BUILDING TECHNOLOGY-1

13.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF BUILDING

PROCESSES, METHODS and TECHNIQUES
IN CONSTRUCTION, ERECTION,
ADDITION, REPAIRS AND RENOVATION
OF BUILDINGS/ STRUCTURES:

AR. MARY CLAIRE G. YALUNG, uap

INSTRUCTOR
CONSTRUCTION
-THE MANNER IN WHICH MATERIALS ARE ORDERED, ASSEMBLED
AND UNITED INTO A WHOLE AS FRAME CONSTRUCTION

SYSTEM BUILDING
- A CONSTRUCTION PROCESS USING A HIGH DEGREE OF
FABRICATION IN THE MANUFACTURE OF STANDARDIZED UNITS
OR COMPONENTS TO SPEED ASSEMBLY AND ERECTION OF A
BUILDING.

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 1. PREPARATION FOR CONSTRUCTION
1.1 STAKING-OUT THE BUILDING
Staking-out -the process of relocating the point of boundaries and
property line of the site where the building is to be constructed.
1. Measure the required setback from the front corner monuments. Drive
two stakes and stretch a string between them to represent the front
building line.

2. Measure the required side setback from one of the side lot lines along
the front building line. Drive stake A which will represent the first corner
of the building. From Stake A, measure the width of the building and mark
with stake B to obtain the other front corner.

3. Estimate right angles from stakes A and B and measure the length of
the building. In those two points, drive two temporary stakes C and D
which will mark the rear corners of the building. C-D should be equal to
A-B.

4. Draw lines along the diagonals A-D and B-C and ensure that these are
equal.

5. Transfer the building lines to batter boards.

Stakes – are wooden sticks used as posts sharpened at one end driven into the
ground to serve as boundaries or supports of the batter boards.
Strings – are either plastic cords or galvanized wires strung across batter boards
and used to indicate the outline of the building wall and foundation. 3
1.2 LAYING THE BATTERBOARDS
BATTER BOARDS
• horizontal boards
• establishes height of the footing trenches
and foundations
• establishes height of finish floor levels

LEVELING
• done with a line level or carpenter’s level, or
with a transit
• height of the batter boards may be level with
or a little higher that the top of the finished
foundation.

Batter Boards – wood sticks or boards nailed horizontally at the stake which serve as the
horizontal plane where the reference point of the building measurements are established.
 Notes:

“
Spirit Level – an instrument or tool capable of
vertical and horizontal line
check.

Plumb Bob – a weight attached to a string,

used for vertical line check.

Plastic Hose Filled With Water – a method of

leveling horizontally batter boards without
transit.

3-4-5 Multiples With the Use of Steel Tape

Measure – a manual method of squaring the
corners of building lines in staking.

PLUMB BOB

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 1.3 FORMWORK AND SHORING
Formwork - used to shape and support fresh concrete
until cured and able to support itself.

Shoring - temporary supports designed to carry forms

for beams and slabs.
FORMS FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.
Materials used for form construction are:

1.LUMBER FORMS
• should only be partially seasoned.

2.PLYWOOD FORMS.
•used where a smooth surface is required
•should be waterproof, Grade “A” and at least ½”
thick.

3.STEEL FORMS
•may be in the form of pans for concrete joist
construction or steel decking or corrugated steel
for concrete slabs and slab-and-joist construction. Phenolic resin or phenol-formaldehyde resin –
is a thermosetting, waterproof, low-cost, mold-
4.FIBER BOARDS resistant, high strength synthetic resin made from
phenol and formaldehyde; has good resistance to
5.PHENOLIC BOARDS aging; used extensively in the manufacture of
adhesives, exterior and marine plywood, laminated
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products, and molded articles.
TWO MAJOR MATERIALS USED FOR SHORING
CONSTRUCTION ARE:
(1) LUMBER AND (2) STEEL.

1.3.1 Lumber Forms and Shoring

• partially seasoned and to some extent slightly wet • crude oil and petroline used to prevent concrete
in order to prevent swelling and distortion of the from adhering to the wood and preserve the
forms; forms against damage by alternate wetting and
drying; on forms against surfaces which are to be
• dressed at least one side and both edges even plastered, wetting with water will be sufficient
for non-exposed surfaces; since oiling prevents adhesion of the plaster;

• joints in forms for columns, beams, and girders • wire ties or bolts and rods are used to hold wall
made tight by dressing the lumber true to edge, forms together; rods are preferred and should be
forming square or butt joints; arranged that upon removal of the forms, no
tight joints in floor and wall panels obtained by metal shall be within one inch of any surface;
using tongue-and grooved stock; wire ties should be used only on light and
unimportant work where discoloring will not be
• sizes of lumber used are: 2-in.stock for columns, objectionable;
beams and girder bottoms; 1-in. stock for floor
panels and beam and girder sides; 2x4s for struts, • plywood forms used where a smooth surface is
posts, shores, and uprights; 1 or 2-inch stock for required; should be waterproof, Grade “A” and at
cleats; least ½” thick.

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 PLYWOOD FORMS

Knee
Brace
Ledger
Kicker Metal or
Blocking Stringers
Wood Joists
Jack

Adjustable
Metal Shores
Braced T-
and L-heads Bracing

Single Post
Wood Shore

WOOD SHORING METAL SHORING

Sills

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 COLUMN FORMS

WOOD FORMWORKS
Reusable forms may have
a square or rectangular
cross section

YOKES are clamping devices for

keeping column forms and tops of
wall forms from spreading under
the fluid pressure of newly placed
concrete
WALL FORMS
SPREADERS usually of
wood, space and keep
the wall or forms apart
FORM TIES

PLYWOOD SHEATHING

HORIZONTAL WALERS

WOOD STUDS
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 FORM TIES
SNAP TIES have notches or crimps
that allow their ends to be snapped off
below the concrete surface after
stripping off the forms
small, truncated cones of wood, steel
or plastic attached to form ties to
space and spread wall forms, leave a
neatly finished depression in the
concrete surface to be filled or left
exposed
SHE BOLTS consist of waler rods that
are inserted through the form and
threaded onto the ends of an inner rod.
After striping, the waler rods are
removed for reuse while the inner rod
remains in the concrete

a variety of wedges and slotted

devices tighten the formwork and
transfer the force in a form tie to the
walers

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 1.3.2 Steel Forms and Shoring

Shoring is also used to support scaffolding works. Scaffolds

are temporary platforms designed to support workers and
materials on the face of a structure and to provide access to
work areas above the ground. Any elevated platform is called
a scaffold.
The major components of metal shoring
are:
a) The ledger or the horizontal
brace
b) The brace or the diagonal.
This component may be of the
adjustable and the fixed type.
c) The standard or the vertical
component.
d) Accessories: heads, jacks
and bases.

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 SHORING COMPONENTS

Standards

Ledgers

Adjustable
Braces

Fixed Braces

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 SHORING COMPONENTS

Rapidshor Heads Adjustable Jacks

Base & Tilt Base

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 1. Ensure the ground and sleepers are 2. Assemble tower of 4 standards 3. Loosely fit the remaining
adequately prepared, and the base, jacks and ledgers. Fix braces to stabilize. components until majority of first
and standards are in correct positions. level complete. Check standards for
verticality and tighten ledgers.

4. Position scaffold boards and ladders. 5. Additional ledgers and braces 6. Once all levels are complete,
can now be added, with additional jacks and heads can now be
braces. positioned.

7. Jack head levels finalized and any jack 8. Primary beams can be 9. Secondary beams can be
bracing required is now fitted. positioned, clamped and levels positioned and clamped to primary
checked. beams, plywood decking to follow.

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1.4 CONSTRUCTION TOOLS & EQUIPMENT

Tools and equipment employed in construction are grouped into four:

1. Hand Tools are the tools that use power

delivered by man only.

2. Power Tools are those that employ power

supplied by forces other than that coming from
humans.

3. Equipment is a term that refers to large,

complex tools and machines that is designed to
do a particular job.

4. Heavy Equipment is equipment which is very

large and very powerful.

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1. Hand Tools c. Framing square is
a layout tool that is
A pry bar is used used to measure 90-
to force open degree angles at the
boards used in corners of framework
forming concrete. and joints. They can
also be employed to
Measurement and determine cutting
layout tools are the angles on dimension
following: lumber.

a. Folding rule d. Level is a long,

and tape measure straight tool that
are the most contains one or more
common tools for vials of liquid and
measuring boards, used to determine if
pipe, wire, etc. the horizontal or
vertical is exact.
b. Digital rule is
used to measure e. Chalk line or chalk
relatively long box is used for
distances such as marking lines.
those in highway
construction.

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Types of hammers Types of screwdrivers are:
are the following:
a. Standard screwdriver has
a flat tip and is designed to fit a
a. Claw hammer is an standard slotted screw.
ordinary hammer used to
drive or remove nails.

b. Phillips screwdriver has an

X-shaped tip and is used to
turn Phillips-head screws only.

b. Sledgehammer is a heavy
hammer used to drive stakes
into the ground and to break up
concrete and stone. c. Spiral ratchet screwdriver
is that which relies on a
pushing force rather than a
twisting force.

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Types of handsaws
are the following:
a. Ripsaw has chisel-like
teeth designed for ripping or
cutting with the grain of c. Backsaw is a special
wood. type of handsaw that
has a very thin blade
and makes very
straight cuts such as
those on trims and
mouldings.

b. Crosscut saw is used to

cut across the grain of wood.
d. Hacksaw is used to
cut metals.

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Types of Chisels: b. Pipe wrench is
used to turn round
a. Wood chisel is used to trim objects like pipes.
wood and clear away excess
material from wood joints.

c. Brick trowel is
used to place and
trim mortar between
b. Cold chisel is used to trim bricks or concrete
metals. blocks.

d. Bull float is used

to smoothen out the
surface of wet
Types of specialized hand tools concrete.
are the following:

a. Nail set is used to drive

finishing nails below the surface of e. Blind riveter is
a wooden trim or molding. used to fasten
pieces of sheet
metal together.

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 b. Table saw is used for
cutting large sheets of
wood and wood
2. Power Tools composites and consists
of a blade mounted on an
Power drill is used electric motor beneath a
to drill holes in wood, table-like surface.
metal and concrete.
c. Portable circular saw Table saw.
Power drill.
Power screwdriver is used for cutting
or screwgun is used materials that are difficult
to install and remove to cut with stationary
screws. tools.

Types of power d. Power miter saw is a Portable circular

Power screwdriver. circular saw mounted saw.
saws are the
following: over a small table used
to cut various angles in
a. Radial arm saw is wood.
used for crosscutting e. Saber saw is used to
wood and consists of cut curves or holes in
a motor-driven saw floors and roofs for pipes Power miter saw.
blade that is hung on and has a small knife-
an arm over a table. shaped blade that moves
up and down.
Radial arm saw.

Saber saw. 20
Type of power Type of power
hammers are: nailers and
staplers are the
a. Pneumatic following:
hammer or
jackhammer is a. Nailers or nail
used to break up Pneumatic nailer guns fasten
concrete or materials together by
asphalt paving. shooting nails into
Pneumatic hammer.
the building material.
b. Rotary hammer is like an electric b. Powder-actuated
drill that operates with both rotating
stud driver is a kind
and reciprocating actions and is used
of nailer that is
to drill holes in concrete. Powder-actuated
powered by
stud driver.
gunpowder and is
used to drive long
pins into wood, steel
or concrete.

c. Staplers are like

Stapler. nailers but are
loaded with u-
Rotary hammer. shaped staples
instead of nails for
fastening. 21
3. Equipment
Types of surveying
Conveyor is an equipment which equipment:
moves materials other than fluids.
a. Transit is an
equipment used by
Transit. surveyors to
measure horizontal
and vertical angles to
obtain land elevation.

b. Surveyor’s level
is that which is used
Surveyors level.
to determine an
unidentified elevation
from a known one.
Conveyors are used for transporting
materials unto large roofs.
c. Construction
laser flashes a
narrow, accurate
beam of light to
make a baseline for
Construction additional
laser.
measurements and
is used as a level or
as an alignment tool. 22
Types of pumps are:

a. Water pump is used to pump

water out of holes in the ground
so that construction work can
commence.

b. Concrete pump is used to move

concrete from the concrete mixer to
the concrete form.

Water pump.

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Concrete Mixer (Cement Mixer)
A machine that mixes concrete
ingredients by means of a rotating
drum. Raw materials are introduced
into the mixing drum through its open
end and discharged by tilting the
mixing drum to allow the concrete to
pour out.

Types of welding
machines are the b. Laser-powered welder is
following: used to weld material by
employing a laser to heat the
a. Arc welding metal.
machine is used
to weld materials
by melting portions
of the metal.

Weld made by a laser-

Arc welding machine. powered welder.

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4. Heavy Equipment
a. Crawler crane is a crane mounted on metal treads
so that it can move over rough terrain.
Bulldozer is a tractor with a pushing
blade which moves earth and clears
land of bushes and trees.

Bulldozer.

Cranes are b. Truck crane is mounted on a truck frame so that it

machines that can be driven in the site.
lift large and
heavy c. Tower crane or climbing crane is used in the
materials. The construction of tall building because it has a built-in
types of jack that raises the crane from floor to floor as the
cranes are: building is constructed.

640-foot crane.
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Excavator is a machine used for
digging or scooping earth from a
place and depositing it in another.

Types of excavators are:

a. Backhoe is used for general

Backhoe.
digging which is usually mounted
on either a crawler or truck frame.

b. Trencher is a special kind which

digs trenches or long, narrow
ditches for pipelines or cables.

c. Front-end loader is a large Trencher-excavator.

shoveling machine that can scoop
or deposit a large amount of
material.

Front-end loader.
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Highway construction equipment
are:

a. Scraper is a machine that loads,

hauls and dumps soil over medium
to long distances.
Scraper.

b. Grader is an earthworking
machine that grades or levels the
ground.

c. Compactor or roller is a
machine that compacts soil to
prepare for road paving. Grader.

d. Paver is a machine that places,

spreads and finishes concrete or
asphalt paving material.

Compactor

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1.5 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING
The major parts of a building are:
1. Superstructure – the portion of the
building above the ground.
2. Substructure – the habitable SUPERSTRUCTURE

portion of the building found below

the ground.
3. Foundation – the structural portion
of the building that transfer the
STRUCTURE
buildings load into the soil.
FOUNDATION

The three types of substructures are:

1. Slab on Fill – slab which rests on

ground and not suspended.
2. Crawl Space – in a building without
BASEMENT
a basement, an unfinished
accessible space below the first CRAWL SPACE
floor which is usually less than a full
story height. SLAB ON FILL

3. Basement – the lower story of a

building, either partly or entirely
below grade.

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 1.6 SITE INVESTIGATION

Before any design is made, the architect is required to get as much

valuable data about site excavation and building erection at the project
site in order to determine the character of the materials which will be
encountered at the level of a foundation bed.
1.7.1 METHODS OF
EXPLORATION
1. Test pits. For shallow work, an
open pit is the most suitable method
since it calls for an actual inspection of
the undisturbed material over a
considerable area.

2. Test borings. For excavations that

are carried no deeper than the
proposed level, the underlying material
may be investigated by test boring. Soil Boring Rig. SPT Sample.

1.7.2 LOADING TESTS

Loading tests of the materials forming
the foundation bed are made to assist
in determining its safe bearing
capacity.
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1.8 SOIL MECHANICS

1.8.1 CLASSES OF SOIL

There are two broad classes of soil:

A. Course-grained soil – consist

of relatively large particles,
visible to the naked eyes.

B. Fine-grained soil –
consist of much smaller
particles, such as silt and clay.

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1.8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION PRESUMPTIVE PERMEABILITY
BEARING AND
CAPACITY DRAINAGE

psf kPa

Gravels Clean Gravels GW Well-graded gravel 10000 479 Excellent

6.4 – 76.2mm
GP Poorly graded gravel 10000 479 Excellent

Gravels with GM Silty Gravel 5000 239 Poor

fines
GC Clayey Gravel 4000 192 Poor

Sands Clean SW Well-graded sand 7500 359 Excellent

0.05 – 6.4mm Sands
SP Poorly graded sand 6000 287 Excellent

Sands with SM Silty Sand 4000 192 Fair

fines
SC Clayey Sand 4000 192 Poor

Silts LL>50§ ML Inorganic Silt 2000 96 Poor

0.002-0.05mm
CL Inorganic Clay 2000 96 Impervious

Clays LL<50§ OL Organic Very poor Impervious

<0.002mm Silt-Clay

MH Elastic inorganic silt 2000 96 Poor

CH Plastic inorganic clay 2000 96 Impervious

OH Organic clay & silt Very poor Impervious

Pt Peat unsuitable Poor

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1.8 EXCAVATION AND EARTHWORKING
These processes entail the following:

1. Excavating is the process of digging

the earth to provide a place for the
foundation of the building.

2. Leveling and Grading are processes

that change land elevation and slope by
filling in low spots and shaving off high
spots.

3. Stabilizing the Soil is the process of

compacting the soil on which the
structure will rest.

4. The protection of adjoining

structure is a law that provides that any
person making an excavation is
responsible for resulting damage to
adjoining property.

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 5. Shoring is a process of
transferring a portion of the
load of the wall to temporary
footings and done when the
excavation does not go much
below the adjoining footings
and when the material is fairly
solid.

It consists of the following members:

a) sheet piles, which are timber, steel, or pre-cast planks driven side by side to retain earth and
prevent water from seeping into the exaction and
b) wales or continuous horizontal beams which tie the sheet piles in place or
c) soldier piles, which are steel H-sections driven vertically into the ground to support
d) lagging or heavy timber planks joined together horizontally to retain the face of an excavation.
e) crossbracing or rakers are diagonals which support the wales and soldier piles bearing on
heel blocks or footings.
f) tiebacks secured to rock or soil anchors are resorted to when crossbracing or rakers would
interfere with the excavation procedure.

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SHEET PILING

SOLDIER PILES/BEAMS
(STEEL H-SECTIONS)

LAGGING refers to the heavy

timber planks joined together
side by side to retain the face of
an excavation
STEEL

PRECAST

SHEET PILING AND SOLDIER

TIEBACKS BEAMS WITH LAGGING

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6. Needling and underpinning
is a process where needles or
girders are used in cases where
part or all of the weight of the wall
has to be carried, as when the
old footing is removed and the
wall underpinned or carried down
to a new footing at a greater
depth.

NEEDLE; a short beam passed

through a wall as a temporary
support while the foundation or
part beneath is repaired, altered
or strengthened

DEAD SHORE; an upright timber

for supporting a dead load during
the structural alteration of a
building, esp. one of two supports
for a needle

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7. Dewatering refers to the process of lowering a water table
or preventing an excavation from filling with groundwater. It is
accomplished by driving perforated tubes called wellpoints
into the ground to collect water from the surrounding area so
it can be pumped away.

DEWATERING
EXISTING
WATER TABLE

WATER TABLE
AFTER PUMPING

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1.10 SITE DRAINAGE
- necessary to prevent erosion and collection of excess surface
water or groundwater resulting from new construction.

Surface Water – Groundwater –

1. Rainfall which runs over the surface of the Water, near the surface of the
ground. ground , which passes through the
2. Water carried by an aggregate except that held subsoil.
by absorption within the aggregate particles
themselves.
BASIC TYPES OF SITE DRAINAGE

A. SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE –
consists of an underground network of piping for conveying groundwater
to a point of disposal, as a storm sewer system or a natural outfall at a
lower elevation on the site. Excess groundwater can reduce the load-
carrying capacity of a foundation soil and increase the hydrostatic
pressure on a building foundation. Waterproofing is required for basement
structures situated close to or below the water table of a site.

37
Components of the sub-surface drainage system are:

Catch Basins
receptacles for the runoff of SWALES

surface water. They have a basin

or sump that retains heavy
sediment before it can pass into
an underground drainpipe. AREA DRAIN

Culverts
are drains or channels passing under
a road or walkway.
CATCH BASINS

Foundation drainage tile or pipe

Tile or piping for the collection of sub- CULVERTS
surface water, dispersion of septic
tank effluent, and the like.

Drainage tile
is a hollow tile, usually laid end to end
as piping (with open joints) in soil in
order to drain water saturated soil, or
CATCHMENTS
used to permit fluid in the hollow-tile
pipe to disperse into the ground (as in
an absorption field).

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B.SURFACE DRAINAGE
refers to the grading and surfacing of a site in order to divert rain and
other surface water into natural drainage patterns or a municipal
storm sewer system. Grass and lawn areas are sloped 1.5% to 10%;
while paved parking areas, 2% to 3%. A holding pond may be
necessary when the amount of surface runoff exceeds the capacity
of the storm sewer system.
Components of the surface drainage system are:

Swales
shallow depressions formed by the
intersection of two ground slopes,
designed to direct or divert the runoff
of surface water. Grass swales slope
1.5% to 2%; while paved swales, 4%
to 6%.
SWALES

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B.SURFACE DRAINAGE
refers to the grading and surfacing of a site in order to divert rain and
other surface water into natural drainage patterns or a municipal
storm sewer system. Grass and lawn areas are sloped 1.5% to 10%;
while paved parking areas, 2% to 3%. A holding pond may be
necessary when the amount of surface runoff exceeds the capacity
of the storm sewer system.
Components of the surface drainage system are:

Swales
shallow depressions formed by the
intersection of two ground slopes,
designed to direct or divert the runoff
of surface water. Grass swales slope
1.5% to 2%; while paved swales, 4%
to 6%.
SWALES

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1.11 SLOPE PROTECTION AND RETAINING
STRUCTURES

1. The need for stabilizing a sloping

ground can be reduced by
diverting the runoff at the top of
the slope or by creating a series
of terraces to reduce the velocity
of the runoff.

2. Natural means of stabilization

include soil binders --- plant
materials that inhibit or prevent
erosion by providing a ground
cover and forming a dense
network of roots that bind the soil.

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3. Riprap is a layer of irregularly broken
and random-sized stones placed on the
slope of an embankment. RIPRAP
Depth of layer should be greater
than the maximum size of stone

FILTER FABRIC or GRADED

SAND and GRAVEL for drainage

4. Cribbing is a cellular framework of squared steel,

concrete, or timber members, assembled in layers at
right angles, and filled with earth or stones.

5. A Bin Wall is a type of gravity retaining wall

formed by stacking modular, interlocking pre-
cast concrete units and filling the voids with
crushed stone or gravel.

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6. Gabions are galvanized or PVC coated wire
baskets filled with stones and stacked to form
an abutment or retaining structure.
GABIONS

Filter fabric or graded

sand and gravel for
drainage

7. Retaining Structures. When a desired change in

ground elevation exceeds the angle of repose of the
soil, a retaining wall becomes necessary to hold the
mass of earth on the uphill side of the grade change.
The types of RC retaining walls are as follows:

a) Gravity Retaining Wall - resists

overturning and sliding by the
sheer weight and volume of its
mass.

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b) T-type Cantilevered Retaining Wall – limited to a height of
20’ (6 M); beyond this height a counterfort wall is employed.

8” (205)
Batter refers to backward
sloping face of a wall as it
rises to offset illusion of face
leaning forward

Temperature steel for walls

more than 10” (255) thick
Drainage mat w/ filter fabric
0.6H or porous gravel backfill
(0.9H w/ surcharge)
2” (51 mm) o weepholes @
4’-6’ (1220-1830mm) o.c. or
perforated drainpipe sloped
to outlet away from wall
2” (51) min
3” (75) min
Structural Steel
reinforcement

Footing should extend

below the frostline or
2’ (610mm) below the
grade level,
whichever is higher
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c) Counterfort Retaining Wall– utilizes
triangular-shaped cross walls to stiffen the
vertical slab and add weight to the base. The
counterforts are spaced at equal intervals
equal to one-half the wall height.

d) L-type Cantilevered Retaining Wall – used

when the wall abuts a property line or other
obstruction.

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1.12 PAVEMENTS

Paving provides a wearing surface for pedestrian or vehicular traffic in the

landscape. It is a composite structure whose thickness and construction
are directly related to:

• type and intensity of traffic and loads to be carried

• bearing capacity and permeability of the subgrade

1.12.1 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

1. Flexible Pavements – consists of

unit pavers of concrete, brick, or
stone laid on a sand setting bed,
are somewhat resilient and
distribute loads to the subgrade in
a radiating manner. Requires
wood, steel, stone, masonry, or
concrete edging to restrain
horizontal movement.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

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 2. Rigid Pavements – are
reinforced concrete slabs or
paving units mortared over a
concrete slab, distribute the
loads internally and transfer
them to subgrade over a broad
area. Requires reinforcement
and an extension of the base
material along their edges.
RIGID PAVEMENTS

1.12.2 TYPES OF PAVERS

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1.12.3 PAVING PATTERNS

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49
 Thank You for
Listening!
AR. MARY CLAIRE G. YALUNG, uap
INSTRUCTOR BT-1

REF.: CDEP/ DK CHING 50