

Parathyroid Glands

Thyroid Hormones Calcitonin

 T3 and T4 synthesis occurs in thyroid follicles.  An increase in blood calcium levels stimulates
 Iodide ions are taken into the follicles by calcitonin secretion by the parafollicular cells.
active transport, oxidized, and bound to  Calcitonin decreases blood calcium and
tyrosine molecules in thyroglobulin. phosphate levels by inhibiting osteoclasts.
 Thyroglobulin is secreted into the follicle
lumen. Tyrosine molecules with iodine
combine to form T3 and T4 thyroid Effects Of Hyposecretion And
hormones.
 Thyroglobulin is taken into the follicular Hypersecretion Of Thyroid Hormones
cells and broken down; T3 and T4 diffuse
from the follicles to the blood.
 T3 and T4 are transported in the blood.
 T3 and T4 bind to thyroxine-binding
globulin and other plasma proteins.
 The plasma proteins prolong the half-life
of T3 and T4 and regulate the levels of T3
and T4 in the blood.
 Approximately one-third of the T4 is Abnormal Thyroid Conditions
converted into functional T3.
 T3 and T4 bind with nuclear receptor
molecules and initiate new protein synthesis.
 T3 and T4 affect nearly every tissue in the
body.
 T3 and T4 increase the rate of glucose,
lipid, and protein metabolism in many
tissues, thus increasing body temperature.
 Normal growth of many tissues is
dependent on T3 and T4.
 TRH and TSH regulate T3 and T4 secretion.
 Parathyroid Gland Causes And Symptoms Of
The parathyroid glands are embedded in the

thyroid gland.
Hyposecretion And Hypersecretion Of
 A decrease in blood calcium stimulates PTH
secretion.
Parathyroid Hormone
 PTH increases blood calcium levels.
 PTH stimulates osteoclasts. PTH
promotes calcium reabsorption by the
kidneys and the formation of active
vitamin D by the kidneys.
 Active vitamin D increases calcium
absorption by the intestine
Adrenal Glands
Anatomy and Histology of the  The adrenal glands are near the superior poles
of the kidneys.
Parathyroid Glands  The adrenal medulla arises from neural crest
cells and functions as part of the sympathetic
nervous system.
 The adrenal cortex is derived from mesoderm.
 The adrenal medulla is composed of closely
packed cells.
 The adrenal cortex is divided into three layers:
the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata,
and the zona reticularis

Anatomy and Histology of the Adrenal

Glands
The parathyroid glands are embedded in
the posterior part of the thyroid gland.

The parathyroid glands are composed of

densely packed cords of cells.
  ACTH from the anterior pituitary
Hormones Of The Adrenal Gland stimulates cortisol secretion. CRH from
the hypothalamus stimulates ACTH
release. Low blood glucose levels and
stress stimulate CRH secretion.

Regulation Of Adrenal Secretions

Hormones Of The Adrenal Medulla
 Epinephrine accounts for 80% and
norepinephrine for 20% of the adrenal
medulla hormones.
 Epinephrine increases blood glucose
levels, the use of glycogen and glucose by
skeletal muscle, and heart rate and force
of contraction. It also causes
vasoconstriction in the skin and viscera Symptoms Of Hyposecretion Of Adrenal
and vasodilation in skeletal and cardiac
muscle. Cortex Hormone
 Norepinephrine and epinephrine
stimulate cardiac muscle and cause the
constriction of most peripheral blood
vessels.
 The adrenal medulla hormones prepare
the body for physical activity.
 Release of adrenal medulla hormones is
mediated by the sympathetic nervous
system in response to emotions, injury,
stress, exercise, and low blood glucose.

Hormones Of The Adrenal Cortex

 The zona glomerulosa secretes the
mineralocorticoids, especially aldosterone.
Aldosterone acts on the kidneys to increase
Pancreas
sodium and to decrease potassium and  The pancreas, located along the small
hydrogen levels in the blood. intestine and the stomach, is both an
 The zona reticularis secretes androgens. In exocrine and an endocrine gland.
females, androgens stimulate axillary and  The exocrine portion of the pancreas consists
pubic hair growth and sex drive. of a complex duct system, which ends in
 The zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids, small sacs, called acini, that produce
especially cortisol. pancreatic digestive juices.
 Cortisol increases lipid and protein  The endocrine portion consists of the
breakdown, increases glucose synthesis pancreatic islets. Each islet is composed of
from amino acids, decreases the alpha cells, which secrete glucagon; beta cells,
inflammatory response, and is necessary which secrete insulin; and delta cells, which
for the development of some tissues. secrete somatostatin.
 amino acids, parasympathetic stimulation,
Histology Of The Pancreatic Islet and gastrointestinal hormones.
 Sympathetic stimulation decreases insulin
secretion
 Glucagon secretion is stimulated by low
blood glucose levels, certain amino acids, and
sympathetic stimulation.
 Somatostatin inhibits insulin and glucagon
secretion.

Effects Of Insulin And Glucagon On

Pancreatic Hormones Target Tissues

Effect Of Insulin And Glucagon On

Their Target Tissues
 Insulin’s target tissues are the liver, adipose Hormonal Regulation Of Nutrient
tissue, muscle, and the satiety center in the
hypothalamus. Utilization
 The nervous system is not a target tissue, but AFTER A MEAL
it does rely on blood glucose level  High glucose levels inhibit glucagon, cortisol,
maintained by insulin. GH, and epinephrine, which reduces the
1. Insulin increases the uptake of glucose and release of glucose from tissues.
amino acids by cells.  Insulin secretion increases as a result of the
2. Glucose is used for energy or is stored as high blood glucose levels, thereby increasing
glycogen. the uptake of glucose, amino acids, and lipids,
3. Amino acids are used for energy or are which are used for energy or stored.
converted to glucose or proteins.  Sometime after the meal, blood glucose
 Glucagon’s target tissue is mainly the levels drop. Glucagon, GH, cortisol, and
liver. epinephrine levels increase, insulin levels
 Glucagon causes the breakdown of decrease, and glucose is released from tissues.
glycogen and lipids for use as an energy  Adipose tissue releases fatty acids,
source. triglycerides, and ketones, which most tissues
use for energy
Regulation Of Pancreatic Hormone DURING EXERCISE
Secretion  Sympathetic activity increases epinephrine
 Insulin secretion increases because of elevated and glucagon secretion, causing a release of
blood glucose levels, an increase in some glucose into the blood.
 Low blood sugar levels, caused by the uptake  Eicosanoids, such as prostaglandins,
of glucose by skeletal muscles, stimulate prostacyclins, thromboxanes, and
epinephrine, glucagon, GH, and cortisol leukotrienes, are derived from fatty acids and
secretion, causing an increase in fatty acids, mediate inflammation and other functions.
triglycerides, and ketones in the blood, all of  Endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphins are
which are used for energy analgesic substances. Growth factors
influence cell division and growth in many
tissues, and interleukin-2 influences cell
Hormones Of The Reproductive Organs division in the T cells of the immune system.

Other Hormones And Hormonelike

Substances

Other Hormones & Chemical

Messenger
PINEAL GLAND
The pineal gland produces melatonin and
arginine vasotocin, which can inhibit reproductive
maturation and may regulate sleep-wake
Effects Of Aging On The Endocrine
cycles. System
 A gradual decrease in the secretion rate
THYMUS GLAND occurs for most, but not all, hormones.
 The thymus is important for immune  Some of these decreases are related to gradual
function. It is in the neck and superior to the decreases in physical activity.
heart in the thorax.  GH secretion decreases as people grow older.
 The thymus secretes the hormone thymosin. The decrease is greater in people who do not
 Both the thymus and thymosin play a role in exercise, and it may not occur at all in those
the development and maturation of the who exercise regularly.
immune system.  Melatonin secretion decreases in aging people.
 The secretion of thyroid hormones decreases
DIGESTIVE TRACT slightly with increasing age, and the T3:T4
 Several hormones are released from the ratio decreases.
digestive tract.  Parathyroid hormone secretion does not
 They regulate digestive functions by appear to decrease with age.
influencing the activity of the stomach,  Blood levels of Ca2+ may decline slightly
intestines, liver, and pancreas because of reduced dietary calcium intake and
vitamin D levels.
HORMONELIKE CHEMICALS  Reproductive hormone secretion gradually
 Autocrine and paracrine chemical messengers declines in elderly men, and women
are produced by many cells of the body and experience menopause.
usually have a local effect on body functions.
 The ability to regulate blood glucose levels
does not decline with age. However, there is
an age-related probability of developing type
2 diabetes mellitus for those who have the
familial tendency, and the incidence of the
condition is correlated with age-related
increases in body weight.
 Secretion of thymosin from the thymus
decreases with age.
 Fewer immature lymphocytes are able to
mature and become functional, and the
immune system becomes less effective in
protecting the body. Thus, people’s
susceptibility to infection and to cancer
increases.