BIOLOGY FORM ONE & TWO

1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
2. SAFETY IN OUR ENVIRONMENT
3. HEALTH AND IMMUNITY
4. CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
5. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
6. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
7. NUTRITION
8. BALANCE OF NATURE
9. TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN LIVING THINGS
10. GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND RESPIRATION

SUBJECT HANDOUT
Prepared by Sr. Donny
Phone: 0652980744/0683397380/0756306037
Mail:[email protected]
 1. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
What is biology?
Biology is a study of living things or organism (Plants and Animals).
Living things include bacteria, fungi, animals, plants etc.
Biology is derived/comes from two Greek words;
Bios - means "Life"
Logos - means "study"
The people who study biology are called Biologist. Very small organism are called microorganism. The
simplest living things are made up of one cell these are called unicellular organism e.g. bacteria, protozoan
and amoeba (also are called microscope organism). Large organisms are made up of many cells these are
called multicellular organism e.g. fish, trees, man.

WHAT IS LIFE
Life is the state of living which plants, animals, and other living organisms have before they die. The basic
unit of life is cell. All living things are made up of cell, cell are so small that they cannot be seen with marked
eye.
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
There are two main branches of biology
(1) Botany - Study of plants
(2) Zoology - Study of animals only
However there are many minor branches of biology. That deal with different aspects of living things
Example;
BRANCHES AREA OF STUDY
l. Anatomy Physical structure of organisms
2.Cytotogy Deals with cell
3.Ecology Relation between organisms and their Environment
4.Mycology Deals with fungi
5.Taxonomy How organisms are named and groups
6.Physiology How organisms body parts function
7.Parasitology Deals with parasites
8.Immunology The body defense against infections and disease

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING BIOLOGY

1. It helps a man to understand himself/herself better
2. Knowledge of biology enables human being to conserve the environment.
3. It helps man to evaluate environment uses such as pollution, global warming and environmental
degradations.
4. Biology help to understand cause, symptoms, method of transmission, prevention, and treatment of
diseases this improve the standard of living.
5. It provides answer to fundamental questions.
6. It helps us to enter in careers such as medicine, agriculture, reproductive, health and genetic Engineering.
7. Biology helps us appreciate nature.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOLOGY AND OTHER SUBJECT FIELD
Biology related to many other field of study such as agriculture, medicine, pharmacy such as veterinary,
medicine and nutrition.
1. AGRICULTURE

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Biology research finding on crops and livestock have led to improve agriculture production.
2. MEDICINE AND PHARMACY
Medicine is the study of prevention and treatment and cure of disease.
3. NUTRITION
Biology is used by dieticians to determine the kind of diets suitable for people with different health problems.
4. FORESTRY
Biologists have developed varieties of trees that grow well in dry areas, also that mature fast so as to prevent
desertification.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
Living things have characteristics which make them different from non- living thing. These are;
1. NUTRITION/ FEEDING
All living things take in food or make their own food. Food enables living things to grow, develop and carry
out on life process.
2. RESPIRATION
Respiration is a process by which food substances are broken down to produce useful energy in a cell.
3. EXCRETION
Is the process by which excess waste or harmful material resulting from the chemical reaction occur in body
cell are removed out of body.
4. SENSITIVITY/ IRRITABILITY
It is the ability of an organism to detect and respond to a change in its environment
5. GROWTH
Growth is an increase in size and mass of an organism that becomes more complicated and more efficient.
6. MOVEMENT/ LOCOMOTION
Is an action of changing posture or position of an organism. Movement which involves the whole body is
called locomotion. E.g. Animals but plants just show movement in term of growth of their body parts E g
roots, shoots and leaves
7. REPRODUCTION
Is the process whereby living things giving rise to new individuals of their own kinds. This ensures that there
is continued existence of the species and life forms. Non- Living things are referred to as inanimate
Living things are refusal to as animate
SCIENTIFIC PROCESS IN BIOLOGY
Biology is a practical science that involves carrying out experiment, observation, measuring and
experimentation are skills that we need when studying Biology, and we use our sense organs to make
observation.
These organs are;
1. The eyes for seeing
2. The nose for smelling
3. The ears for hearing
4. The tongue for tasting
5. The skin for feeling
Scientific measurements are taken using specific instrument and units. Some bask biological measures are
MEASURE INSTRUMENT SI UNIT
Mass Beam balance/Digital balance Kilogram (kg)
Time Watch Second (s)
Length Ruler Meter (m)
Temperature Thermometer Kelvin (K) - Degrees Celsius
-Degree Fahrenheit

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In biological investigation like in any other scientific research, methods are listed. The scientific method is a
set of steps that scientist use to study things.
Those methods are
1. Problem identification
2. Formulation of hypothesis
3. Experimentation
4. Observation and data collection
5. Interpretation of data.
6. Conclusion
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
In day today life one time comes across question which require explanation or problem which needs solution
or something to prove e.g. it is observed that buffaloes in Serengeti park are dying at great rate what would be
the cause of death or there is poor harvesting or Earth warms are mostly found in the soil wells handed are as
why?
FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a suggestion of the answer to the question asked. It is an intelligent guess that tries to explain
as an observation for example Earth worms prefer shaded areas because in the soil shaded there is more
moisture. A hypothesis can't be termed as a biological acceptable to explain action. Therefore experiment
should be designed, proved or disapproved. If hypothesis is correct we say it is accepted, if disapproved we
say rejected
EXPERIMENTATION
An experiment is a test that is carried out under controlled conditions to determine whether a hypothesis is
correct or not. In any experiment there is control experiment and experiment test.
Example of experiment: Earth worms prefer moist or dry condition.

OBSERVATION AND DATA COLLECTION

The scientists observe what happens from the time the experiment was set up to the time it ends. It is
important to note all the changes made from the beginning to the end of the experiment and recording
INTERPRETATION OF DATA

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At the end of experiment the scientist analyses the observations and Data recorded. The scientist may look for
pattern or in the data
CONCLUSION
A conclusion is a statement that summarizes what a scientist has learnt from an experiment. When scientist
read conclusion, they taste whether the data or information collected support the hypothesis (accepted) or not
support the hypothesis (reject), if so another hypothesis must be formulated and repeat the whole experiment.
BIOLOGY LABORATORY
A laboratory is a special room designed for carrying out scientific experiment. A biology laboratory is a
special building designed for carrying out biological experiments. A laboratory should have adequate space
for carrying out experiment, proper lighting, good ventilation, source of water, means of heating and adequate
space for storing apparatus, chemicals and specimens.

LABORATORY RULES
In biology laboratory we use hazardous chemical, fragile equipment or dangerous specimens. For this reason,
it's important to follow a certain rules and regulation for our safety and safety for others.
These rules are;
1. Do not go into the laboratory in the absence of a teacher or laboratory technician.
2. Do not handle or use apparatus, chemicals or specimens in the absence of teacher.
3. Do not eat/test anything during the experiment.
4. Know the location of all exist.
5. Do not leave experiment unattended.
6. Turn off gas and water taps when not in use.
7. Do not burn substances towards other people in the laboratory
8. Do not take laboratory equipments, chemicals or specimens out of the laboratory
9. Do not play or run in the laboratory
10. Read the labels or containers before using the contents. Do not interchange label.
11. Dispose all waste materials after all experiment.
12. After each experiment clean all the equipments you have used mg
13. Avoid touching yourself while performing experiment, clean your hands with soap and water after
Experiment.
14. Do not touch electrical equipment with wet hands.
15. If you don't understand something ask your teacher.
16. Know the location and operation procedure of all safety equipment e.g. First aid and fire extinguishers.
17. Dress properly for laboratory activities, tie back long hairs. Do not wear dangling Jewelers, Sandals. Shoe
must cover a leg completely.
18. Report all accidents immediately to your teacher or technician
19. Never use dirty, chipped or cracked equipment.
20. Handle live spacemen carefully. if an animal bites or insect stings you, report the accident to your
teacher
Distinguishing the biology laboratory from other facilities
 The biology laboratory is different from other school facilities such as classroom, library or physics
and chemistry laboratory.
 A class room has desk and chairs, students are taught in a class room.
 A library has variety of reacting materials some libraries have tables and chairs where we can sit and
read.
 A biology laboratory has models, specimens, cage, aquaria and chart which may not be in physics or
chemistry laboratory.
 Some of unique things found in biological laboratory are preserved specimens of organisms such as
insect, micro organism and plants.
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WARNING SIGNS/ SAFETY SYMBOLS
These are warning signs that are found on apparatus and chemical containers in the laboratory. Some may be
found in or on the boxes used to hold either chemicals or apparatus. These signs must be obeyed in order to
ensure safety in the laboratory before one uses a chemical, one should know whether that chemical is Toxic,
Corrosive, Flammable, Oxidant, Explosive, Harmful or Irritant.

TOXIC
Toxic substances are dangerous and may cause death immediately or after a few days. When handling toxic
substances one should be very careful. In case a chemical gets into contact with your skin it should be washed
out with a lot of water.

CORROSIVE
Corrosive substances can burn one's skin. They can cause blindness in case they come into contact with the
eyes. Example Of corrosive are sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and concentrated alkalis e.g.
Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide.

FLAMMABLE
These are substances which can catch fire easily. The substances should never be brought near open
flammable

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OXIDANT
These are chemical that can accelerate burning in the presence of an oxidizing agent, a small fire can be made
bigger. Example in the heating of potassium permanganate mixed with saw dust

EXPLOSIVE
An explosion is a forceful rapid reaction, which involves throwing off of particles at high speed. Chemicals
carrying the sign of explosive may cause explosion if not handled carefully and according to the instruction.

HARMFUL/IRRITANT
These are chemicals which can make you sick but it does not kill you, it can cause illness. This substance may
not kill immediately, but may have effects after long exposure.

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BIOLOGY APPARATUS
Biology apparatus are the tools and equipments needed in order to study Biological experiments effectively.
APPARATUS USES
1. Hand lens Used to magnify specimen/object.
2. Sweep nets Used to catch small flying organisms. E.g.
Butterflies, housefly
3. Fishing nets For catching fish and aquatic animals
4. Petri -dish Is a shallow glass where specimen are put for
dose observation
5. Mortar and pestle Is small hard bowl used for crashing or grinding
substances
6. Crucible Is a contain& in which substances are heated to
very high temperature
7. Thermometer Used to measure temperature
8. Dissecting Kit Is a kit that contain all tools for making dissection
of specimen
9. Spirit-burner Bunsen -burner Used as a source of heat
10. Dropper Used to add liquid during experiment
11. Spatula Used for taking some substance from the
container
12. Test tube holder Used to hold test tube
13. Test tube Used to hold and heat chemicals
14. Test tube rack Storing test tube
15. White tiles Used to put specimen during experiment that
involve colour changes
16. Watch glass Is a shallow dish that used as evaporating surface
or cover for beaker

THE MICROSCOPE
The microscope is an instrument used to magnify very small specimen so that can be seen clearly.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
1) Light microscope
2) Electron microscope
Light microscope can magnify object up to 2000 times. This is the type of microscope that is commonly used
in school laboratory. Electron microscope can magnify a specimen up to 50000 times.

PARTS OF A LIGHT MICROSCOPE AND THEIR FUNCTION

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1) Eye piece Has a lens which magnify specimen
2) Body tube Support the objective revolving nose piece
3) Rotating nose piece Support the objective lens
4) Objective lens Magnify the specimen under observation.lt has three
lenses, lower power, medium power and high power
5) Course adjustment knob Raises or lowers the body tube in order to bring the
image into focus
6) Arm Support the body tube, knobs, stage diaphragm and
mirror. It's one of the part which is held when
moving the microscope
7) Fine adjustment Raises or lowers the body tube in order to bring the
image into sharp focus
8) Ocular tube The tube allow light to pass straight from the
objective lens to the eye piece lens

THE STRUCTURE OF THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE

How to use light Microscope

1. Place the microscopes on the laboratory bench or table make sure it's not near the edge.
2. Mount the specimen on a microscope slide, cover it with the cover slip.
3. Make sure that the low power objective lens is on line with the eyepiece lens.
4. Place the slide with the specimen on the stage.
5. While looking through the eyepiece, use your hand to adjust the stage so the light is directed at the
specimen on the stage.
6. Adjust the course adjustment knob to bring the specimen focus.

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7. Adjust the fine adjustment knob to bring the specimen into sharp focus.
8. Rotate the nose piece to a lighter power objective lens if you want to observe more details on the
specimen.
How to care for light Microscope
1. Turn the adjustment knobs slowly, always start with course adjustment knob.
2. Always lift microscope using both hands, one hand holding the arm and other holding the base.
3. When not in use cover the microscope with clean cloth and store it in a dry, dust free space
4. Clean dirty lenses using lens tissue or soft cloth.
5. Don't place the microscope at the edge of the table or bench as it could be knocked over.
6. When not in use for a long time remove the lenses and put them in desiccators.
7. Don't touch the microscope with wet hands
8. Don't touch the surface of the mirror of the lens with your fingers.
9. Lubricate moving parts regularly.
10. Always use a cover slip in order to protect the lens of the microscope from the substances in the specimen.
11. Remove the slides from the stage immediately after use.

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 2. SAFETY IN OUR ENVIRONMENT
FIRST AID AND SAFETY
First aid is an immediate assistance care given to a sick or injured person before getting professional medical
help.

IMPORTANCE OF FIRST AID

• It helps to save life.
• It helps to prevent the victim's condition from becoming worse.
• It also promotes recovery.
• It helps reduce pain and suffering.
• It helps to reassure the victim, to restore confidence to the victim.

THE FIRST AID KIT

The first aid kit is the small box which contains items that are for providing first aid. This box should be
clearly labeled “first aid” and stored in a safe and easily accessible place for instance on a shelf, on the wall in
a laboratory or in a staff room.

COMPONENTS OF FIRST AID KIT AND THEIR USES

S/N ITEM USE
1 Plaster or adhesive bandage Covering small wounds
2 Sterile gauze Covering wounds to protect them from dirty and
germs
3 Antiseptic Cleaning wounds to kill germs
4 Soap Washing hands/ wounds and equipment

5 pain killers Relieving pain

Note: they should be placed regularly
6 scissor and razor blade Cutting dressing materials
7 safety pins Securing bandage
8 Bandages Keeping dressing in place and immobilizing
injured limbs
9 cotton wool Cleaning and drying wounds
10 Thermometer Taking body temperature
Preventing direct contact with victim‟s body
11 Disposable sterile gloves
fluids
12 petroleum jelly Smoothing chapped skin
13 Torch As a source of light
14 Whistle Blown to call for help
15 Spirits To kill germs in wound

The following are First Aid procedures that can help people in various situations:
Bee sting Treatment
When a person is stung by a bee sting remains on the skin.

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Remove the sting by scraping gently using a blunt object such as a plastic card
• Do not use your fingers or sharp object because this makes Bee sting to release more venom into the
body.
• Wash the sting area with soap and water.
• Apply baking soda paste or salt water on the bee sting.
• The sting acidic baking soda salt is base and it neutralizes the acid.
• Apply a cold compress to relieve pain and swelling
Note:
If a victim develops allergic reaction, take the person to hospital immediately.
Electric shock
This is a sudden painful feeling that somebody gets when electricity passes through the body. Electric shock is
caused by touching or stepping an exposed naked electricity live cable
Treatment
Remove the patient from the source of the danger.
1. Switching off the electricity current
2. Protecting yourself with a dry insulation materials such as rubber gloves or wrap your hand in dry
clothing
3. Loosen any light clothing around the neck, chest and waist
4. Start artificial respiration immediately if the victim is unconscious
5. Take the patient to the hospital immediately

Shock
This is the sudden violent disturbance of the mind or emotions.
Causes of Shock
• Bad news
• A frightening traumatic scene
• Severe illness
• Dehydration
• Severe allergic reaction
• Heavy bleeding inside the body

Treatment
1. Have the person lie down with his feet higher than his head. However if he/she has a severe head
injury put him/her a half sitting position.
2. Stop any bleeding
3. If the person feels cold, cover him with a blanket.
4. If he/she is conscious and able to drink, give him/her sips of water or other soft drinks.
5. Keep calm and rescue the person

Note:
If the person is conscious, lay he/she on his/her side with head low lifted back and to one side. If they seem to
be shocked pull his/her tongue forward with your finger. Do not give him/her anything by the mouth until
become conscious.

Wounds
Treatment
1. First wash your hand with soap and water, then wash the abrasions gently and dry it

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2. Apply some gentian violet solution (GV) to keep it clean and dry more quickly
3. When cleaning the wound be careful to clean all the dirty lift up and clean under any flaps of skin
4. After the wound has been cleaned, place a piece of clean gauze or cloth over the top

Bleeding a) Nose bleeding

Nose bleeding may occur as a result of
1. Blowing the nose too hard as a result of dried mucus
2. A punch direct to the nose from another person
3. High blood pressure
4. Air pressure changes

Treatment
• Sit quietly
• Blow the nose firmly for 10 minutes or until bleed stops. It is advised to breathe through mouth.
• If this does not control bleeding, pack the nostril a wrap of cotton. Leaving part of outside the nose if
possible. First wet the cotton with hydrogen.

Vomiting
To vomit is to remove food from the stomach through the mouth. It can be caused by food poisoning,
contaminated water, fever or excessive eating.
Treatment
The person should get adequate rest. Give lots of fluids make a re-hydration drink by mixing 1 liter of clean
water, 1.5 spoon of salt and 4 to 5 spoon of sugar.

Muscle cramps and sprains

1. Sprains
It‟s possible to know whether a hand or foot is bruised, sprained or broken, it helps to have an x- ray. To
release pain and swelling, keep the sprained part raised high. Put the ice, wrapped in a cloth or plastic bag or
cold wet cloth over the swollen joint for 20 to 30 minutes. Once even hour (when the swelling is no longer
getting worse, soak the sprain in hot water several times a day.
Muscle cramps
Muscle cramp is sudden, involuntary and painful contraction of a single muscle or group of muscle. The cause
of muscle cramps include
1. Poor coordination of the muscle during exercise
2. Cold
3. Excessive loss of salt and body fluids due to too much sweating ,severe diarrhea or persistent vomiting
(Dehydration)

Treatment foot muscle cramps

• Help the victim to stand
• When the first contraction is over, let the victim sit down.
• Straight on the victim knee and draw his or her foot firmly and steadily upward towards the shin
• Massage the muscle
• Get the medical help if the cramps do not stop

POISONING

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A poison is any substance that causes harm if it‟s swallowed, inhaled or absorbed into the body. If the poison
has been breathed in, move the person outside where there is plenty of fresh air, if the victim is not breathing
start mouth breathing to move resuscitation.
If the poison has been swallowed, give a glass of milk or water or both. This helps to dilute and neutralize the
poison, don‟t introduce vomiting if the poison is a corrosive. Introduce vomiting if the poison is none
corrosive substances. Vomiting can be induced by putting your finger in the victim‟s throat or by making the
victims gargle soap water or raw egg yolk, take the person to hospital immediately.

EXERCISE
WRITE TRUE OR FALSE
1. You should induce vomiting, if a person has swallowed kerosene TRUE.
2. First aid helps to rescue the victim TRUE.
3. You should remove bee stings, using a needle FALSE.
4. Before taking a snake bite victim to hospital you must first capture the snake TRUE.
5. It is important to reduce the rate at which poison spread in the body TRUE.
6. You should move a victim of electric shock using a metal object FALSE.
7. A person who is nose bleeding should lie down TRUE.
8. We can use clean water, salt and sugar to make a re-hydration drink for person who has vomited
TRUE.

SAFETY AT HOME AND SCHOOL

Many accidents occur in our schools as well as at home, children handicapped are more to get accidents. The
common accidents at home and school including drowning poisoning, choking, cuts and scratches, falls, bites
and electric shock.
Common accidents and how to prevent them
ACCIDENT PREVENTING AND SAFETY AND HOW TO PREVENT THEM
Fire burns and
scalds Switch off Bunsen burners and cookers which not in use
-Don't go swimming alone
-Use a bridge when crossing rivers and streams
EXERCISE WRITE TRUE OR FALSE
1. You should induce vomiting, if a person has swallowed kerosene TRUE.
2. First aid helps to rescue the victim TRUE.
3. You should remove bee stings, using a needle FALSE.
4. Before taking a snake bite victim to hospital you must first capture the
snake TRUE.
Drowning 5. It is important to reduce the rate at which poison spread in the body
TRUE.
6. You should move a victim of electric shock using a metal object FALSE.
7. A person who is nose bleeding should lie down TRUE.
8. We can use clean water, salt and sugar to make a rehydration drink for
person who has vomited TRUE.
Avoid going near water bodies when its dark
Don‟t allow children to play near the water bodies
Cover or fence all pools of water in the home or school
-always walk careful
Falls -avoid playing dangerous games like climbing trees and
walls

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 -put up signs to indicate where there stairs or steps
-do not run unnecessarily
-wipe spilled liquids on the floor immediately
-do not leave fruits and vegetable peels on the floor
-label all containers clearly
Poisoning
-store all poisonous substances in a safe lockable place when not in use
-do not talk while eating
-sit up right when eating or drinking
Choking -eat slowly and do not take part in eating competition
-do not give children small objects to play with as they could put them in the
mouth
-don‟t irritate animals
Bites and stings -stay away from beehives and wasp net
-cut bushes and fall grasses that could have dangerous animals
-store sharp tools in the safe place
-property dispose of broken glass and empty tins
Cuts and stretches -do not walk bare foot outside
-do not plant thorny bushes very near
-do not give children sharp objects to play with
-switch off electrical appliance that are being used
-do not touch electrical equipment‟s with your hands
Electric shock
-ensure all electrical appliances are properly installed
-do not push sharp object in to electric switch

WASTE DISPOSAL
Waste: Refers to materials which are not needed.
Waste disposal: is way in which get rid of waste materials
TYPES OF WASTE
We can classify waste according to its state
1. Solid waste
2. Liquid waste
3. Gaseous waste
4. Sludge waste

Solid waste
Is a hard waste material e.g. House hold, garbage, mining waste, plastic, paper, glass, scrap metal, waste, used
tires, empty cans and construction waste.
Liquid waste
Liquid waste include urine, water from bathrooms, water from kitchen after washing utensils, liquid also
come from industries e.g. chemical liquid waste.
Gaseous waste
This is waste in gaseous form for example ammonia, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide gases from materials
and lead from petrol in motor vehicle. Gaseous waste is a major risk factor for both acute and chronic
respiratory diseases.
Sludge waste
This is a thick soft and wet waste material usually a viscous material (flowing material) e.g. human waste,
industrial waste which contain between 30%to 70°/o water. Waste from living things is biodegradable. They

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can be decomposed by bacteria and other living organisms. E.g. food remain, paper and cotton clothes waste
material such as plastics, glass, metal are non-biodegradable.
Waste disposal
Waste disposal refers to collection, transportation, processing, re-use and other activities that help us to get rid
of waste. This helps to reduce adverse effects of waste on human health, animal‟s health and environment.
Basic principle of waste disposal
The principles that can help us to better manage waste, these are:
→ Reducing amount of waste we produce, for example we do not have to buy plastic bags each time we
go shop we can carry a woven basket instead.
→ Re- using items instead of throwing them away for instance we can use an empty margarine container
to store sugar.
→ Recycling waste materials - some waste can be changed to other product for example, broken glass
can be melt and use to make new glass bottles.

Importance of waste disposal

1. It helps to provide pleasing environment.
2. It eliminates or reduces bad air.
3. It minimizes the spread of infections and disease.
4. To prevent accident

Methods of waste disposal

1. Burning
Waste such as papers, plastic, carton - boxes, empty milk packet, bread wrappers, are burnt to ashes.
2. Burying
This is used to dispose inorganic refuse such as empty containers of insecticides, used torch batteries, broken
bottles, pots, plates, cups and spoon.
Burying can take the following form
- Pit latrine
The sewage in pit is decayed by bacteria, when the pit is full it‟s covered with soil and a new latrine is dug.
-Tipping and landfills
When car [truck] come and collect waste and take it to dumping site we called it tipping Damping can be in
form of a dump or landfill.
A landfill is place where solid waste buried in the ground.

3. Animals feeds
Organic refuse such as vegetable, fruit, potato and banana peelings, cabbage, and spinach leaves are feed to
goats, sheep, cattle, poultry and also pigs. Bones are dried and ground into powder which is dog food.

4. Compost manure
After separating inorganic refuse from organic. A place of one meter deep is dug where the organic refuse is
dumped to decompose, to keep away flies reduce smell and other health hazards, a thin layer of wood ashes
and sock is used to cover the refuse. After the refuse decomposes, it‟s used by farmer as compost manure
which adds soil fertile.

5. Recycling
To recycle is to turn waste materials into useful ones that can be used again. Plastic, glass, paper, metal and
rubber are the items that can be recycled for example paper can be converted to tissue paper or news print

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paper, worn out tires can be retreated and re- used, plastic items old glass bottles can be crushed and made
into new bottles.

6. Incinerating
To incinerate is to bum something until it is completely destroyed. This process is carried out in an
incinerator. Incinerator is usually done for hazardous material such as clinical waste.

7. Garbage collection
Garbage collection in urban areas is done by local authorities; local authorities provide refuse bins which are
commonly placed at strategic places in towns. Garbage disposal are through landfill and incineration.

THE EFFECTS OF POOR WASTE DISPOSAL

1. Provide breeding places for disease causing organisms, e.g. empty container after rain become
breeding places e.g. mosquito, cockroaches.
2. Poor waste disposal causes air pollution result to respiratory diseases.
3. Can cause accident in home e.g. fresh peeling of fruits and vegetable, and potatoes on the floor can
cause slippery and falls down breaking his/her leg, broken glass can cut people.
4. Organic wastes when decompose cause bad smell.
5. Causes epidemic diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
6. Can harm wildlife and domestic animals. E.g. when cow eat plastic bags, suffocate or block the
digestive system and cause death.
7. Block of drainage system can cause flooding
8. Degrade the natural beauty of the environment.
How to reduce waste product
1. Use cloth instead of paper to wipe surface e.g. window and furniture. It‟s much cheaper in the long run
and reduces the amount of waste paper in the environment.
2. Invest in a set of cloth or woven shopping bags.
3. Buy rechargeable batteries and a battery charger instead of disposable batteries.
4. Collect and use plastic container to store food.
5. Initiate awareness campaigns in your community on the proper ways of disposing waste.
6. Use plastic that can be recycled or re - used and buy products made from recycled materials

Why waste product is a problem

• People's bad habits for example dumping waste on foot paths, on the roadside and using excessive
packaging for example wrapping a piece of candy to layers of plastic.
• Inadequate disposal facilities make waste disposal a problem.
• Failure by the local authorities to enforce effective punishment on those who failed to practice proper
waste disposal.
• Poor infrastructure poor settlement planning render waste collection.
Why increase of waste output now today?
• Increase of population and new settlement.
• Increased consumption rate of more disposable packaging and foot waste.
• Technical advancement cause nuclear waste.

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 3. HEALTH AND IMMUNITY
HEALTH AND IMMUNITY
Health - Is a state of physical, mental and social wellbeing. Health can be affected by factors such as diet.
Physical fitness, hygiene, stress, heredity, environment, medicine and immunity.
Immunity - Is the ability of the body to resist infections and disease. Immunity builds the body‟s defense
against infectious diseases. Through this, it helps us to remain healthy.
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
Basically there are two types of immunity namely:
• Natural immunity
• Artificial immunity
1. NATURAL IMMUNITY
This is also referred to as immunity that an individual is born with. Natural immunity is divided into two
types;
a) Natural Active Immunity
The body makes its own antibodies especially after an attack by disease causing micro-organism; adults have
this kind of immunity.
b) Natural Passive Immunity
The body develops an immune system during development of the foetus (unborn baby) i.e. the antibodies
from the mother pass to the foetus. After the baby is born the antibodies from the mother pass to the baby
through sucking of the first milk (colostrum). This immunity last only for a few month.
2. ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
This is the type of immunity an individual acquires in course of life time. This type of immunity is also
referred to as acquired immunity.
Artificial immunity is of two parts;
a) Artificial Active Immunity
This immunity is acquired through immunization or vaccination using vaccine. A vaccine is a preparation
containing dead or weaken disease cause organism, some vaccines are injected in the body while other are
taken orally.
b) Artificial Passive Immunity
Artificial passive immunity is acquired when antibodies produced by individual are injected into a second
individual.
This immunity provides an instant response but it is short term because the antibodies used are not the body‟s
own, so no more cells are created. Such immunity is used for potentially fatal diseases such as rabies and
tetanus.
The immune system enables the study to recognize foreign materials, in response to antigens in the bodies.
Immune system produce chemical substance called antibodies, Antibodies fight against invade
microorganism.
Factors that can lead to lowering of body Immunity
1. Lack of a proper balanced diet (poor nutrition)
2. Inhibitory effects of drug and chemical to the white blood cells.
3. In ability of the body to produce antibodies and the white blood cells
4. Lack of vaccination/immunization
5. Incomplete treatment
6. Genetic disorders
7. Extreme stress
8. Damage to the skin.

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9. Destruction of immune system by pathogen e.g. HIV (Human immunodeficiency Virus.)

PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNER

Personal hygiene is the practice of keeping one self-clean all the time by maintaining a clean body from head
to toe. Personal hygiene also includes good grooming e.g. wearing well-fitting clothes good for you. To be
able to maintain high standards of personal hygiene you must be having good manners.

GOOD MANNER
Is a kind of behavior that is socially accepted it includes honesty, respect for others, politeness and
helpfulness.

PRINCIPAL OF PERSONAL HYGIENE

a) Wash your body every day
b) Always wear clean clothes
c) Wash hands with soap and clean water after visiting the toilet and before eating.
d) Brush your teeth at least twice a day in the morning and before you sleep. Wash your mouth with
clean water after eating.
e) Keep the environment clean. The environment include your bedroom, home, village, desk, classroom
and school
f) Cover your mouth and nose with a clean handkerchief or tissue when you sneeze or cough
g) Keep your nails short and clean
h) Do not share handkerchief, towel and clothes especially underwear.
i) Wash your hair at least once a week comb it every day or keep it well plaited
j) Change your bedding regularly
k) Wear comfortable and well-fitting clothes
l) Do not spit on the ground spit on handkerchief
m) Avoiding picking your nose and biting your nails.
n) Avoid touching other people‟s hand fluids
o) Relieve yourself in a clean toilet

REQUIREMENT OF PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNER

1. Listen to advice from people, who have good personal hygiene and good manners and learn from
them, good advice help us to improve ourselves.
2. Acquire the items needed to keep yourself and learn how to use your environment and those things
include soap, towels, combs, brushes, basins and teeth brushes.

IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNER

a. Personal hygiene is important for good health. Ring worms and lice are spread because people do not
practice personal hygiene.
b. Personal hygiene and good manners make a person acceptable and respectable in the society.
c. Personal hygiene and good manners are also important for personal appearance. A well groomed and
well-mannered person is more attractive than a dirty and ill-mannered one.
d. Maintaining personal hygiene and good manner make us good role models for other people in the
society.
MAINTAINING PROPER PERSONAL HYGIENE DURING PUBERTY STAGE
PUBERTY

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Is the stage when children begin to mature biologically and psychologically and their bodies become capable
of reproduction. It usually occurs between ages 10 and 14 in girls and ages between 12 and 16 in boys .
During this time the body develops secondary sexual characteristics which create difference between males
and female. Puberty leads to adolescence.
Adolescence is transitional period between childhood and adulthood

CHANGES IN GIRLS ATPUBERTY STAGE

1. Body size increase rapidly
2. Breasts develops
3. Hair grows in the armpits and pubic area
4. Waist narrows and hips broaden.
5. Menstruation begins
6. Pimples may develop on the face
7. Sweat and oil glands become more active leading change in body
8. High pitched voice

CHANGES IN BOYS AT PUBERTY STAGE

1. Body size increase rapidly
2. Reproductive organs enlarge
3. Muscles grow
4. Hair grows on the face (beards) and in the armpits and pubic areas
5. Shoulder and chest broaden and voice deepens
6. Wet dreams begin and sperm production begins
7. Pimples may grow develop on the face
8. Sweat and oil glands become more active leading to change the body odour.
So it‟s very' important to maintain personal hygiene so as to prevent oduor and disease during puberty
Also aim at being well behaved all the time by taking the following measures
 Resist negative peer pressure
 Get counseling from a reliable person
 Apologize if you hurt other people‟s feelings
 Do not engage in sexual activities before marriage.
 Strive to be respectful to your elders even when you disagree with them.
 Get involved in positive extracurricular activities e.g. sports, debating and drama.
 Avoid engage on:
→ Taking drug (drug abuse)
→ Sexual affair
→ Being rude to elders

INFECTION AND DISEASE

Disease is a condition that interferes with the normal functioning of the body. It can affect the whole body or
only part of it.
When disease is caused by microorganisms they are known as infection disease or communicable disease.
Communicable disease is disease which can be spread from one person to another. They are caused by
pathogen such us virus, bacteria, protozoan and fungi. Example of communicable diseases is AIDS, Malaria,
Cholera, Tuberculosis, Typhoid, Ring worms.
Vectors are organisms which carry pathogens e.g. fleas, mosquitoes, bee, tsetse fly. Communicable diseases
are classified according to their occurrence.
1. EPIDEMIC DISEASES
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These are outbreaks of communicable disease which affect a large number of people in a short period of time,
e.g. Cholera, Typhoid, Meningitis and plague.
2. PANDEMIC DISEASES
These are communicable diseases which affect a whole country, continent or the whole words e.g. HIV/ AIDS
3. ENDEMIC DISEASES
These are communicable diseases which regularly occur in a particular area and are difficult to get rid of e.g.
Malaria, gonorrhea, Syphilis, Bilharzia.
Disease can be grouped also depending on the cause e.g.
S/N CAUSE DISEASE e.g.

1 Bacterial disease Typhoid, Cholera, TB, Gonorrhea

2 Viral diseases AIDS, Polio, measles, small pox, chicken pox.

Amoeba dysentery, Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness),

3 Protozoan diseases
malaria

4 Fungal diseases Ring worms, candidiasis, athletes

5 Genetic disease (inherited diseases) Hemophiliac, sickle cell, anemia, down syndrome, albinism

6 Worm diseases Elephantiasis, bilharzia (schistosomiasis)

7 Hormonal diseases Diabetes mellitus, diabetes inspidus

8 Malnutrition diseases Kwashiorkor, obesity, marasmus, Goiter, Anemia, Rickets

Diseases also can be grouped according made of transmission e.g.

Air borne disease Tuberculosis, common cold, influenza,
whooping cough
Weather bone disease Cholera, Typhoid fever, Schistosomiasis
Contaminated blood HIV/AIDS, Malaria
Physical contract(contagious disease) Ring worms. Scabies

Routes through which disease causing agents enters our bodies are mouth, nose, penis, vagina, anus, skin,
open wounds.
Non infections (non communicable) diseases. These are diseases which can‟t be transmitted from one person
another e.g. sickle cell, anemia, Albinism, kwashiorkor, arthritis, skin cancer, diabetes.
Diseases can broadly divide in to two categories: -
1. Communicable diseases (infection diseases)
2. Non communicable disease(non infection diseases)

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COMMON INFECTION DISEASES
METHODS OF
CAUSAL CLINICAL MODE OF
SN DISEASE PREVENTION AND
AGENT FEATURES TRANSMISSION
CONTROL
Inflammation of
Inhalation and
1 Measles Virus respiratory track, vaccination
contact
fever, contact rash
Bacteria Wash hand after toilet
called Vibrio and before and after
Diarrhea, vomiting,
cholera eating, boil drinking
weight loss, muscle Contaminated food
2 Cholera through water, wash fruit before
cramps, wrinkled and water
contaminated eat, eat hot food vaccine,
skin
food and medical treatment
water
Droplets from one
Isolation of patient,
Bacteria and Fever, headache, person when
3 Meningitis vaccination, medicine
virus vomiting coughing
treatment
sneezing
Prolonged cough, Vaccination, patient
Bacteria Spread by
blood stained, should cover nose and
called droplets when
4 Tuberculosis sputum, fever, poor mouth when coughing
bacterium coughing or
appetite, weight loss, or sneezing medical
tuberculosis sneezing
night sweat treatment
Inflammation of
Bacteria lymph node, fever,
Vaccination,
called internal bleeding, Spread by fleas
5 Plague eliminating rats and
Yersinia body aches, found on rats.
medical treatment
pestis coughing and
shortness of breath
Blood stained- Killing snails, proper
feces and urine, disposal of sewage,
Bilharzia Blood flukes abdominal pain, Spread by water, wearing protective
6 (Schistosomi (Schistosoma) diarrhea, fever, snails, contain shoes in water- lodged
asis) (flatworm) tiredness, enlarged parasites larvae area, draining
liver and spleen stagnant water and
medical treatment
Killing mosquito,
sleeping under
Chills, fever,
mosquito nets .
Protozoa sweating, vomiting, Transmitted by
draining stagnant water,
7 Malaria called pain in joint, female anopheles
cutting down trees,
Plasmodium headache, mosquito
using mosquito spray
abdominal pain.
and anti-malaria drugs
treatments
Good personal hygiene,
Intense itching Spread skin to
wash contaminated
Microscopic rashes and burning skin contact at
8 Scabies clothes
mites on the skin and sore sharing clothes
on hot water and dry
on the skin. towel and bedding
them in the sun, avoid
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 sharing personal items,
medical treatment
Fever, difficult in
Bites or saliva
swallowing, Vaccination kill
from infected
restlessness, loss of suspected carnies
9 Rabies virus animals, organ
feeling, vomiting, immediately, medical
transplant from
fever, and treatment
infected people
hydrophobia
Insulin Fatigue, weight loss,
Control body weight,
disorder, excessive hunger,
regular exercise,
genetic poor healing of
10 Diabetes stop alcohol, and stop
disorders, wounds, frequently
smoking, diet restriction,
excessive urination
and insulin injection.
body weight
11 Cancer Abnormalities in
the genetic
Avoid getting in
materials result
contact with carcinogens
of mutation or Usually skin swelling
e.g. tobacco smoke and
due to (tumors), bleeding, pain,
radiation, surgery to
carcinogens such ulcers, cough, weight
remove the tumor,
as tobacco loss, poor appetite,
chemotherapy, radiation
smoking, excessive sweating.
therapy, immunotherapy,
chemical,
hormonal therapy
infections,
hereditary.
Bacteria Vaccination, avoid rusting
called Affect nervous lock jaw Contain with equipment, cover wound
12 Tetanus
Clostridium painfully spasms bacterium in soil when contact with soil
tetanus animal dung
Improve sanitation,
Bacteria
general hygiene, water
called Vomiting, diarrhea, high Contaminated water
13 Typhoid protection, boil drinking
Salmonella fever and food
water, proper use of toilet,
lyphi
immunization treatment
Caused by
bacteria called
Improve sanitation, boil
Shigella and Severe diarrhea, profuse
Contaminated food drinking water, re-
14 Dysentery protozoan bleeding, diarrhea of
and water hydration, drugs
called shigella is not sever
Antibiotic
Entamoeba
histolytica

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HIV/ AIDS STI’S AND STD’S HIV AND AIDS
HIV - Is an abbreviation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus AIDS - Acquired immune deficiency syndrome.
HIV and AIDS are often thought of as two separate diseases but they are not. AIDS is a disease but HIV is the
virus that can cause it.
People who infected with HIV are said to be HIV [+]. Blood contain white blood cell [lymphocytes] some of
it called T-helper cell. So when illness came can‟t be thought off. This illness / infections are called
opportunistic infections. E.g. Pneumonia, TB, and malaria. Once more serious infections enter the body a
person is said to have AIDS. Although it is often said that person die of AIDS, they actually die of infections
that AIDS prevents them from fighting.

TRANSMISSION OF HIV
HIV is transmitted via body fluids such as blood, breast milk, vaginal secretions, sweat, saliva, tears.
The most common ways of HIV transmission are:
1. Sexual intercourse with an infected person
2. Blood transfusion from an infected donor
3. Organ transplants from an infected donor
4. An infected mother to her child during pregnancy, birth or breast feeding
5. Using unsterilized surgical or skin piercing instruments, such as scalpels, needles and circumcision
blades that have been used on an affected person
6. Sharing toothbrushes, shaving blades or nail cutter with infected person.
NOTE: HIV is not spread by casual contact such as hugging, shaking hands, or touching unless both people
have bleeding wounds.

SYMPTOMS OF HIV/ AIDS

1. Loss of body weight by over 5kg two months
2. Persistent fever that lasts for longer than month
3. Painless flat hard lumps growing on the skin
4. Diarrhea for longer than a month
5. Rashes on the skin
6. White layer in the mouth and throat
7. Swollen glands, especially in the neck and armpits
8. Coughing for more than one month
9. Shortness of breath gradually getting worse
10. Genital rashes

EFFECTS OF HIV AND AIDS

People with HIV and AIDS get opportunistic infections and disease, for example: -
1. Chest infections e.g. pneumonia, TB
2. Brain infections leading to mental confusion, severe headache and feet
3. Stomach or gut infections leading to severe diarrhea
4. Skin cancer i.e. Kaposi sarcoma

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF HIV/ AIDS

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1. Avoid promiscuous sex partner prostitutes, commercial sex workers (avoid irresponsible sexual
behavior abstain from sexual intercourse (if not marriage) be faithful to one sexual partner, use condom
during sexual intercourse
2. Wear disposable gloves when touching peoples' body fluid
3. Use sterilized instruments during surgery, circumcision and delivery
4. Only screened blood and organs should be used for transfusion and transplants
5. Go for HIV test in order to know your status and health
6. Do not share tooth brushes and shaving blades
7. People with HIV and AIDS should be given Anti—retro viral drugs (ARVS) which help them to slow
down infections.
8. Pregnant women should attend pre natal clinic where they can be treated to prevent mother to child
transmission
9. HIV positive mothers should not breast feed their new born babies

RISKY SITUATION, BEHAVIOUR AND PRACTICES

These are activities and situation that put us at greater risk of being infected with STIS, STDS and HIV these
include: -
a. Transfusion using unscreened blood
b. Drinking alcohol, smoking using other drugs such as bangi, heroin and cocaine
c. Having immoral friends who influence to use drug abuse, engage in sex earlier
d. Having many sexual partners having unprotected sex
e. Sharing sharp object and toothbrushes.

HOW TO AVOID RISKY PRACTICES BEHAVIOUR AND SITUATION

a. Abstain from sex before marriage.
b. Be faithful to one sexual partner.
c. Do not share sharp object.
d. Avoid drug abuse, learn to resist peer pressure.
e. Do not accept gifts or favors from members opposite sex
f. Avoid staying in dark privacy area during night alone
g. Avoid risk place e.g. bars, night club, casino

CARE AND SUPPORT FOR PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV AND AIDS (PLWHA)
People with HIV and AIDS can live health life for a long time if they get proper care and support we can care
for them and supported them in the following ways:
a. Give them well balanced meals in adequate quantities.
b. Allow them to rest when they feel unwell.
c. Taking them to a health center as soon as they start developing signs of illness.
d. Provide them with ARVS, allow them to work.
e. Behaving in a loving way towards them and listen them.
f. Counseling them to stop behavior that worsen
g. Not discriminating against them or stigmatizing

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h. Hiding them from the public, denying them education or health centers
i. Chasing them away from home
j. Refuse to share utensils or rooms with them
k. Care and support gives People Living With HIV and AIDS (PLWHA) hope, good health piece of
mind, long life strength to work and comfort.

IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH CARE FOR STIS, STDS AND OPPORTUNISTIC DISEASES

a. Discrimination leads to depression, loneliness, loss of performance at work and school.
b. Early testing and treatment will help to treat or slow down the development of the infection or disease
in its early stage
c. Proper treatment can save life and prevent long term effects such as infertility
d. Healthcare professionals can give appropriate counseling on how to manage the infections
e. Testing gives peace of mind
f. Proper health care reduces the chance of infecting other people.

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 4. CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
The Cell is a basic unit of life.
- All living things are composed of cells which carry out the process that make the organism lives entity.
- All cells are basically the same in chemical composition. All life processes take place in the cells.
- Some organisms are made up of many cells and are called multicellular organisms e.g. man pine tree, locust.
- Others have one cell e.g. Amoeba, they are called unicellular organisms.
- All cells are microscopic, its membrane bound it has structures that are site for chemical reaction called
organism.
- They have ability to replicate, since they contain the genetic materials. So these are characteristics of cell.
TYPES OF CELLS
There are two basic types of cells
• Prokaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells are found in organisms which do not have membrane bound organelles, they do not have
nucleus. Prokaryotes are mostly single celled organisms such as bacteria and blue green bacteria.
Eukaryotic cells are cells which have a membrane bound nucleus. They contain specialized membrane bound
organelles Eukaryotic cells can be found in a single celled organism such as Amoeba or they can be found in
multicellular organisms.
ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS
Both animals and plants differ in structure and function in order to be able to meet the requirements of each
organism.
PLANT CELL

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FUNCTION OF THE PARTS OF ANIMAL CELL
1. CELL MEMBRANE
• Is also known as plasma membrane or plasma lemma.
• Is thin layer that encloses the whole cell
Function of cell membrane
• Communicate with other cells.
• It allows selective movement of substances into and out of the cell. It is said to be a selectively
permeable membrane or differential membrane
• It encloses the contents of the cell.

2. CYTOPLASM
This is jelly- like substance made up of water and dissolved chemical substances. The cytoplasm is the site for
many chemical reactions in the cell. Cell organelles such as the vacuoles, nucleus and mitochondria are
suspended in the cytoplasm. The movement of cytoplasm is known as cytoplasmic stream.
3. NUCLEUS
This is a round or oval organelle suspended in the cytoplasm. The nucleus is made up of nucleolus and fluid
called nucleoplasm. It is surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear membrane.
Functions of nucleus
• To determine the chemical processes that takes place in the cell.
• To control the functions of all parts of the cell
• To determine the cell size, shape and function
• To determine the hereditary characteristic of a cell
4. MITOCHONDRION
The function of mitochondrion is the site for respiration reactions which yield energy for the cell.

FUNCTION OF THE PARTS OF PLANT CELL

a) CELL WALL
• This is a strong covering made of cellulose.
• The cell wall is fully permeable. It allows the passage of water and minerals, gases (freely permeable).
• Protects and gives the cell a definite shape
b) CHLOROPLAST
• They are sites of photosynthesis
• It contains green pigment called chlorophyll.
• Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy needed for photosynthesis
c) VACUOLE
Vacuoles maintain a balance between water molecules and solute molecules in the cell: contain color
pigments, which give color to flower.
The fluid inside vacuole is known as cell sap.

d) MITOCHONDRIA
The function of mitochondria is the site for respiration reactions which yield energy for the cell.

e) NUCLEUS
This is a round or oval organelle suspended in the cytoplasm. The nucleus is made up of nucleolus and fluid
called nucleoplasm. It‟s surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear membrane.

f) CYTOPLASM

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This is jelly like substance made up of water and dissolved chemical substances. The cytoplasm is the site for
many chemical reactions in the cell. Cell organelles such as the vacuoles, nucleus and mitochondria are
suspended in the cytoplasm. The movement of cytoplasm is known as cytoplasmic stream.

g) RIBOSOMES
This is the site of protein synthesis.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL
• Both have cell membrane.
• Both have cytoplasm.
• Both have nucleus.
• Both have vacuoles, ribosomes and mitochondria.
Differences between plant cell and animal cell
Plant cell Animal cell
Has a cell wall No cell wall
Has chloroplast Lacks chloroplast
Have definite shape Have no definite shape
Has a large permanent vacuole Has small temporary vacuole
They are normally large They are usually smaller
They store oil. proteins, starch They store fats and glycogen

CELL DIFFERENTIATION
• Cells have different functions and features that make them better suited to carry out these functions.
This is called cell differentiation.
• Most living things are made up of many structurally and physiologically adapted different kinds of
cells.
• These cells perform specific function and this is referred to as cell specialization.
• Cell differentiation refers to the way cells are adapted so that they can carry out function efficiently.

TISSUE
A tissue is a group of similar cells performing the same function. Basically there are two types of tissue.
Animal tissue e.g. epithelial tissue, muscular tissue, blood tissue, nerve tissue, skin tissue.
Plant tissue e.g. meristematic tissue, parenchyma tissue, collenchyma tissue, vascular tissue(xylem tissue,
phloem tissue).

ORGAN
An organ is a functional unit formed by a group of specialized tissue.
Animal organ: - heart, kidney, liver, brain, tang, stomach
Plant organ: - roots, leavers, flower, stem

SYSTEM
System is made up of organs that work together to perform a certain function.
Examples of system are Respiratory system, digestive system, reproductive system, hormonal system, skeletal
system and blood circulatory system, nervous system.

ORGANISM
An organism is the individual living organism e.g. Animal and Plant.

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An organism is made up of different systems working together therefore there is special Tissue
Organization from the cell —► tissue —► organ —► system —► Organism

Importance of cell differentiation

Cell differentiations leads to division of labour.
Division of labour means each cell does a specific function. This helps the body to carry out all life processes
at the same time and more efficiently.
To achieve this, cells must become specialized to carry out special functions.
* Study more about specialized cell for different function e.g.
White blood cell (WBC) can change their shape to engulf and destroy harmful pathogen.
Red blood cell (RBC) for transporting oxygen (they are biconcave and lack nucleus)
Sperm cell - Fertilizes the female egg (have tails for swim pointed head for easy penetration)
Root hair cells - for absorb water and mineral salts (have extended portion helps to increase surface area for
absorption)
Guard cell - control open and close of stomach (the inner wall is thinker than outer)
Palisade cell - makes it to expand irregularly

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 5. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
Classification is a grouping of organisms based on their similarities and differences organisms that are similar
are placed in one group. These similarities could be in terms of ancestry structure or the way they carry out
life processes such as feeding and reproduction.
Classification is a branch of biology that deals with the grouping of living organisms according to their
structure, way of life and origin.
TAXONOMY
It is a branch of biology that deals with classifying organisms.
TAXONOMIST
A person (biologist) who studies about classification.
TAXON
Is any named established group in the ranks of classification.

IMPORTANCE OF CLASSIFYING LIVINGTHINGS

• There are millions of livings things in the world, grouping them make it easy to study and identify
them.
• Scientific names enable scientist to identify organisms easily, no matter which part of the world they
are in.
• It easier to study organisms in a group, because the members of a group have many things in common.
• Classification enables scientists to make predictions.
• It provides an organized system in which newly identified similar organism can be fitted in future
• It helps man arrange the information about living organisms in an orderly manner to avoid confusion.
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
There are two main types of biological classification namely: -
1. Artificial classification
2. Natural classification
ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION
Artificial classification system is grouping of organism according to observable features.
For example presence of legs or wings based on bees, birds and bats would be grouped together because they
have wings. Snakes, earth worm and snails would also be grouped together because they do not have legs.
Artificial classification also involves classifying organisms according to their size how they move, where they
live or what they eat.
Advantage of artificial classification
a) It straight forward and easy to use
b) It can be done very fast
c) Artificial classification is less costly than natural.
Disadvantage of artificial classification
-Some organisms that are dissimilar in their internal make up are grouped together because of the resemblance
of their external features.
-Some similar organisms are put in different groups because they do not have a lot of physical remembrance.
-It is less accurate because it uses only few observable characteristics.
-Artificial classification depends a lot on what the scientist is interested in therefore it varies from person to
person.
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION
In this system classification is based on evolutionary relationship and presence of large number of common
and similar characteristics feature that show homology and analogy structure.

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Homologous structures: Are the structure haring the same origin but perform different function. E.g.,
Forelimbs of whale and forelimbs of man.
Analogous structure: Are structure having different origin but perform the same function. E.g., Wings of
birds and wings of insect
Advantage of natural classification
a) It gives a lot of information of living things
b) It is most accurate
c) It is universal
d) It avoids confusion
Disadvantage of natural classification
1. It requires a lot of time
2. It needs high skills
3. It is difficult to classify
4. It is expensive
5. It is not stable.
Difference between artificial and natural classification
a) Artificial is not accurate and natural is most accurate
b) Artificial is cheap while natural is expensive
c) Artificial classify living organism according to the external features while natural classification
classify living organism according to the internal features.
d) Artificial does not require scientific skills while natural classification requires scientific skills and
knowledge.
MAJOR GROUP OF LIVING ORGANISM
There are five major groups of living organism
1. Kingdom animalia e.g. Cow, cockroach
2. Kingdom plantae e.g. Maize tree, peas
3. Kingdom monera e.g. Bacteria
4. Kingdom protoctista e.g. Amoeba
5. Kingdom Fungi e.g. yeast
RANKS OF CLASSIFICATION
a. Kingdom
b. Phylum or Division
c. Class
d. Order
e. Family
f. Genus
-Kingdom has a greatest variety of organism
-At kingdom level, organism shows few features in common as you move down the rank each unit has lesser
and lesser organisms and the members of each unit have more and more features in common.
At the species level organisms are least varied but share more features. Members of the same species can
interbreed and produce viable off spring that can turn reproduce. But organisms from different species do not
usually interbreed different species. Do not interbreed because of differences in genetic makeup, physical
features, size and geographical location. However these are few exceptions to this rule. Dogs and Wolves can
interbreed to produce viable offspring.
In table below some few common organisms have been classified from kingdom to species level. This should
guide you in classifying other organisms.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOME COMMON ORGANISM

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TAXONOMY HUMAN EUCALYPTUS
DOG MAIZE PLANT
UNIT BEING TREE
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Plantae
Phylum or division Chordata Chordata Spermatophyta Magnoliophyta
Class Mammalia Mammalia Argiospermae Magnoliopsida
Order Enirate Carnivore Graminales Myrtalesa
Family Hominidae Canidae Graminales Myrtaceae
Genus Homo Canis Zea Eucalyptus
Species Sapiens Familiars Mays Regnans
Canis
Scientific name Homo sapiens Zeamays Eurcalyptus regnans
familiaris
KINGDOM
For example human being and donkey
Kingdom Animalia is subdivided into phyla or phylum in singular
Kingdom plantae subdivided into division, The phyla or division are further subdivided into class, each
classes is subdivided into orders every order is subdivided into families and families are subdivided into
genera (genus in singular)
A genus is subdivided into species. Kingdom, phylum, divisions, classes, orders, families, genera and species
are ranks of classification and are called units or taxa.
The following flow chart shows how kingdom plantae and kingdom Animalia are subdivided

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature is a system of naming organism where by every name is made up of two Latin words.
This system was divided into two parts
The first part of the name represents the genus it is also called the genetic name.
The second part of the name represents the species it is also called the specific names
For example: The specific name of human being is Homo sapiens. Homo is generic name and sapiens is the
specific name. The following rules are observed when writing scientific names.
1. The generic name is written before the specific name
2. The generic name must start with capital letter.

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3. The specific name is written in small letter
4. In publisher document such as books scientific name is written in italics e.g., Zea mays and Homo
sapiens when hand written or typed the names should be underlined.
SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF SOME COMMON ORGANISMS
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME
Coconut plant Cocos nucifera
Mango tree Mangifera Indica
Garlic plant Allium sativum
Pea plant Pi sum sativum
Domestic cat Felis catus
Housefly Musca domestica
Lion Panthera leo
Donkey Equus asinus

VIRUSES
A virus is an extremely small microorganism.
It is smaller than a living cell. A virus is not a cell the study of viruses is called virology
Different types of viruses:

STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES
A virus has a very simple structure consisting of genetic material with a protein shell. The protein shell is
called a capsid. Viruses do not have a nucleus or complex membrane cell organelles. Some viruses have viral
envelopes.

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There are membranes enclosing the host cell.
Viruses cannot reproduce its own. It must attack a host cell and uses the material in that cell to reproduce.
This is called oblige parasitism.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES
a) Viruses do not grow, feed, excrete or respire. Viruses exist in a dormant state when outside a host cell.
They show no signs of life; they can stay that way for months or even years.
b) A virus particle outside a host cell is called a virion. The virion attacks and cause diseases.
c) Viruses are host specific, this means that a certain type of virus only attacks a certain host for example.
The viruses affect only certain type of white blood cell in human being.
Advantages of viruses
-Virus is important in the study of cellular and molecular biology. They are used by scientist to manipulate
and investigate the function of cell.
-Some viruses are used to make vaccine. For example, the first vaccine against small pox was a small dose of
virus that causes cow pox, which is milder infection. On recovering from cow pox, the body had antibodies
that could resist both cow pox and small pox.
-Bacteria phages are viruses that attack bacteria they help in attacking bacterial infections and diseases.
Disadvantage of virus
1. Viruses are pathogens, they cause disease and infections such as rabies, muscles, chickenpox and polio
also they destroy living cell.
2. They can reproduce very fast, leading to large scale epidemics.
3. Viruses can attach themselves often and this become difficult to destroy for example there are many
different types of viruses that cause the common cold and influenza. This makes it difficult to develop
vaccines or cures for these infections.
KINGDOM MONERA
This kingdom monera consists of bacteria and blue green bacteria. The scientific study of bacteria is called
bacteriology.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA
→ They are prokaryotic.
→ They are unicellular, some bacteria stick together to form chain or clusters called colonies.
→ Some are free - living while others are parasites or saprophytes. Free living bacteria are those which
exist on their own for example in sewage or soil. Parasitic bacteria are those which live on other organism and
get their food from them for example in human beings and animals.
Saprophytes bacteria grow and get their food from died organic matter.
→ Free living bacteria have flagella for movement.
→ Bacteria have a slimy outer layer. This layer helps to protect the bacteria
→ They produce either asexually by binary fission or through spores or sexually through conjugation.

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 .
A bacterium consists of nucleic materials suspended in the cytoplasm, (no nucleus)
The cytoplasm is enclosed by fold cell membrane: a cell wall and slim layer enclose the cell membrane.

Basic structure of bacteria

Pathogenic bacteria
These are bacteria that can cause disease; some of the diseases caused by bacteria are fire blight, ring rot and
tobacco mosaic in plant and TB, typhoid, tetanus, cholera, syphilis and gonorrhea in animals.
Fimbriae or pili

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These are hair like structure found on the surface of the bacteria. The hairs attach themselves to the host to
that they cannot be removed easily for example. Escherichia coli produce fimbria that attaches themselves the
living of the urinary track or the intestines.

FLAGELLA
These are long tail like structures that help some pathogenic bacteria to move to a site where they can services
TOXINS
Some bacteria produce toxin (poisonous) compound that harm hosts. In human these toxins cause effects such
as vomiting diarrhea, fever and muscle cramps for instance, toxins released by salmonella bacteria can cause
severe diarrhea.
Invasion and colonization
Some bacteria attack themselves and become resistant to modes of treatment for examples, the bacterium they
causes tuberculosis has become resistant to many antibiotics by transforming itself.
RESISTANCES
Some types of bacteria release a substance known as bio film that protects them from harmfully substances
such as drugs.
NON-PATHOGENIC BACTERIA
Those are bacteria that are harmless even when they are on a plant or animal body.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NON- PATHOGENIC BACTERIA

1. Some non - pathogenic bacteria feed on substance that are harmfully to the environment and in the
process neutralize them, for example, they neutralize petroleum waste from petroleum industries, disease and
pesticide there by making the environment safe.
2. Bacteria such as rhizobium that are formed in the root nodules of leguminous plants, clostridium and
Azobacter help to convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates, plant need nitrate for their growth.
3. Bacteria in the stomach of ruminant animals such as goats and cows secret enzyme that help in the
digestion of cellulose which forms a large part of the body of ruminant.
4. Bacteria in the animal gut manufacture vitamins K and B
5. Lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid as a result of fermentation of carbohydrates. This is important
in the production of fermented food and alcoholic drinks.
6. Autotrophic bacteria carry out photosynthesis.

ADVANTAGE OF KINGDOM MONERA

1. Bacteria that neutralize harmfully substance help clean the environment.
2. Bacteria found in the gut help animals to digest food and break it down into a form that can be
absorbed into the body.
3. Vitamins produced by bacteria are important for the health of animals include man.
4. Fermentation is used in the production of yoghurt, vinegar and alcohol.
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5. Controlled fermentation is used in the curing tea and tobacco and retting of flax, help to treat and
preserve these products Retting of flax is important in the production of fibre
6. Some bacteria are used to produce antibiotics which are used to treat bacterial infections.
7. During photosynthesis autotrophic bacteria release oxygen into the atmosphere, oxygen in vital for the
respiration in all living things.
DISADVANTAGE OF KINGDOM MONERA
1. Bacteria cause infection and disease in animal some of these are fatal.
2. A bacteria disease in crop cause decrease production and losses to farmers.
3. Bacteria cause food to decay and spoil
4. Due to Denitrifying bacteria in the soil convert nitrates to nitrogen. This reduces the nutrients available
of plants.

CHARACTERISTIC OF KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA

1. They are eukaryotic.
2. Most are unicellular organisms. Only a few are multicellular.
3. Most live in or near water or in moist places.
4. Some are autotrophic (produce their own food) while others are heterotrophic (obtain nutrients from
other organisms)
5. Some are mobile while others are stationery.
6. Some reproduce sexually and other asexually.
7. Many of them have locomotory structures such as cilia and flagella.

PHYLA OF THE KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA

The following table shows some of the phyla of kingdom protoctista.
Phylum Example
Rhizopoda Amoebozoa Amoeba
Apicomplexa Plasmodium
Euglenophyta Euglena
Ciliophera Paramecium
Zoomastigina Tryponasoma

AMOEBA
Amoeba is free living, unicellular organisms, are found at the bottom of ponds and lichen.
CH ARACTERISTICS OF AMOEBA
1. Amoeba has two layers of cytoplasm the outer layer called ectoplasm and the inner layer is called
endoplasm. Endoplasm is more fluid and contains granulose and vacuoles.
2. Amoeba is aquatic. They can be found in fresh water.
3. They use pseudopodia (cell extensions) for locomotion and to engulf food particles.
4. Contractile vacuoles regulate the amount of water in the fresh water amoeba.
5. A temporally food vacuole is formed to hold and digest food particles.
6. Waste products such as urea and ammonia are excreted by simple diffusion.
7. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged by simple diffusion.
8. Amoeba reproduce by binary fission

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Advantage of Amoeba
Amoeba is commonly used in laboratories to study cell structure and function.
Disadvantage of Amoeba
Amoeba can cause diseases for example Entamoeba histolytica cause amoeba dysentery‟ in human.

PLASMODIUM
Plasmodium is the parasite that can cause malaria in human being.
Plasmodium is transmitted by anopheles mosquito and sand flies (vectors) and the mammalian, birds and
reptiles are hosts.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASMODIUM
→ They are unicellular.
→ They are parasitic, with very complex life cycles involving the host and the vector
→ They produce sexually in the vector and asexually when a plasmodium enters the human body. It
attacks the red blood cells and the liver.

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Effect of plasmodium
Plasmodium parasites cause malaria, can lead to inflammation of the spleen, miscarriage and anemia due to
the destruction of the red blood cells. Severe malaria causes death.

EUGLENA
Euglena are characterized by the green scum that appears on stagnant water

CHARACTERISTICS OF EUGLENA
1. They are unicellular.
2. They are found on both fresh water and salt water
3. Euglena move using flagella.
4. Some have chloroplasts for photosynthesis while others are heterotrophs.
5. They reproduce asexually
6. Some euglena have pellicle, the pellicle is flexible layer within the cell membrane. The pellicle helps
euglena to change shape.

ADVANTAGE OF EUGLENA
Euglena is used to treat sewage because of their unique capacity to change from being autotrophic when the
euglena photosynthesis produce oxygen when they are heterotrophic they use oxygen. This help to keep
oxygen levels balanced in sewage treatment plant.
Euglena called phytoplankton are important source of good for many types of aquatic micro - organism.
Phytoplankton they produce large quantities of oxygen during photosynthesis.
DISADVANTAGE OF EUGLENA
Euglena blooms can be harmful to fish these are sudden increase in the number of microorganisms in the
water.
PARAMECIUM
Characteristics of paramecium
1. They are unicellular and shipper - shaped.

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2. Paramecia are heterotrophic.
3. They live in water
4. They use cilia to move
5. Their bodies are covered with a pellicle
6. Food enters the organism through an open called the oval groove.
7. Paramecia feed on bacteria and microorganisms.
8. They reproduce either sexually or asexually
9. Contractile vacuoles regulated the amount of water in the cytoplasm.

Advantage of paramecia
-Paramecia are eaten by small water animals
Disadvantage of paramecia
-Balantidium coli are a type of paramecia that cause disease.
It invades and destroys the living things intestine, causing diseases called balantidiasis

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 6. CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

KINGDOM FUNGI
Member of the kingdom fungi include fairly familiar organism. Such as Mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs and
bracket fungi.
There are also less obvious but very important members such as Mould which grow on bread, ripe fruits and
other foods.
Characteristics of fungi:
Fungi are found in damp or wet places.
1. They have Eukaryotic cells with a rigid protected cell wall made of chitin (chitin contain polysaccharides
and protein).
2. The body of fungi is organized into thread like structure called hyphae (singular hypha). A network mass
of hyphae is called mycelium.
3. Fungi have no chlorophyll also they do not photosynthesize, their mode of feeding is heterotrophic, in this
way some are saprophytic while others are parasitic.
4. They store food as glycogen
5. Fungi reproduce asexually by using spores.
PHYLUM IN KINGDOM FUNGI
There are three main phyla in kingdom fungi. These are;
1. Ascomycota
2. Zygomycota
3. Basidiomycota
1. Phylum Basidiomycota
Basidiomycota are characterized by the production of basidia.
These are microscopic of club shaped cell in which maturation of spore called (basidiospore) take place.
Nature spore are prepared then are dispersed. Examples of Basidiomycota are mushrooms, toadstool, puffballs
and bracket fungi
STRUCTURE OF MUSHROOM
1. Mushrooms grow on dead and decaying matter (saprophytes)
2. They produce enzymes on the surface of their mycellium which help them to break down complex food
particles.
3. The pileus is the cap of the mushroom on the under ride of the pileus are special hyphae called gills.
4. The gills produce basidiospores at their tips.
5. The stalk (or stem like part) of the mushroom is called stipe.
6. The part of the mushroom that is above the soil called the fruiting body.
7. Hyphae lie in or on substrate (the source of food).

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ADVANTAGE OF KINGDOM FUNGI
1. Saprophytic fungi are important in the decomposition of dead organism.
2. Yeast is used to ferment various types of carbohydrates in order to produce alcohol.
3. Some types of fungi for example mushroom are used as food.
4. Fungi are widely used in genetic engineering and research.
5. Yeast is a rich source of vitamin B and protein.
6. Some types of fungi are used in the production of antibiotics for example Penicillium
7. Yeast cells are used in the production of lactic acid and citric acid.
8. Fungi have been used to control pest that cause damage and disease to agricultural crops.
9. Some types of fungi are used in the dairy industry to flavor cheese.
DISADVANTAGE OF KINGDOM FUNGI
1. Parasitic fungi causes disease in plant and animal
2. Fungi produce poison called mycotoxins
3. Some fungi attack the timber used in building house and make furniture
4. Some fungi destroy food e.g. Bread mould
Phylum Ascomycota
Ascomycotes are also called sac fungi. They produce spores in sac like cells called asci. These spores are
called ascospores. Examples of ascomycotes are yeast, cup fungi, powdery mildew, penicillium and bread
mould

Penicillium

Characteristics of Ascomycotes
1. They are unicellular
2. Yeast can be found in plant leaves and flower, in salt water, in oil or warm blooded animals such as
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human beings.
3. Many types of yeast can ferment sugar to produce alcohol.
4. Some yeast is used in the production of beer, wine and bread. Other types of yeast cause disease.
5. They reproduce asexually by budding. Budding is where by a new organism develops as an outgrowth of
the parent‟s cell.

PHYLUM ZYGOMYCOTA (ZYGOMYCETES)

Zygomycota reproduce asexually through spores or sexually through formation of zygosporia.
These organisms are given this name because they produce zygosporangia during sexual reproduction.
Zygosporangia are thick walled structures that contain spores and are highly resistance to unsuitable
environmental condition. When condition improve the spores germinate example of zygomycotes are mould,
mucor and rhizoid.

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KINGDOM PLANTAE
This kingdom is made up of plants. Their general characteristics are:
1. They are multcellular.
2. Their cells are eukaryotic with cellulose cell wall.
3. Plants are autotrophic they photosynthesize to produce their own food.
4. They store food as starch.
5. They are organized into tissues, organs and systems.
6. They show limited movement for example opening and closing flower petals and growth movement
towards the stimulus.

DIVISION OF KINGDOM PLANTAE

The main 4 divisions of kingdom plantae are
a) Division Bryophyta
b) Division filicinophyta
c) Division coniferophyta
d) Division spermatophyta angiospermatophyta.
Division Bryophyta
Plants in this division include Mosses and liverworts.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIVISION BRYOPHYTA
a) They are generally small size, some mosses have only a few cells thick.
b) They have leaf- like thalamus and root - like rhizoids structure but not true leaves or roots.
c) They lack vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
d) Bryophytes are commonly found in the moist areas such as along the river banks and tress and rocks in
humid area.
e) They reproduce both sexually and asexually.
- They need water during sexual reproduction because the male reproductive cells can only reach
the female reproductive cells by swimming.
- Asexual reproduction is by means of spores.
f) They show alternation of generation. This means that they have two distinct phases in their life cycle.
The gamete- producing phase called gametophyte stage.
Gametes - are male or female reproductive cells.
The spore producing phase called sporophyte stage.
MOSSES
Moses consists of a stem- like structure bearing spirally arranged leaf like extensions. They are divided to the
substratum by rhizoids.

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The productive parts of mosses plants are the antheridium(male organ) and archegonium. (Female organ)
The antheridium and archegonium can be found on separate plants or on the same plant.
The antheridium releases mobile sperm. The sperm swim in water to reach and fertilize the egg in the
archegonium to form a zygote.
The zygote develops into a young sporophyte plant which grows while still attached to the archegonium. It
depends on the parent plant for nutrition and support
When it matures the sporophyte forms a capsule which contains spores. When the spores are mature the
capsule bursts open and they land produce new mosses plants (garnet ophytes)
ADVANTAGE OF MOSSES

1. Mosses help to decompose dead logs.

2. Mosses serve as pioneer plants on bare ground and help to create a suitable environment for the
growth and development of other plant.
3. Mosses retain a lot of water. They therefore help to keep the soil moist.
4. When mosses grow in a piece of land, they hold the soil particle together and help to prevent soil
erosion.
5. Mosses also provide shelter for insects and other small animals.
6. Some birds and mammals use mosses as nesting materials.
7. Sporangium moss is harvested used in plants nurseries as a plant growing medium.
8. Peat derived from the remains of mosses as an important fuel in Scotland and Ireland.
DISADVANTAGE OF MOSSES
1. Mosses occur as weeds in gardens and other places; they are very' difficult to get rid of.
2. Mosses growing around ponds and other small water bodies can grow on the water and cover. It
completely causing the area to become marshy
DIVISION FILICINOPHYTA (PTERIDOPHYTA)
This division is made up of ferns. A young fern‟s called a fiddle head

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Characteristics of fern
1 .They are vascular; they have xylem and phloem.
2. Ferns have leaves (called fronds), stem and root. Frond has small „leaflets‟ called pinnae singular
(pinna) which are connected to rachis. The rachis is the middle part of the frond. It has connected to the
rhizome which is the short stem at the basic.
3. The life cycle of fens involves alternation of generations.
4. The sperm swims to the female egg through water. Fertilization produce a zygote (fertilized egg). The
zygote grows into a new plant (sporangiosphore) that has leaves a steam and roots.
5. The fern plants has spore producing organs called sporangia (singular sporangium) on the underside of
the leaves. The sporangia are arranged in compact groups called sori (singular sorus).

Sori with spores

When the spore are mature the sporangia releases them into the air. A spore germinate in an environment that
is suitable for its development, what germinates is called a prothallus. Prothallus has antheridia and
archegonia while produce sperm and egg respectively

Fern Gametophyte
( Prothallus)

Advantages of ferns
1. Many types of ferns are grown as ornament in homes and offices.

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2. In some part of the world, the fiddlehead of some types of fern is eaten.
3. In southern Asia, ferns are used as a biological fertilizer. They are able to convert nitrogen from the air
into compound that can be used by rice plants.
4. Ferns are major components of coal, a fossil fuel which is made up of the remain of primitive plants
5. Ferns serve as food for various wild animals.
Disadvantage of ferns

Ferns can be found as weeds in many places. The giant water fern is one the world worst aquatic weeds.
Ferns don‟t reproduce with seeds so they don‟t spread as much as plants that produce seeds.

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 7. NUTRITION
Is the process by which an organism provides itself or is provides itself or is provided with materials
necessary for energy release, growth and repair of body tissues and keeping the body in a good condition.
FOOD
Is any liquid or solid which provides the body with materials for growth and repair, energy release or keeping
the body in a good (healthy) condition.
KINDS OR MODES OF NUTRITION
Basically there are two kinds of nutrition
(1) Autotrophic nutrition
(2) Heterotrophic nutrition

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is mode of nutrition where by organisms can make their own food from simple inorganic substance, such
as carbon dioxide and water using either light energy (photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis).
Organisms which feed by this way are known as AUTOTROPHS
Example
1. Green plants
2. Iron bacteria and sulphur bacteria

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is the mode of nutrition where by organisms use organic materials as the only source of food. Organisms
which feed by this way are known as HETEROTROPHS. They feed on already made food.
There are three types of heterotrophic nutrition
1. Saprophytic nutrition
2. Symbiotic nutrition
3. Holozoic nutrition

1. Saprophytic nutrition
This is the mode of nutrition where by organisms feed on dead decaying bodies parts of animals or their
excrete: Organisms feeding by' this way are known as SAPROPHYTES
2. Holozoic nutrition
This is mode of nutrition where by organism take food by mouth. It passes through a digestive system and
broken down, finally absorbed into body tissue.

FORMS OF HOUOZOIC NUTRITION

1. Herbivores - Are animals which feed on plants only Example cow. goat and zebra
2. Carnivores - Are animals which feed on flesh only e.g. lion, tiger
3. Omnivores — Are animals which feed on varieties o food (flesh, plants, insect etc) example. Man.
monkey. pig.
4. Insectivores — Are animals that feed on insects e.g. shrews, ant

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3. Symbiotic nutrition
This mode of nutrition in which an organism of different species exist in a nutrition relationship with other
organism)

There are three kinds of symbiotic associations

1. Mutualism
2. Commensalism
3. Parasitism

1. Mutualism
This is a nutritional relationship in which the two partners benefit each other by living together Example
Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria in the roots of legumes.
2. Commensalism
This is an association of two group where by the host does not get any partnership. Example Epiphytes (are
plants that gross' on other plants) e.g. Moses and algae which grow on upper parts of big trees to get sunlight
easily

3. Parasitism
This is a nutritional relationship between two organisms in which one organism live inside on other living
organism and depends on food. The parasite causes harm to the host. The host provides food and shelter for
the parasite
Endoparasites; are living inside the body of the host e.g. tapeworm, roundworm and plasmodia
Ectoparasites; Parasite that lives on host's surface [outside the body] examples includes some mites, flea and
body lice.
The importance of nutrition
 Nutrition enables an organism to get nutrients and energy required for various life processes. These
processes include growth and development of cells.
 To protect body against diseases
 Enable in replacement of worn out tissue and dead cell.

NUTRITION IN MAMMALS HUMAN NUTRITION FOOD SUBSTANCES

There are several types of substances that are needed by the human body for its proper functioning. The basic
food substances include proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, minerals, roughage and water

1. CARBOHYDRATES
These are compounds which contain the following elements
1. Carbon (C)
2. Hydrogen (H)
3. Oxygen(O)
Carbohydrates are also known as SACCHARIDES .There are three groups of saccharides
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides

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1. MONOSACCHARIDES
These are simplest forms (basic unit of carbohydrates) which are absorbed directly in the blood. These are
also known as REDUCING SUGARS. Their general formula is C6 H12 O6
Example of Monosaccharide
1) Glucose
Occurs freely in grapes, honey, tomato and germinating maize
2) Fructose
Occurs freely in all ripe sweet fruits E.g. banana, pineapple
3) Lactose
It is found in mammalian milk
(B) DISACCHARIDES
These are also known as NON - REDUCING SUGARS. They are found when two molecules of
monosaccharides condense and release molecules of water. Their general formula is
C11 H22O11.
Example of disaccharides
1) Maltose is formed when two molecules of glucose condense.
Glucose + glucose = maltose + water
2) Sucrose is formed by condensation of glucose and that of fructose.
Glucose + fructose = sucrose + water
3) Lactose is found by condensation of galactose molecule and glucose molecule
glucose + galactose = lactose + water
(C) POLYSACCHARDES
These are formed when several units of monosaccharides linked together.
Example of polysaccharides
1. Starch
Starch is stored in plant cell, in the muscles and liver of vertebrates as (glycogen) in exoskeleton of arthropods
and fungal cell as chitin
2. Cellulose
It forms the building material of the plant cell walls.
Source of Carbohydrates
Cereals - e.g. maize, rice, wheat
Sugar - e.g. honey, sugar cane, glucose, sweet fruits.
Function of Carbohydrates in the body
1. To preside the body with energy
2. Carbohydrates combine with proteins, glucose and lipids which are important components of cell
membrane.
Carbohydrate food

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2. PROTEINS
Proteins are compounds of carbon. Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. Some protein also contains sulphur and
phosphorus. Proteins are long chains of Amino acid formed through condensation.

Approximately there are twenty Amino acids that occur naturally. The human body makes ten of these amino
acids.
These are called NON - ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS. The other ten amino acids must be obtained from the
diet they are called ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS.
We get essential amino acids by eating food lich in protein. Food that contains all the essential amino acid is
called first class proteins, animal protein most fall in these group. Second class protein lack one or one more
essential amino acids, most plant proteins fall in this group
Functions of protein
• The body use proteins for tissue growth and repair such as healing of wounds and replacement of skin
and mucus membranes.
• Antibodies are made of proteins. Antibodies are important in offering immunity to the body
• Enzymes which help us to digest food are protein in nature. In addition hormones, the chemical
messengers in our bodies are also protein.
• They are alternative source of energy in the body

3. LIPIDS
Lipids are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are insoluble in water the mean form of dietary
lipids is fats and oil. Fats are solid at room temperature while oil is liquid at room temperature. Lipids are
made up fatty acid and glycerol. Fatty acid can be essential or non - essential. The body can make non
essential tatty acids; it is not able to produce essential fatty acids. We therefore need to eat foods that contain
essential fatty acid. Examples of such food are oil fish, nuts oil seed (such as sunflower seeds, maize,
avocados and olives

Functions of lipids
1. Lipids are source of energy: they produce energy more than all foods substances.
2. They are important component of cell membrane.
3. Fat deposits protect delicate organs such as heart and kidney
4. Stores of fat under the skin help to insulate the body against loss of heat.
5. Essential fatty acids are important for the formation of substances that help to control blood pressure.

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 SIGN OF
VITAMIN SOURCE
DEFICIENCY
FUNCTION

4. ROUGHAGE
This dietary fiber that is obtained from indigestive part of plants: Roughage does not have any nutrition at
value as it is not digested and absorbed in the body. However it helps in the passage of food and feces through
the gut by avoiding contraction of the gut muscle.
Source of roughage: Whole grown cereals, fruits, beans, cabbage, spinach, cassava and whole baked potatoes.

5. WATER
Water does not provide energy to body the but there are several ways through which it is important
(i) lit used in the digestion and absorption of food
(ii) It is a medium of transport for food and harmonies
(iii) It acts as lubricants e.g. eyeball eyelids.
(iv) It helps in excretion of harmful byproduct of metabolic process e.g. urine, sweat.
(v) It helps in regulation of heat loss (evaporation of sweat on body surface causes the body to cool)
(vi) It is used in the manufacture of different secretions e.g. tears, saliva.
Water can be replaced in the body through
a) Direct drinking

b) Eating foods and fruits

6. VITAMINS
Vitamins are complex organic micro nutrient that is essential for growth and survival. Lack of vitamins in the
body leads to deficiency disease. Vitamins can be grouped into two categories water- salable and fat soluble
vitamins.
Fat soluble vitamin can be store in the body and need not be consumed daily. Vitamin A, D, E and K are
example of fat soluble vitamins.
Water - soluble vitamins are not stored in the body. Therefore they should be consumed. Vitamins B and C
are water - soluble. Vitamins B is named of various forms, namely vitamin B1 B2, B6 and B12
Source, functions and deficiency of vitamins

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 Essential for the
Liver, milk, carrots, formation of Night blindness,
Vitamin A
orange, and yellow membrane of the eves increased risk of
(retinol) vegetable infection.
and the respiratory
tract Beriberi, a diseases
Lean meat, liver, Carbohydrate characterized by loss
VitaminB1
eggs, yeast extract metabolism. of appetite, muscle
(thiamine) and brown rice Coordinate of muscle cramps disorder and
heart failure.
Needed for Severe and cracking
VitaminB2 Liver, meat, whole, metabolism of all lips comer of the
(riboflavin) grain cereals, yeast food and release of mouth.
extract. energy to cell
Pellagra a disease
Nuts, fish, meat, Needed by enzyme to characterized by skin
Vitamin B3
yeast, extract convert food into lesions, loss of
(niacin) unpolished rice. energy appetite and muscle
weakness
meat, vegetables, Nerve irritability
Vitamin B6 yeast, extracts, whole Essential in protein sores in the mouth,
(doxine) grown cereals metabolism eves and anemia
Vitamin B12 Builds generic
Fish, meat, eggs, milk material, helps to Anemia nerve damage
(yanocobalami and lever. weights loss.
form bloods cells
n)
Antioxidant improves Muscle weakness,
Citrus fruits, fresh absorption of iron ease bruising, joint
Vitamin C pains, scurvy
green vegetables and used in synthesis of
(ascorbic acid) (bleeding gums), poor
tomatoes. collagen in the bones
and gums. healing of wounds
and frequent infection
Helps to build and Rickets in children,
Egg yolk, milk oily, maintain teeth and osteoporosis (soft
Vitamin D
fish and liver bones bones) in adult
Corn of sunflower oil. Antioxidant prevents
butter, brown, rice damage of all Nerve abnormalities
Vitamin E
and peanuts membranes infertility in rats.
Detective blood
Green vegetables and Needed for normal
Vitamin K coagulation resulting
liver clothing
in excessive bleeding
7. MINERALS
Certain mineral elements are vital for the proper functioning of the body. Some are required in relatively large
quantities and are therefore called macro minerals Others are required in very small quantity are referred to as
micro minerals or trace element.
The following are example of minerals, their sources and their functions in the body,
a) Macro mineral

DEFICIENCY
MINERALS SOURCE FUNCTION SYMPTOMS

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 Helps build strong bones
Milk, yoghurt, cheese, and teeth, promote muscle Weak bones,
Calcium
sardines, egg. green vegetable and nerve functions, and bleeding easily
important in clotting of
blood.

Builds bones and teeth, help Impaired nerve

phosphorus Meat. milk. fish, eggs and nuts muscle and nerve activity, activity bone and
aids formation of genetic teeth formation
materials
Help maintaining regular
Peanut, bananas, orange juice, fluid balance needed for Poor muscle
potassium
green beans and meat. nerve and muscle contraction

Essential formulating
Liver, meat, beans and green
Iron hemoglobin [the red anemia
vegetables
pigment in blood)
Activates enzymes, helps to Impaired teeth,
Oysters, shrimp, crab, meat, heal wounds necessary for a poor immune
Zinc
yeast extracts health‟s' immune system response, skin
problems
Sodium Table salt Necessary for nerve and Muscle cramps
muscle activity
Maintenance of water and
ionic balance, formation of Poor digestion of
Chlorine Table salt hydrochloric acid in the proteins
stomach
Spinach, pumpkin seeds, Relaxation of nerves and Muscle weakness,
sesame seeds and black beans muscle strengthening of irregular heartbeat
magnesium
bones and weaker bones

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b)Micro minerals

Production of thyroid Goiter (enlarged thyroid

hormone which regulate gland)
Iodmated table salt
Iodine growth, development of
and sea food
bones and teeth. helps
prevent tooth decay
Development of bones and Poor development of
Fluorinated water
Fluoride teeth, helps prevent tooth bones and teeth. tooth
and fluoride tables
decay decay
Nausea, dizziness, loss of
Kidneys, liver, tea. Formation of bones and
manganese heating loss of bone mass
coffee nuts and fruit activation of enzymes

Synthesis of bones and Bleeding under skin, easy

Copper Meat. fish, and river hemoglobin, activation of rupturing of blood vessel,
enzymes bones and joint problems,
anemia

A BALANCE DIET
A balanced diet refers to food containing all types of food nutrients in the connect proportion. We should eat a
diet low in tats, sugar and salt but high in proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and roughage, more
importantly see should take in large amounts of water.
However, it is recommended that see eat more fish, poultry products and legumes (such as pea. beans and
peanuts) Instead of taking red meat as protein sources.

The following should be done in order to maintain a healthy body.

1. Physical activity can preserve and improve your health. Therefore, it is important to balance your food
intake and exercise.
2. Minimize your intake of fats and oils by eating foods low in fats, sugars and salts. This will reduce your
risk of heart attacks, tooth decay' and high blood pressure respectively
3. Include plenty of grains, fruits, and vegetables in your diet.
4. Eating a variety of food will provide the body with energy and nutrients that is required in maintaining
proper health.
Nutritional requirements for different groups of people
Nutritional requirement differ for different groups of people. The ratio of nutrients varies depending state of
the body.
The following are some groups of people and the special nutritional needs
1. Expectant and lactating mothers.
Expectant and lactating (breast feeding) mother need to get enough nutrients.
They should thus eat a balanced diet because they require nutrients for themselves and the grossing fetus or
babies.
Protein is needed for the build - up of the mother muscles, breast, uterus, blood supply and the baby or fetus
tissue and organs.
Folic acid and vitamin B help to lower the risk of birth defects such as spina bifida Spina bifida is a spinal
disorder characterized by a hole in the spine

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It results from incomplete formation of the spinal cord and the bones of spine. Often the spine protrudes
through the hole and sometimes a fluid filled sac may surround the protruding spinal cord

Calcium helps in the development of the foetus or baby's bones, if the mothers' diet does not contain adequate
calcium) it is derived from her bones for the foetus or baby. This weakens the mother bones
Zinc is important for the proper progression of labour and proper growth and development of the baby.
The mother to be requires iron for her blood supply need, the foetus also needs to store iron for use during the
first test' months after birth.
Expectant mother requires adequate amounts of dietary fiber to reduce the likelihood constipation, which is a
common complaints during pregnancy.
2. Children
Children require enough proteins for the growth and development of body tissues. Inadequate of proteins can
lead to stunted growth.
Minerals like calcium are necessary for the formation of strong bones and teeth. Zinc is important for body
growth. The zinc resources in the body can be depleted by' vigorous physical exercise
Vitamin B12 required for the formation of red blood cells. Because a growing baby needs more oxygen and
more blood) for growth while vitamin C helps children to build their immunity.
Children also require more energy - giving foods because they are active than adult.
3. Adolescent
a) Need food rich in carbohydrates because of high body metabolism
b) Food itch in protein and mineral salt such as calcium, iron and phosphorus
c) Adolescent girl require additional supply of iron to compensate for the blood loss during menstruation
4. The elderly.
Elderly people require less energy - giving foods because they are generally less active than young people.
This group should eat food that is rich in fiber in order to reduce constipation and bowel problems that come
with age.

They also need minerals such as iron, zinc and calcium. Iron is necessary because anemia is a frequent
problem in older age) zinc is required for a health‟s immune system and to increase the rate of healing of
wounds.

Old age comes with the loss of calcium from bones leading to soft and weak bones that can break easily. Old
people therefore require adequate amounts of calcium and vitamin D to counter the loss.

The elder often have problems of chewing tough foods because of weakened teeth and swallowing because of
the decreased production of saliva. It is therefore important to ensure they get food that is nutritious as well as
easy to chew and swallow. For example they' can get proteins from eggs or liver instead of meat.
5. Sedentary workers
These are individuals who stay in one place for a long time while performing their daily occupational
activities. They include workers potter's weavers, clerk, receptionists and doctors.

Sedentary workers are encouraged to balance their diets with physical exercise. Due to their lifestyle and
occupation obesity increasingly is common among them. Therefore, it is recommended that they limit their
intake of foods rich in lipids
6. The sick
Sick people require plenty for nutrients to help recover their health, those who have incurable disease such as
HIV and AIDS should get food that will help them to manage their conditions.

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Proper nutrition helps to keep their immune system strong and helps the body to fight opportunistic infections
and disease
Rapid weight loss is a major problem in the late stage of AIDS. It is therefore important to get enough
nutrients so as that the body can compensate for this.
Proper nutrition helps the body to withstand heavy medication.
Proper diet and exercise helps to combat symptoms such as fatigue, nausea, diarrhea and high blood sugar.
Excess caffeine sugar, dried foods, spicy foods and alcohol should be avoided because they are harmful to a
body whose immune system is already weak.
They need to take plenty of fruits and water. Fruits provide vitamins which are required to fight disease.
Water replaces the amount lost through diarrhea or vomiting.
It is advisable to use food guide pyramid to know what to eat. The food guide pyramid is a chart showing the
recommended amounts of different food types that dietician considers healthy eating
Nutritional deficiencies and disorders Malnutrition

Malnutrition (limiting the intake of one or more essential nutrients) results from eating too little from eating
the wrong food. There are different types of nutritional deficiencies and disorders in human beings, these
deficiencies and disorders include obesity, tickets, kwashiorkor, marasmus, anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa.
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS
Nutritional disorders are conditions of ill health in a person which arise as a result of lifestyle (poor eating
habits) as discussed below.
1. Obesity
Obesity is where by a person has excess body fat. A person sex, age and level of activity among other factor
determine his or her ideal body fat. To maintain fertility, women need more body fat. Women also store more
fat in their breasts, hips and thighs
Another important influence of body fat is a person frame size. Individuals with larger bones carry more tat.
Obesity mostly results from eating too much and not exercising enough. Body weight and health risks
associated with it are correlated by the body mass index (BMI).

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BMI gives the relationship between the estimated body fat and the risks of certain disease or conditions.
BMI = Body mass (in kilograms) /persons height (in meters)2
OR
BMI = Body mass (kg) / (Person‟s height)2 (m2).
For example if your height is 1.63 meters and your body mass is 60 kilograms your BMI can be calculated as
60/ (1.65)2 = 60 /(2.7223) = 22.04
If an individual's BMI falls in the range of 20 - 23. this is considered to be healthy. On the other hand if the
BMI is over 30 one maybe at risk of diseases associated with obesity
The following table shows a general guide of how different values of BMI are used to define the condition of
the body.

Table BMI guide

BMI Body condition
Below 20 Underweight
20-23 Advisable range
23-30 Overweight
30-33 Obese
Above 33 Very obese

Obesity increases the like hood of conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes and certain types of
cancer, stroke, and respiratory problems.
Obesity can be prevented by eating properly and engage in regular exercise. The intake of calottes should
balance one's physical activity. It is also important to avoid eating too much fat foods such as butter, fat meat,
chips, margarine, sausage and vitumbua. Avoid also unhealthy dieting.
Anorexia nervosa and Bulimia nervosa
Anorexia nervosa is also called slimmer's disease or self starvation syndrome. It occurs when a person
intentionally refuses to eat enough, leading to a severe loss of body mass

Sign and symptoms of anorexia

a. Muscle wasting (including weakening of heart muscle)
b. Excessive loss of body mass
c. Extreme fear of being fat
d. Disturbed body image or feeling fat even when one is very thin.
Bulimia nervosa involves excessive eating followed by efforts to remove food from the body. This effort
could involve self- induced vomiting, fasting, excessive exercising or taking drugs that stimulate, emptying of
the bowels or excessive urination. Bulimics usually have a normal body mass and keeps their eating behavior
secret. Hence it may be difficult to tell that they have a problem
Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia
Both Bulimia and Anorexia have underlined psychological causes, such as depression, low self esteem and
bottled up emotions and the need to tit contemporary standard of beauty Bulimia and Anorexia mostly affect
women.
Effects of Anorexia and Bulimia
a) The effects of Anorexia and Bulimia are demonstrated by heart problems due to weak cardiac muscles

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or an imbalance of mineral salts
b) There is an impaired mental function because the brain lacks adequate amount of glucose. Victims also
exhibit dehydration. During vomiting, the acidic present in the stomach come into contact with the teeth and
gums, the eventually causes, serious damage to the gum and erosion of the teeth. Other effects include
anemia, stomach ulcers, abdominal cramping and inflammation of the gut. irregular or absent menstrual
periods and dry skin.
Treatment for Anorexia and Bulimia
Anorexia and Bulimia can be treated by resolving the underlying psychological problems, seeing a medical
practitioner who can prescribe a way of getting back one's healthy and making the necessary lifestyle and
dietary change.
Nutritional deficiencies.
These deficiencies arise when the body does not have sufficient supply of a particular food or nutrient. The
following are some of the common nutritional deficiencies.
2. Marasmus
Marasmus is a form of malnutrition in children caused by lack of adequate amount of food Sign and symptoms
of Marasmus
A child suffering from marasmus shows weight loss, slowed growth, decreased activity and lack of energy.
They also have wrinkled skin, are irritable and have extreme hunger
Treatment of Marasmus
Getting adequate amount of food that contains ah the nutrients in the right proportions.
3. Kwashiorkor
Kwashiorkor is caused by a deficiency of proteins. It affects children, mostly after stopping to breast feed.
Signs and symptoms of kwashiorkor
The signs and symptoms of kwashiorkor include extremely thin arms and legs, poor growth, swollen thin
arms and legs, swollen abdomen due to enlargement of the liver and reddish or yellowish thin and weak hair.
Other symptoms are weakened immunity, diarrhea, anemia, and dry skin that cracks easily
Treatment for kwashiorkor
Kwashiorkor is treated by providing a child with a diet that has adequate amounts of proteins.
4. Rickets
Rickets is a condition where by the bones of a child softens, leading to fractures and deformities. The cause of
rickets is lack of vitamin D. phosphorous and calcium.
Sign and symptoms of Rickets
A child suffering from rickets can be identified by observable skeletal deformities such as boxy legs, knock
knees, an odd - shaped skull and a deformed spine. A child feels bone pain, experiences dental problems such
as weak teeth or delayed formation of teeth and develops weak muscles. The child's bones are easily'
fractured, shows slow growth and gets muscle spasms and muscle cramps.
Prevention of Rickets
Rickets is prevented by increasing the amount of vitamin D. phosphates and calcium in the diet and hi'
ensuring exposure to sufficient amount of sunlight.
FOOD TEST
Food test is used to determine which nutrients are present in a food specimen. At this level we will learn how
to test for carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.

Test of carbohydrates

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Test for protein

Procedure observation conclusion

Burette test
Test specimen should
be in solution form
Pour 2cm3 of specimen
in a test tube
Add 1cm3 of sodium
hydroxide solution
then a drop of copper
sulphate solution Color change to purple Protein are present
shaking the mixture
after each addition

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMAN
Some common terms concerned with the movement of food along the alimentary canal.
INGESTION - This is taking in a food to the mouth.
DIGESTION - This is the process by which food is broken down to small particles which are absorbed and
assimilated in the body.
ABSORPTION - This is the process by which soluble end products of digestion diffuse into the blood
stream.
ASSIMILATION - This is the incorporation of products of digestion into the cell metabolism.
EGESTION —This is the process by which indigested food particles are removed from the body through the
anus.
The digestive system is made up of alimentary canal (gut) and associated organs such as the pancreas and
liver
PARTS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL
The alimentary canal is a long hollow tube that runs from the mouth to the anus. It is also known as digestive
tract. • It consists of the mouth, pharynx, gullet, stomach, duodenum, ileum, caecum, colon and rectum.

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DIGESTION
Digestion is a process by which food is broken down into form that can be absorbed and used by the body. It
involves both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food. Mechanical take place in the mouth; the teeth
chew the food to reduce it to small piece that can be swallowed easily
The small pieces have large surface area to facilitate the action of digestive juice called enzymes
Chemical breakdown is achieved by digestive enzymes. The digested food is absorbed and assimilated in the
body. The undigested and indigestible materials are egested as feces
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND DIGESTION PROCESS
The major regions where digestion occur in the alimentary canal are mouth, stomach, duodenum and ileum

DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH

In the mouth, food is chewed by teeth and mixed with saliva to form a ball like to break down food into small
particles thus increase the surface area for enzymatic activities. -Saliva is alkaline in nature, suit makes the
food alkaline when in the mouth.
- Secretion of saliva is controlled by the nervous system. These smell, taste, sight or thoughts of food cause
saliva to flow from the gland.
-Saliva is a mixture of mucus water, a variety of salts and the enzymes known as salivary amylase.

FUNCTION OF SALIVA
1. Water acts as solvent for dissolving food substance
2. Mucus lubricates thus food for easy swallowing.
3. Salivary amylase turns starch to maltose.
→The tongue rolls the food in the round mass known as bolus (plural is boli)
→The boli are pushed down the esophagus by the tongue

THE PHARYNX
a) The region which crosses the air passage is known as glottis

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b) There is a structure known as epiglottis which prevents food from entering the wind pipe or trachea.
c) There is no digestive enzymes
THE OESOPHAGUS (GULLET)
a) This is the tube which connects the pharynx and the stomach
b) The food passes the gullet rapidly by contraction and relaxation of the gullet mode this is known as
PERISTALSIS
c) Peristalsis is the process by which food substances move down the alimentary canal in the form of
bolus through muscle value known as sphincter
d) There is no digestive enzymes
DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH
a) The food is mixed with hydrochloric acid and gastric juice to produce a semi - solid mass known as
chyme.
b) The wall of the stomach contains gastric glands which secrete gastric juices.
c) The gastric juices contain water, hydrochloric acid, mucus and enzymes(pepsin and rennin).
FUNCTION OF THE HYDROCHLORIC ACID
1. Provides suitable acidic medium for enzymes to work best
2. Hydrolyses or breaks down food to simple particles
3. Kills bacteria present in food
→ The function of pepsin is to breakdown proteins into peptides
→ The function of rennin is to coagulate (solidifies) soluble milk protein (casein) into an insoluble
form which is then acted on by the enzymes pepsin. This enzyme is mostly found in young mammals during
sucking period.
The function of mucus is to protect the stomach against corrosion by the hydrochloric acid.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE STOMACH
a) It is a temporary storage of food
b) Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach
c) Helps in mixing food during churning, also absorb water alcohol and some vitamins.
There is a muscle value between the stomach and the duodenum known as pyloric sphincter
The chyme (liquid food) passes periodically from the stomach through the pyloric sphincter to the duodenum.
DIGESTION IN THE DUODENUM
a) Duodenum is the first part of the small intestine
b) It is associated with the liver and pancreas.
THE LIVER
a) The liver has cells which secrete bile
b) Bile is stored in the gall bladder and is released through the bile duct. It is greenish yellow in colour
and contains bile salts.
FUNCTION OF THE BILE
1. It emulsifies fats (lipids) i.e. break down fats into tiny fat droplets to increase the surface area for
enzymatic activities.
2. Provides an alkaline medium for enzymes to work best,
3. It neutralizes the acidic food from the stomach
THE PANCREASE
The pancreas secretes digestive juices known as pancreatic juice. The juice contains the following.
1. Pancreatic amylase - it breaks down the starch into maltose.
2. Pancreatic lipase - digest the fat droplets into fatty acids and glycerol.
3. Sodium hydrogen carbonates (NaHCO3); provides basic medium for pancreatic enzymes to work best i.e.
neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach. The resulting food mixture in the duodenum is known as

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 chyme.
4. Trypsin - break down proteins into peptide
DIGESTION IN THE ILEUM (SMALL INTESTINE)
a) The ileum is the largest section in the alimentary canal.
b) The intestine contains secretory cells which secrete mucus and digestive juice known as intestinal juice
or succus enterious.
c) The juice has 4 enzymes
1. Erepsin or peptidase digests peptides to amino acids.
2. Maltose - breaks down maltose to glucose
3. Lipase - breaks down fat droplets to fatty acids and glycerol
4. Sucrose — breaks down sucrose (cane sugar) to glucose

d) The ileum has two main functions

1. Digests ah types of food.
2. Absorption of end products of digestion into the blood stream
NOTES: The walls of the alimentary canal secrete mucus which performs two major functions.
→ Allows smooth movement of food materials along the alimentary, absorption of the end product of
digestion into the blood of stream
→ Protect the wall of the alimentary canal against corrosion (digestion) by digestive enzymes.
-End products are:
a) Amino acids - simple form of proteins
b) Glucose - simple form of carbohydrates.
c) Fatty acids and glycogen - simplest forms of lipids
ABSORPTION
Absorption is the process by which the soluble end products e.g. glucose diffuses into the blood stream
Absorption takes place mainly in the small intestine however; absorption of some water, soluble vitamins B
and C. and soluble salts take place into the stomach.

PROCESS OF ABSORPTION
1. Amino acids and glucose. These materials are absorbed into the blood stream through the process of
active transport
→These materials diffuse into the blood with the dissolved materials to the HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN
→The hepatic portal vein takes the blood with the dissolved materials to the river and then joins the general
body circulation.
2. Fatty acids and glycerol.
→They are absorbed into the location of the villi
→They can drain into lymphatic vessel and finally join the body circulation at the vena cava.

NOTE: The wall of the small intestine has numerous fingers - like structure called villi: (singular villus)
which increase the surface area for digestion and absorption of food place.

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Diagram of villi

Adaption of ileum to its functions

1. It is long to provide large surface area for digestion and absorption
2. It is highly coiled to increase the surface area for digestion and absorption.
3. It has villi and micro - villi which increase the surface area for absorption.
4. It has dense network of blood capillaries which facilitate easy diffusion of digested materials.
ASSIMILATION
• This is the process by which the end products of digestion are incorporated in the cell metabolism.
Assimilation occurs as follows
Glucose: some is oxidized during respiration to produce energy (ATP) some is stored as glycogen in muscle
some is converted to fats and stored as tissue beneath the skin

AMINO ACIDS
Some are used in the synthesis (formation) of proteins, some are used in growth and repair of worn out cells.
In absence of glucose and fats they' may be oxidized to release energy during respiration.

FATTY ACID AND GRYCELOR

a) Are oxidized to release energy during respiration
b) Stored as a dispose tissue beneath the skin. This helps in insulating the body

THE CAECUM AND THE APPENDIX

a) These have no function in man.
b) In herbivores the caecum and appendix contain bacteria that secrete an enzyme known as cellulose.

THE LARGE INTESTINE (COLON)

• The large intestine has four functions.
1. Absorb water from the undigested materials

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2. Absorb small amount of digested food.
3. Glandular lining of the colon produces mucus which lubricate the passage of feces
4. It is a temporary storage of feces up to the time of defecation Ingestion).

EGESTION: The undigested and indigested materials are known as feces. The feces are removed from the
body through anus by the process of egestion.
SUMMARY OF DIGESTION

PART OF
ENZYMES SUBSTANCE PRODUCT OF
ALIMENTARY
SECRETED DIGESTED DIGESTION
CANAL
Mouth Salivary amylase Carbohydrates Maltose
Stomach Peprin Protein Peptides

Rennin Soluble milk protein

(carcinogens) Insoluble milk protein
Trypsin Protein Peptides
Duodenum Pancreatic amylase Starch Maltose
Ileum Pancreatic juice Lipid/fat
Fatty acids and glycerol
Maltose Glucose
Sucrose Glucose and fructose
Lactose Glucose and galactose

THE RUMINANT DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

A ruminant is an animal that chews food, swallows it then returns it to the mouth later for further chewing.
This is called chewing cud. Examples of ruminants are cows, goats, sheep, antelopes and giraffes.
The digestive system of a ruminant is different from that of a human being. Ruminants have a more elaborate
system to enable cellulose digestion.
The stomach of a ruminant has four chambers: rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum.

When a ruminant first chews and swallows a mouthful of plant matter, the food enters the rumen. Bacteria in
the rumen immediately start digesting the cellulose present in the material. Chewing cud softens and helps
down plant fibres, making them more access to digestion by the bacteria. When the food in the rumen, it is
coarse and very green. The food then regurgitated and chewed again. It passes the reticulum. The reticulum
has a 'honeycomb" appearance. In the reticulum, the food is mixed thoroughly with water. The food coarse,
more watery, less green and very small compared to the food in the rumen.

The food is regurgitated, chewed again and passed to the omasum. The abomasum has longitudinal folds like
the leaves of a book. The folds help to remove water from the food. The food in the omasum is in form of fine
particle and has very little water.

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The abomasum is the ruminant's stomach. The abomasum has gastric acid facilitates the digestion of proteins.
It also has microorganisms that may have spilled over the rumen.

OUTER SIDE OF RUMINANT STOMACH

Differences between the ruminant System and the human digestive system are:
1. Ruminant digestive system has four chambers. Human beings have one stomach chamber.
2. Ruminants have no upper incisors. Instead, they have a horny pad. This helps in the chewing of food.
They also have a gap on the lower jaw called diastema, -humans have upper incisors and no diastema.
Ruminants chew cud. They regurgitate what they had swallowed and chew it again. Human beings do not
chew cud.
3. Ruminant's digestive system has organisms(bacteria) that help to digest fibre and synthesize vitamin B.
Human beings cannot digest fibre.

DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

This includes diseases and disorders that affect: the oesphagus, the stomach and the large intestines. Examples
include dental caries heartburn, stomach ulcers, constipation flatulence and cancer.
1. ULCERS
These occur as a result of the action of enzymes and acid on the epithelial membrane lining of the stomach
and duodenum walls. The mucus coating can be broken by bacteria called Hericobacterpylori

Cause
1. Ulcers can be caused by stress which stimulates acid production
2. Ulcers can also be inherited.
3. Certain medication like aspirin
4. Smoking and taking alcohol
5. Caffeine

Sign and symptoms of ulcers

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1. Burning pain in stomach or the middle of thorax
2. Nausea and vomiting
3. Tiredness and weakness
4. Blood in vomiting or stool (a symptom of breeding ulcer)

CONTROL OF ULCERS
Ulcers can be controlled as follows
1. Have stress reduction programs
2. Eliminate smoking and drinking alcohol
3. Changing diet and taking meals on time
The ulcers can be corrected or reduced by the following treatment
1. Drinking milk
2. Taking magnesium trisilicate tablet
3. Surgery which include
→ Cutting the vestigial part
→ Gastrectomy removal of the duodenum and the stomach.

2. CONSTIPATION
- This is the frequent passage of hard feces Constipation is caused by the following:
1. Abnormally slow movement of feces matter through colon. As a result maximum absorption of water
takes place leaving very dry hard feces.
2. A diet low in fibre such as roughages
3. Failure of the sensory cells to signal the presence of faecial matter in rectum.
CONTROL
Constipation can be controlled by
a) Eating high fibre rich food.
b) Drinking a lot of water.

3. HEART BURNS

This is the burning sensation along the alimentary canal or in the chest cavity as a result of accumulation of
too much acid in the stomach.
1. An individual with this problem feels uncomfortable all the time
2. Prolonged heart bum can lead to oesophagus ulcers
CONTROL
Heart bum can be reduced by drinking milk or taking tablets which neutralize the acid of the chyme.

4. FLATULENCE
This is a condition caused by excessive gas in the digestive track it causes pain and embarrassment to many
individuals.
→ The intestinal gas such as oxygen and nitrogen are gulped in while breathing and at the same time
eating
→ Other gases such as methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen are produced from fermented undigested
food
→ The gases in the intestine can be minimized by
- Eating slowly

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 - Avoid milk if you are lactose intolerant
- Not eating gas - inducing food such as beans, cabbage, onions
- Using antacids

5. DENTAL CARIES

This is commonly referred to as tooth decay. It occurs when bacteria destroy the outer part of the tooth.

There are always bacteria present in the mouth. The bacteria combine with acid, saliva and remains of food to
form plaque. Plaque is the sticky substance often found between teeth. Plaque begins to form within 20
minutes after we eat. The bacteria in plaque convert the remains of food (especially sugar and starch) into
acids.
The acid dissolves the enamel in the tooth, forming a cavity. If this cavity is left untreated, it reaches the pulp
cavity and nerve endings inside the tooth causing an infection.

This disease is caused by a number of factors including:

1. Lack of hard food
2. Too much sweet food
→ Sweet food tends to encourage growth of bacteria
3. Lack of calcium in the diet
4. Lack of vitamin D
5. General ill health

6. CANCER

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→ Cancer is a disease which affects the digestive tract include
1. Cancer of oesophagus
2. Cancer of the colon
→ There are various causative agents of cancer, Their common ones include
1. Mutation of genes
2. Cancer inducing foods we eat. They affect the colon when they come in contact over a long direction
of time
TREATMENT
→ It has not been up to date easy to treat or prevent cancer. The following methods are applied in treating
it.
1. Chemotherapy - During treatment to supplement surgery
2. Radiation - Bombardment using radioactive particles to eliminate the cancerous cells
3. Surgery - Removal of all cancerous cells
NOTE: The outlined treatment are not 100% perfects, they will affect other cells or induce other cells to
become cancerous
CONTROL
Taking the fibre food in the food to come into contact with the cells leaving the colon wall

NUTRITION IN PLANTS AUTOTROPHISM

This is the mode of nutrition used by green plants to manufacture their own food.
→ The process is used by green plants to manufacture their food is known as photosynthesis.
Definition - photosynthesis is the process in which green plants manufacture complex food substances from
simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide and water in the process of sunlight and chlorophyll
→ This process of photosynthesis occurs in the green parts of the plants mostly in leaves
STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF
A) EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE LEAF
1. Petiole - attaches the leaf to stem or branch.
2. Veins - Transport materials within the leaf
3. Midrib - gives rise to veins. Transport materials to the leaf
4. Lamina- photosynthesis takes place in it.

B) INTERNAL PARTS OF THE LEAF

The internal parts of the leaf consist of

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1. Cuticle
2. Epidermis
3. Guard cell
4. Palisade layer
5. Spongy mesophyll layer
6. Leaf veins
7. Chloroplast

Diagram showing the internal parts of a leaf

FUNCTION OF THE INTERNAL PARTS OF LEAF

CUTILE - This is a thin wax transparent and water proof

- It is found on both sides of the leaf Functions

1. Reduce excessive water loss
2. Protects inner tissue from damage
3. Prevents entry of pathogens

EPIDERMIS - This is a thin layer found on both sides

Functions
1. secretes (makes) the cuticle
2. Protects inner tissue from damage

GUARD CELLS
Are bean shaped epidermal cells mostly found on the lower surface.
Functions
1. Control opening and closing of stomata
2. Control water loss
3. Allow gaseous exchange
4. Contain chloroplasts with chlorophyll used to trap sunlight for the process of photosynthesis.

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PALISADE LAYER
This is the layer between the upper epidermis and the spongy mesophyll layer • It is made up of palisade cells
Functions - trap sunlight by using chlorophyll for the process of photosynthesis

SPONGY MESOPHYLL LAYER

This is found between the palisade layer and the lower epidermis Function
1. Used for gaseous exchange
2. Photosynthesis takes place in it
LEAF VEINS
Consist of both xylem and phloem Functions:
1. Xylem transport water and mineral salts from the root to the rest parts of the plants.
2. Phloem transport manufactured food from the leaves to the rest parts of the plant,
CHLOROPLAST
These are disc shaped organelles that contain chlorophyll
Functions:
1. Chlorophyll absorbs (traps) sunlight for photosynthesis

REQUIREMENTS AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The raw materials of photosynthesis are:
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Water
→ Carbon dioxide is obtained from the atmosphere and water is absorbed by the roots from the soil.
→ The conditions necessary for photosynthesis to take place are
1. Chlorophyll
2. Sunlight
→ Chlorophyll is used to absorb light energy needed during photosynthesis and sunlight (solar energy) is
converted to chemical energy (ATP) needed by all living organisms

PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The process of photosynthesis occurs in two stages which are:

1. The light stage.
2. Tire dark stage.

THE LIGHT STAGE

→ It occurs in the chloroplasts
→ The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun
→ The light energy is used to split the water molecules to oxygen and hydrogen The process is known as
photosynthesis

Oxygen is released to the atmosphere while some is used in respiration

→ Hydrogen enters the dark reactions
→ Some of the solar energy absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules is used in the formation of energy rich
compound known as Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which later is used in the dark stage of photosynthesis

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THE DARK STAGE
→ It occurs in the stomata and it doesn't need a light
→ Carbon - dioxide combines with hydrogen to form sugar such as glucose
→ This process is called carbon dioxide fixation
→ This process requires energy (ATP) and enzymes i.e.

END PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The end products of photosynthesis are:
1. Glucose
2. Oxygen
3. Water
Glucose - is used in respiration to release energy. Some is stored as starch or oils during exchange.
Oxygen - Some oxygen is used during respiration while the rest is released into the atmosphere during
exchange.
Water - some water is used in various chemical reactions within the cells, some water is released to the
atmosphere during transpiration
The overall chemical equation representing the process of photosynthesis

ADAPTATION OF THE LEAF IN THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. Cuticle and epidermis are transparent to allow easy penetration of light
2. Presence of stomata on the leaf allows easy diffusion of carbon dioxide
3. The network of veins allows movement of materials in and out of the leaf
4. The air spaces in the spongy mesophyll layer allow gases to circulate easily.
5. Presence of large numbers of chloroplasts in the palisade layer enables maximum sunlight absorption.
6. Tire leaves are well arranged to avoid overlapping and overshadowing
7. Broad and flat lamina allows maximum absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS PROCESS
1. LIGHT INTENSITY: A good quality of light enhances the rate of photosynthesis.
→ Very bright light damages the plant due to strong sun rays
→ Plants under shade receive poor quality of light
2. CARBON - DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION: An increase in carbon dioxide concentration results to an
increase in the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level
→ Any further increase in the carbon dioxide concentration after the maximum point induce the stomata to
close and therefore cutoff the supply of carbon dioxide.
3. TEMPERATURE: Photosynthesis is controlled by enzymes. Enzymes are affected by changes in
temperature.
→ High temperature destroys the enzymes, very low temperature inactivate them.
→ Tire rate of photosynthesis increase as the temperature increase up to maximum point i.e. 40°c.
4. WATER: Plants require water for the various chemical reactions of the cells.

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-Water is also a raw material for photosynthesis.
5. MINERAL SALTS: Some minerals such as magnesium and iron are responsible in the formation of
chlorophyll.
→ Tire availability of these minerals results in the chlorophyll synthesis and the rate of photosynthesis
increases.
6. LEAF AGE: As the leafages chlorophyll breaks down hence the rate of photosynthesis is reduced.
7. PRESENCE OF MANUFACTURED CARBOHYDRATES: This will reduce the rate of
photosynthesis since carbohydrates are product of photosynthesis

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Food substance like glucose is formed. Plants and animals use these food substances.
2. Release oxygen in the atmosphere for respiration of organisms
3. Purify the atmosphere by removing carbon dioxide.
4. Light energy is converted into a form that can be used by all other organisms. This energy is known as
ATP.
STORAGE ORGANS
Plants store food for future use
Foods in plants can be stored in:
1. Leaves e.g. Onions, cabbage
2. Fruits e.g. Mango, pineapple, pawpaw
3. Seeds e.g. Beans, peas, rice, maize
4. Stems e.g. Irish potato, ginger, sugar cane
5. Roots e.g. Sweet potato, cassava, carrots
ADVANTAGE OF FOOD STORAGE ORGANS
1. Some organs give rise to new plants e.g. Seeds, stem, tubes
2. Permits the survival of plants over dry seasons.
3. Some are used as source of food by man and other animals e.g. Rice, wheat, potatoes etc.
4. The stored food is used during germination before the leaves form.
5. Some are used for commercial purpose by man e.g. Sugar cane
MINERAL REQUIREMENTS IN PLANTS
→ The mineral elements required by plants are grouped into two;
1. Macro elements or Macro nutrients
These are elements required in large quantities by the plants.
They include; manganese, carbon, calcium, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, hydrogen, potassium and nitrogen.
2. Micro element or micro nutrients
These are elements required in small quantities by the plants.
They include; manganese, zinc, sodium, boron, chlorine, copper, cobalt and silicon.
NOTE: Nitrogen, iron and magnesium are used to synthesize carbohydrates
→ Lacking of these elements cause yellowing of leaves
→ Carbon, Hydrogen and oxygen are used to synthesize carbohydrates
→ Lack of these elements show stunted growth in plants.

FOOD PROCESSING, PRESERVING AND STORAGE

Food processing: This refers to all the ways in which food is treated in order to make it edible, appetizing and
safe to eat or keep it fresh for a long time
→ Some of the activities involved in food processing are:
1. Picking, sorting and washing fruits and vegetables

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2. Converting raw material into other products Examples - Making cheese from milk
- Making sugar from sugar cane
FOOD PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Common food processing techniques include
1. Removing unwanted outer layers e.g. peeling potato
2. Chopping or slicing e.g. Bananas, mangoes and cassava
3. Liquefaction e.g. producing juice by squeezing fruits
4. Fermentation e.g. making wine from banana and grapes and beer brewing
5. Cooking e.g. boiling, frying, steaming or grilling
6. Deep freezing
7. Baking

FOOD PRESERVING
This is a method that involves special methods of food processing that are used to prevent food from getting
spoiled or going bad.
These methods include:
1. Canning or bottling; this is used for getting rid of micro - organisms.
2. Pasteurization and boiling; this involves using high temperature to kill micro - organisms that cause
spoilage
3. Refrigeration - using very low temperature to slow down the growth of micro - organisms
4. Irradiation - this involves using radiations to kill micro - organism that might make food go bad.
5. Drying salting, applying honey or smoking eliminates the moisture that is needed for growth of micro
organisms.
6. Adding chemicals such as salt, sugar and carbon monoxide to prevent physical changes in food.

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD PROCESSING, PRESERVING AND STORAGE

1. Prevents wastage of food
2. Saves money by preventing spoilage of food
3. Maintains the quality of food.
4. Prevents growth of micro - organisms that can cause illness and improves the flavor of food.
5. Removes harmful toxins and micro - organisms from food
6. Makes food available even when they are not in season
7. Enables transportation of delicate and perishable food such as milk and fruits over long distance
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVING
1. CURING: This involves the addition of substances such as sugar, salt, spices and vinegar to animal foods
e.g. Meat and fish.
→ Curing binds or removes water making it unsuitable for the growth of micro - organism
→ It also improves the taste of food. Example sausage and canned beef are made by curing meat.
2. DRYING IN THE SUN
The food is left in the sun for long periods of time in order to reduce its moisture content.
→ Removing the amount of water in the food discourage the growth of micro - organism This method is
used to reserve rice, maize, cloves, bananas, beans, peas, meat, fish, cassava and green vegetables.

NOTE: Dried grain or cassava can be pounded or ground into flour and dry cloves are used for making
spices.
3. SMOKING
Smoke reduces the moisture content of food to prevent the growth of micro - organisms Example: Grains,
meat and fish can be dried slowly over a smoking wood fire.

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4. COOKING: This includes boiling, steaming, baking in hot ash, grilling and roasting.
→ These processes help to soften food, improve flavor and preserve food. Examples: potatoes, banana, and
maize can be boiled before being dried
→ Meat can be grilled or deep fried.
5. SALTING: Salt removes water from the food and kills micro - organisms that would otherwise spoil the
food.
6. FERMENTATION
Fermentation is the conversion of carbohydrates such as sugars into acids and alcohol Fermentation can occur
naturally or can be induced
Example: Milk can be fermented into yoghurt by keeping in a container for some time.
Picking foods such as cucumbers and mangoes can be fermented by putting them in salty water for some time,
bacteria produce lactic acid that gives the food its distinctive flavor and helps to preserve it.
MODERN METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING
1. PASTEURIZATION: This is the method of heating food to very high temperature for a short while in
order to kill micro - organism that can cause food spoilage Pasteurizations maintain the nutrients content and
flavor of food. Example: Food which can be pasteurized is milk and fruit juice
2. LIQUEFICATION; this is the making of liquids from solid food
→ It is mostly applied to fruits where by juice is made out of them.
→ Tire juice is then pasteurized and post into cans or containers.
3. CANNING AND BOTTLING
This is the method where by food is preserved by heating it in air tight vacuum - sealed bottles or cans.
→ First the container is filled with food then the air is pumped out to form a vacuum.
→ The container is sealed and heated to kill micro - organisms and enzymes fruits and fruits juices, beef,
fish and baked beans.
NOTE: Bottled and canned foods can be kept for months or even years.
4. USING ADDITIVES - This is the addition of chemicals such as sodium benzoate, sodium chloride and
vinegar to slow down the growth of micro - organisms. Examples the food can be preserved by this process
are fish and meat.
5. DRYING OR DEHYDRATION: This is where food is dried by using either hot blasts of air from
vacuum dryer or a freezer (freeze drying).
→ After drying, the food is then sealed in moisture proof containers
6. IRRADIATION - This is the use of ray‟s energy to stop growth of micro - organism in stored food stuff.
→ This makes food last longer
→ Also prevents spoiling.
Examples: the foods that can be preserved by this method are onions, beans and potatoes FOOD STORAGE
Food storage is a method used to keep reserves of food for future use
→ Food storage can be done on a small side at the family level. Examples in the food storage, or on a
large scale for populations. Example in government sides for grains
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF FOOD STORAGE
1. Storage in granaries and pits
→ Dry grains are stored in granaries which are usually raised above the ground.

The gains are sometimes mixed with neem leaf ash or groundnuts to further prevent attack by micro -
organisms.
→ Granaries keep grains safe from insects, rodents and birds
→ Harvested yams, potatoes and cassava can be stored in large the ground after drying.
2. Storage in pots and tins

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→ Preserved foods such as flour, dried vegetables and cassava can be in large dry puts or tightly covered for
future use.
→ Foods can be stored for months by using this method.

ADVANTAGE OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING, PRESERVATION

STORAGE
1. They are simple and can be done by most people
2. They use locally available materials and simple technology, the keeping costs low.
3. No harmful chemicals are added to the food.
4. Curing and smoking add a distinctive flavor to the food
5. Most methods do not destroy nutrients

DISADVANTAGES OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF FOOD STORAGE, PROCESSING AND

PRESERVATION
1. Food can be preserved and stored for only limited periods of time
2. Traditional method is difficult to do on a large scale. Traditional methods are highly limited in the variety
of foods that can be processed, preserved and stored

MODERN METHODS OF FOOD STORAGE

1. Refrigeration
→ This is the temporary storage of food at temperature of up to 4°c in order to slow down the growth of micro
- organism
→ Refrigeration can be done in refrigerators or cold rooms
Example: The foods that can be refrigerated are milk, fresh fruit, fresh vegetable, juice and bottler.
2. Freezing: This is the strong food at very low temperature i.e. below -100c in order to stop the growth of
micro - organisms Food is frozen in freezers. Example the foods that can be frozen are: poultry, fish and
meat.
ADVANTAGES OF MODERN METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING, PRESERVATION AND
STORAGE
1. . Food can last for many months or even years
2. . Modem methods can process, preserve and store a large variety of foods.
3. . The advanced technology used is fast and can handle large quantities of food
DISADVANTAGES OF MODERN METHOD OF FOOD PROCESSING, PRESERVATION AND
STORAGE
→ The chemicals used can be harmful if eaten in excess.
→ These methods can only be used in a certain area. Example - refrigeration and freezing require
electricity.
→ The process used for example radiation; canning and pasteurizing require special skills.
→ Sometimes nutrients are lost thus lowering the nutritional value of food.

8. BALANCE OF NATURE

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

• The natural environment is made up of all living and non - living thing that occur naturally on earth, it

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includes; air, water, animals, plants, micro - organism, stones, cloud and rock soil.

IMPORTANCE OF THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

1) It is a source of food for organisms.
2) Provides shelter and security for organisms.
3) It provides an appropriate setting for organism to reproduce and increase in number
4) It allows living and non - living things to interact.
THE COMMONS TERMS IN STUDYING THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
BIOTIC FACTORS:
Are all the living components of the environment. They are plants, animals and micro - organisms
ABIOTIC FACTORS:
Are the non - living components of the environment e.g. light, water, rocks and soil.
ECOLOGY :
Is the branch of biology that deals with the study of the relationship between living things and their natural
environment
POPULATION :
Is the total number of a certain species of organisms in a community. Example; number of frogs in a pond
COMMUNITY:
This refers to the populations of different organisms living in a specific area called a habitat. Example a grass
land community could include grass, acacia trees, lions, antelope, giraffe and cheetah.

HABITAT -
Is a specific area with a specific set of conditions that is appropriate for a certain community and where the
community ties or it is the home of living organisms. Example; tropical rain forest, a desert, a swamp, a pond,
a grassland and ocean
ECOSYSTEM
- This is a natural unit made up of living and non - living thing whose interactions lead to a self- sustaining
system
• An ecosystem is made up of communities.
BIOTIC FACTORS
Biotic factors are the living components in the environment. They can either be population factors or
community factors.
1. POPULATION FACTORS
- This include:
i) Population density - The number of organisms in a given area
ii) Dispersion - the geographical distribution of organism in an area
iii) Age structure - the distribution of population according to age
iv) The ratio of males to female
v) Tire number of births
vi) The number of deaths
vii) Population growth - The rate of growth at which the number of organism is increasing
2. COMMUNITY FACTORS - This includes food chains and food webs,
- These are feeding relationships that represent the flow of energy and recycling of nutrients in a
community.
ABIOTIC FACTORS
These are non - living components of the environment. They can be climatic, soil or geological.
CLIMATIC FACTORS
1. Temperature; is the degree of heat in a place
- Organisms adapt to the temperature in their habitats in various ways.

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Example some plants shed their leaves or roll them when it is very hot so as to avoid excessive loss of water
- Animal in very cold place has extra fat for insulation
2. Light: it is obtained from the sun
- It affects opening of stomata
- It is important during photosynthesis
Example some animal hunt in bright daylight (e.g. hawks) while others hunt at dark or dawn when there is
dim light (e.g. lions) and others hunt at night (e.g. owls and bats)

3. Wind: It increases the rate of water evaporation from water bodies as well as for living organism

- Wind is important in the formation of rain and the disposal of some plant seed.

4. Atmospheric pressure: when atmosphere pressure is high concentration of oxygen and carbon
dioxide are also become high so the threaten of gaseous exchange and respiration is high. The opposite is also
true. This affects the distribution of both plants and animals.

5. Water serves as habitat for a large variety of organism. Water serves as solvent a medium of
transportation and a temperature regulatory.
AQUATIC FACTORS
These are factors that affect water bodies and life in water
1. SALINITY: This is the quantity of salts dissolved in water.
- Aquatic plants have roots that absorb mineral salts and water depending on the concentration in the plant
cells
- Some aquatic organisms are adapted to live in fresh water habitat while others live in salt water habitants.
2. WAVE ACTION: It is important for organism to live in artificial zone. These organism are covered by
water during high tide and low tide
- Such organism includes shrines, different types of sea weeds, crabs and prawns.
SOIL FACTORS
1. Soil texture - this refers to the size of soil particles.
- Soil texture affects drainage of the soil, fertility and distribution of plants.
2. Soil composition: This is the proportion of components of soil including mineral salts, Air and micro
- organism, water and remains of living things
- These components affect soil fertility and hence plant growth.
3. SOIL PH: This is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of soil
- Different types of plants grow into soil with different PH value. Example; tomato and pineapple grow in
slight acidic soil while onions and cabbage prefer slightly alkaline soil.
GEOLOGICAL FACTORS
• These are factors concerned with the features of the land surface.
(i) ALTITUDE - Is the height above sea level
- At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure, temperature and oxygen concentration are lower while the rain fall
are higher compared to low altitude. This affects distribution of both plants and animal.

(ii) GEOLOGICAL SUBSTRATUM - refers to the various types of rocks that disintegrate to form the soil
in an area. The chemical composition of the rocks is reflected in the chemical composition of the soil, this
determines soil PH and fertility.

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(iii) SLOPE - refers to gradient of land. Slope can be steep, moderate or gentle. Soil erosion is highest in
steep slopes and lowest in gentle slope, soil erosion removes top soil making the soil less fertile. This
interferes with plant growth.

Interaction of living and non-living things

The interaction of biotic and abiotic components "of the environment is important for the completion of
natural cycles such as the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.

The water cycle

Water cycle refers to how water circulates in the environment. Movement of water in the environment occurs

Precipitation

as shown in the figure below:

In the water cycle:
(i) Groundwater and run-off (water from rain) flow into streams and rivers,
(ii) Tire streams and rivers flow into lakes and oceans
(iii) Water evaporates into the atmosphere from water bodies such as oceans and lakes and from plants
through transpiration
(iv) The evaporated water precipitates to form water vapor. Water vapor condenses to form clouds
(v) Wind causes clouds to move, for example from above the ocean to above the land.
(vi) Rain falls and is absorbed by plants or forms groundwater and run-off. The cycle thus begins again.
Forests act as water catchment areas and prevent excess loss of water from the land. Wetlands, such as
swamps and marshes, help to control flooding and are also important for water purification.
The carbon cycle
Carbon cycle refers to a biochemical cycle in the environment where by carbon dioxide is taken up from the

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atmosphere and incorporated into the plant tissues during photosynthesis.

CARBON CYCLE
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is absorbed by plants and used for photosynthesis. These plants serve as
food for herbivores, which are in turn eaten by carnivores.
When plants and animals die, microorganisms cause decomposition and carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere.
The remains of plants and animals after millions of years result in the formation of fossil fuels such as coal,
natural gas and oil. When these fuels are burnt, they release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Respiration of living things also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide is absorbed
by plants and then the cycle starts again.

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen cycle refers to a biochemical cycle in the environment whereby nitrates in the soil are taken up by
plant roots and may pass along food chains into animals absorb it in this form. It must first be converted into
either nitrates or ammonium compound.

Figure below shows the nitrogen cycle.

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Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the root nodules of legumes plant carry out fixation by converting atmospheric
nitrogen to nitrates.

Lightning converts atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates. The nitrates get into the soil and are later absorbed by
plants.
Plants use nitrogen compounds to produce plant proteins. Plants are eaten by animals.
Animals use the nitrogen to produce animal proteins.
When plants and animals die, decomposers such as bacteria and fungi feed on them. The decomposers release
ammonia gas (NH3) which contains nitrogen.
The ammonia is converted into nitrites and then nitrates by bacteria. Denitrifying bacteria release nitrogen
from nitrates back into the atmosphere.
INTERACTION AMONG LIVING ORGANISM
The relationship among organisms in the environment can be explained in the form of predation, competition
and symbiosis.
PREDATION - This happens when one organism captures, kills and feeds on another in order to get
nutrients. Example cats eat mice and sharks eat fishes.
COMPETITION - This is a relationship where organisms both need the same limited environment resources
for survival. Examples lions and leopards both hunt antelope and zebra. Hence lions and leopards are
competitors. Organism from the same places can also be competitors, Example cow competing for grass

SYMBIOSIS - This is a relationship whereby there is a close association between organisms. This association
could take various forms, such as mutualism, commensalism, Neutralism, syn-necrosis, amensalism and
parasitism.

MUTUALISM - This is the relationship in which two organisms benefit each other. Example: The rhizobium
bacteria in the root nodules of legumes convert nitrogen into nitrates for use by the plant. The bacteria get
protection and nutrients from the plants.
COMMENSALISM - This is interaction that is beneficial to one organism and is neutral to the other
organism. Example when a bird builds a nest in a hole, in a tree.
PARASITISM - In this association one organism benefits while the others is harmed. Example: Plasmodium
that causes malaria in human beings.

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FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS
Food chains and food webs show the flow of nutrients and energy among organisms in the environment.
• Each organism in a food chain or food web represents a trophic level a food chain.
• Trophic level - is a position that organism occupies in food chain or food web.
• Examples; producers like green plants, primary consumers like herbivores and secondary consumers
like carnivores
PRODUCERS: These are organisms that can manufacture their own food example: green plants and
photosynthesis bacteria, this is the first trophic level.
• Producers are eaten by primary consumers
• Primary consumers are mostly herbivores such as rabbits, cows, buffaloes, wild beasts, goat and sheep.
• Primary consumers form the second trophic level.
SECONDARY CONSUMERS:
These form the third trophic level.
• They feed on primary consumers
• They are mostly carnivores such as - domestic cats, dogs, hyenas, lions, leopards and cheetahs.
• This level can be followed by tertiary consumers which feed on secondary consumer then quaternary
consumer feed on tertiary consumers.
DECOMPOSERS
These are organisms that decompose dead organic matter
• This is the final trophic level.
• These organisms feed on dead matter and break it down there by facilitating decomposition.
The two main decomposers are the saprophytic fungi and saprophytic bacteria.
• The relationship between organisms at different trophic levels can be presented diagrammatically as
follows;
FOOD CHAINS- a food chain is a linear relationship among the organisms of a community in which each
organism feeds on the one preceding it.

• It presents energy flow from one trophic level to the next.

• Each organism feeds on therefore derives energy from the proceedings one in return it is eaten by the
other and therefore provides energy for the one following it.
• The arrows indicate the direction of energy flow

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Example of food chain:
1) --------------------------------- Grass ---------------------------------------- ► Grasshoppers ►birds
2) --------------------------------- Grass ---------------------------------------- ► sheep ►Man
3) Rhodes ------------------ ►mouse ------------------------------------ ► snake --------- ►hawks
4) Plant debris ------------- ► Bacteria ---------------------------------- ► Protozoa —►Mosquito larvae
5) Photosynthesis --------- ► fish --------------------------------------- ► bird
FOOD WEBS
A food web refers to the several food chains interlinking together(A network of food chain).

• Most herbivores consume more than one kind of plants and omnivores consume more than one kind of
plant and animal and the decomposer consume more than one kind of herbivore

Example of food web.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS

i) Food chains and food webs facilitate the flow of energy in the environment.
ii) Helps to maintain the balance of the total numbers of organisms in the environment,
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 9. TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN LIVING THINGS
Introduction
The basic characteristics of all living things are nutrition, respiration, excretion, growth and development,
movement, reproduction and sensitivity. In order for these life processes to take place, there must be
transportation of materials. Materials are transported either from the environment into the organism or from
one part of the organism to another. They can also be transported from the organism into the environment

For example, during nutrition, organisms take in food substances that they need to provide them with energy.
The food must also be transported to all parts of the organism. Respiration requires oxygen, which must be
taken in from the environment. During excretion, waste materials from the organism are transported to the
excretory organs and removed from the body. Growth requires the production and transportation of growth
hormones to the growing parts of the organism. Movement and locomotion are made possible by the
transportation of impulses to the relevant organs. Reproduction requires the movement of gametes (sex cells)
or the transportation of genetic material. Sensitivity is made possible by the transportation of messages about
the presence of a certain thing in the environment.
Transportation is therefore very important for the survival of living things.
WAYS OF TRANSPORTATION OF MATERIALS
Life processes in organisms take place at the cell level. Therefore, it is necessary for substances to move in
and out of the cells. There are two ways through which substances can move across the cell membrane:
Passive transport: This occurs spontaneously without the need of energy to transport materials through the
cell membrane.
Active transport: where the cell has to use energy to move materials across the cell membrane.
Processes like diffusion, osmosis and mass flow involve passive transport.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration.
A difference in the concentration of a substance between two regions is known as a concentration gradient.
Diffusion causes particles to move from the area of high concentration to a low concentration area. This
process continues until the particles arc distributed evenly throughout the liquid.

Figure below shows the diffusion of potassium permanganate in water.

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF DIFFCTION

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Concentration gradient: high diffusion rate with higher concentration and vice versa
Surface area to volume ratio; the higher it fester the diffusion rate.
Distance over which diffusion takes place: example a thin layer of cells increases diffusion rate

Osmosis
Osmosis is a form of passive transport considered as a special form of diffusion involves movement of water
molecules through semi-permeable membrane.
Osmosis defined as the process by which water move from a weak solution into a strong through a semi-
permeable membrane. The semi permeable membrane is only permeable to some solutes (dissolved
substances).

For osmosis to take place there must be two separated solution by a semi-permeable membrane. One solution
should have greater water and a lesser quantity of solute than other solution. This solution is hypotonic, it has
a lower water potential. The second should have a lesser volume of water and volume of solute than the other
solution. This solution is hypertonic, meaning it has greater water potential.
Two solutions have the same water potential are said to be isotonic

Effects of osmosis in living organisms Osmosis and animal cells

When an animal cell is put in a hypotonic solution, it absorbs water. If it remains in the solution for a long
time, it absorbs excess amounts of water. A cell that does not have a mechanism for removing the excess
water bursts due to the excessive internal pressure.
When an animal cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, it loses water. If it remains in the solution for a long
time, it loses a lot of water, shrinks and shrivels.
These effects of osmosis on animal cells can be observed in red blood cells. Under normal conditions, the
osmotic pressure of red blood cells is equal to that of the blood plasma, i.e. they are isotonic. Thus, there is
equal movement of water in and out of the cells. This helps to maintain the disc shape of these cells.
When red blood cells are put in a hypotonic solution, they absorb water, causing the cell volume to increase.
Excessive amounts of water cause haemolysis (bursting). When red blood cells are put in a hypertonic
solution, they lose water, leading to shriveling of the cell. This is referred to crenation

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Osmosis is important for the reabsorption water in the colon and the kidneys. This help to maintain the body‟s
water balance.
Osmosis and plant cells
In an isotonic solution, plant cells neither lose nor gain water. In a hypotonic solution cells absorb water,
causing the cell membrane to push against the cell wall. The cell is to be turgid. It does not burst because
membrane exerts pressure on the cell wall restricts additional intake of water. Turgid plants to maintain their
shape.

In a hypertonic solution, plant cells lose water this causes the vacuole to shrink and their cell membrane to
pull away from wall, making the cell flaccid. Such as cell is to be plasmolyzed and the process plasmolysis.
If a plasmolyzed cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it absorbs water and becomes turgid.

Osmosis is important for the absorption of water by plant roots. Opening and closing of stomata also depend
on osmosis. When guard cells absorb water the stomata open and when they lose water the stomata close.
Osmosis and unicellular organisms
Unicellular organisms that live in fresh water, for example amoeba and euglena, are hypertonic to surrounding
so water enters the organisms by osmosis. These organisms have a contractile vacuole. The contractile
vacuole collects the excess water and removes it from the cell. This prevents the cells from bursting.

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Mass flow

Mass Dow is the bulk movement of substances from one region to another due to the difference in pressure
between the two regions. Mass flow occurs within a cell or along a vessel.
This mode of transport is important in large complex organisms where substances are required in large
amounts and also have to be transported over large distances. Examples of systems where mass flow occurs
are:
• The circulatory system (flow of blood) in animals.
• The lymphatic system (flow of lymph) in animals.
• Transport of manufactured food material in plants from the site of manufacture (mostly leaves) to the
point of use (all plant parts) through the phloem. This process is called translocation
Differences between diffusion, osmosis and mass flow
The following table gives a summary of the differences between diffusion, osmosis and mass flow.
Characteristics Diffusion Osmosis Mass flow
Substance Water
liquids and gases Solids and liquids
transported molecules
Semi
Transportation None structure permeable Cytoplasm and vessel
membrane
Causes of Osmotic
movement Diffusion gradient Different in pressure
pressure

Chapter summary
1. Transport is necessary for the movement of substances within, into and out of ceils so as to enable
vital life processes to occur.
2. Transport can be carried out through diffusion, osmosis or mass flow.
3. Diffusion is the movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration.

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4. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a weak solution to a strong solution through a
semi-permeable membrane.
5. A hypotonic solution has a lower water potential.
6. A hypertonic solution has a higher potential.
7. A red blood cell haemolysis in a hypotonic solution and crenates in a hypertonic solution.
8. A plant cell becomes turgid in a hypotonic solution and plasmolyzed in a hypertonic solution.
7. Mass flow is the bulk movement of substance due to pressure differences in two regions.

TRANSPORTATION IN MAMMALS
Introduction
Mammals are complex multicellular organisms. Their bodies are made up of numerous cells and tissues.
Hence, diffusion alone is not enough to ensure efficient carrying out of life processes. Mammals therefore
have an elaborate transport system called the circulatory system. The circulatory system is made up of the
heart, the blood and the blood vessels.

THE MAMMALIAN HEART

An example of the mammalian heart is the human heart. The human heart is approximately the size of a
clenched fist. It is located in the chest cavity between the two lungs
The external structure of the mammalian heart
The mammalian heart is broader at the top and narrower at the bottom. It is enclosed by a double layer of
tough inelastic membranes called the pericardium. The membranes prevent the heart from over-expanding
when it is beating very fast. The pericardium also secretes a fluid called pericardial fluid. This fluid enables
the membranes to move smoothly against each other.

The wall of the heart is made up of the cardiac muscles. Cardiac muscle is never fatigued (tired). It works
continuously as long as a person is alive. This type of muscle is found only in the heart.

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The wall of the heart has three layers:
The epicardium is the outer protective layer.
The myocardium is the middle layer.
The endocardium is the inner most layer. This layer is continuous with the lining of the blood vessels
attached to the heart.
The coronary artery supplies the heart with oxygenated blood. The coronary vein carries blood containing
waste materials away from the heart.
The vena cava and pulmonary vein bring blood from the rest of the body to the heart. The aorta and
pulmonary artery transport blood from the heart to the rest of the body.
The internal structure of the mammalian heart
Figure shows a longitudinal section of the mammalian heart

The heart has four chamber right auricle, right ventricle, left auricle and left ventricle. The auricles are also
called atria (singular: atrium). The walls of the ventricles are thicker than those of the auricles. This is because
the ventricles pump blood to a greater distance than the auricles. Auricles pump blood to the ventricles.
Ventricles pump blood to all other parts of the body. The left ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle
because the right ventricle pumps blood to the limps while the left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the
body.

The heart has several valves. Valves have flaps that ensure that blood flows in one direction only. The
tricuspid valve is found between the right auricle and right ventricle. The bicuspid valve is found between
the left auricle and left ventricle. Semi lunar valves are located at the bases of the pulmonary artery and aorta
to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles.
Valves close when blood tries to flow back.
The left and right sides of the heart are separated by the septum. The septum is a thick muscular wall that
prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
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 The flow of blood through the heart;
The vena cava brings deoxygenated blood to the heart. Deoxygenated blood contains low amounts of oxygen.
The vena cava has two branches:
The superior vena cava which transports deoxygenated blood from the upper parts of the body such as head,
neck and upper limbs.
The inferior vena cava which transports deoxygenated blood from the lower parts of body such as the lower
limbs, kidney, liver, stomach and intestines.
The inferior vena cava and the superior vena cava unite to form the vena cava; the vena cava is connected to
the right auricle.
When the right auricle relaxes, it fills up with deoxygenated blood from the vena cava. There is increased
pressure in the right auricle when the muscles contract. This pushes the blood trough the tricuspid valve.

The muscles of the Right ventricles relax and it tills up with blood. The tricuspid valve closes to prevent blood
from owing back into the right auricle. When the right ventricle is full, the increased pressure causes the
muscles to contract and the Semi lunar valve in the pulmonary artery to open. The blood flows into lie
pulmonary artery and the bicuspid valve closes prevent back flow of blood.

The pulmonary artery transports blood to the lungs. Blood absorbs more oxygen in the lungs, and thus
becomes oxygenated.
Oxygenated blood flows to the heart through the pulmonary vein. This vein is connected to the left auricle.
When the left auricle relaxes, the semi lunar valve opens and blood from the pulmonary vein flows in.
Pressure increases in the left auricle as it fills up with blood. The pressure causes the muscles of the auricle to
contract and pump blood through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle.

The muscles of the left ventricle contract, allowing blood to flow in. The bicuspid valve closes to prevent
blood from flowing back into the left auricle. Pressure builds up in the left ventricle as blood flows in.

The muscles of the left ventricle contract, pumping blood through the semi lunar valve into the aorta. The
aorta branches into smaller arteries that transport blood to all parts of the body. The heart beats in such a way
that when the auricles contract, the ventricles relax and vice versa.
In the right atrium, there is a small patch of muscle called the sinoatrial node (SAN). This node acts as a
pacemaker, setting the time and rate of cardiac muscle contraction.
Adaptations of the heart to its functions
Table below shows how the heart is adapted to its functions

Adaptation Function
Contract to pump blood
Muscular walls
Cardiac muscle Contract and relax continuously without being fatigued, this
ensures continuous pumping of blood

Ensure blood flows in only one direction

Valves
Septum Separates oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood

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 Enables transportation of deoxygenated blood from all parts
Connection to large It be body to the heart and transportation of oxygenated
blood blood from the heart to all parts of the body

Sinoatrial node Sets time and rate of contraction of cardiac muscle

The coronary artery nourishes tire heart and supplies it with
Coronary artery and oxygen. The coronary vein removes wastes which would
coronary rein harm the heart if left to accumulate

Blood vessels
Mammals have three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries.
Arteries
Arteries are thick-walled, muscular and elastic vessels that transport blood from the heart to all parts of the
body. All arteries transport oxygenated blood, except the pulmonary artery which transports deoxygenated
blood from the heart to the lungs

The endothelium is the innermost layer of the artery. It has only one layer of cells. The endothelium
surrounds the lumen (the central tube of the vessel). The lumen of an artery is narrow and smooth so that it
can transport blood at high pressure.

The muscular layer is made of smooth muscle and elastic fibres. Smooth muscle is arranged in circles round
the endothelium. This layer makes it possible for the artery to contract and relax for the efficient movement of
blood.

The outermost layer is the fibrous layer made of connective tissues such as collagen. The fibres are arranged
parallel to the length of the vessel. They enable the artery to withstand the pressure caused by the blood
coming from the heart.
When the ventricles contract, the arteries relax allowing blood from the heart to flow into them. When the
ventricles relax, the arteries contract, forcing the blood forward. This contraction and relaxation of arteries is
felt as a pulse.

Pulse rate is the number of pulses per minute. The pulse rate reflects the heartbeat. An adult human‟s heart
beats at an average of 72 times a minute. However, this can increase or decrease due to physical activity,
emotional state or health factors

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Arteries branch to form arterioles. Arterioles in turn branch to form capillaries. Capillaries are joined at the
other end by venules which join to form veins.
Veins
Veins are vessels that transport blood to the heart from all parts of the body. All veins transport deoxygenated
blood except the pulmonary vein. The pulmonary vein transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the
heart.

Veins have a larger lumen and less muscular walls compared to arteries. This is because the blood in the veins
flows at low pressure. Vein have valves at regular intervals. The valves prevent the back flow of blood.
Valves Open Valves Closed

The muscles next to the veins squeeze the veins and help to force blood to flow towards the heart. The
contraction of the ribs during breathing also helps to squeeze some veins and keep blood flossing.
Capillaries
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. They arc narrow and have walls that are one cell thick
Capillaries are in direct contact with the tissues of the body. They form a network for the efficient diffusion of
substances. Their thin walls maximize the rate of diffusion.

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The thin walls of the capillaries enable oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from the blood to the cells,
carbondioxide and other waste products to diffuse from the cells into the blood and white blood cells to reach
sites of infection.
Capillaries join to form venules (small veins) which join to form veins.

Differences between arteries, veins and capillaries

Table below gives a summary of the structural and functional differences between arteries, veins and
capillaries
CAPILLARIES
ARTERIES VEIN

[lave narrow smooth Have narrow smooth

lumens [lave wide irregular lumens lumens

[lave thick muscular

walls Have thin, less muscular wails Have one cell ' thick walls
Lack valves
Lack valves except
where they are Have valves at regular intervals
connected to the heart

Transport blood at high Transport blood at low Transport blood at low

pressure pressure pressure
Transport blood away Transport blood towards tire Transport blood within the
from the heart heart tissues

Transport oxygenated Transport either

blood, except the Transport deoxygenated blood, oxygenated ca
pulmonary artery except the pulmonary vein deoxygenated blood

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 Contract and relax to
create a pulse Blood flows smoothly Blood flows snootily

BLOOD
Blood is a fluid tissue. It consists of cells (red blood cells and white blood cells) and platelets (fragments of
cells) suspended in a fluid called plasma. An adult human has 4 to 6 liters of blood. The pH of blood is 7.4.
Plasma
Plasma is a pale-yellow fluid. Approximately 55% of the blood is plasma. Plasma is mostly made up of water
but it also has dissolved substances such as food nutrients metabolic wastes, oxygen, proteins and mineral
ions. These solutes make up 8% of the plasma while water makes up 92%.
The major functions of plasma are the transportation of:

1. nutrients from the digestive system to the whole body

2. red blood cells containing oxygen to the tissues
3. wastes such as carbon dioxide and urea to the excretory organs
4. white blood cells and antibodies to sites of infection
5. hormones to the target organs
6. mineral ions such as sodium, potassium and chlorides
7. Platelets to sites of bleeding.

Plasma is also important for distributing heat to all parts of the body, regulating the place in the body.
Red blood cells
Another name for the red blood cells is erythrocytes. They are red, round biconcave cells with no nucleus.
One milliliter of blood has approximately 5 to 6 million red blood cells

Normal red blood cell

Red blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. Their lifespan is about 120 days. The liver and the spleen
destroy old red blood cells and release hemoglobin for the formation of new cells.
Hemoglobin is the red pigment in erythrocytes. It has a high affinity for oxygen.
The function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. The adaptation red blood cells that
make them suited for this function axe the presence of hemoglobin, their large numbers, biconcave shape and
the lack of nucleus which increases the total surface area of gaseous exchange.
Transport of oxygen
In the lungs (where there is a high concentration of oxygen), hemoglobin combines with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin. This is an unstable compound which releases oxygen when it reaches tissues that have a low

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concentration of oxygen. The formation of oxyhaemoglobin and release oxygen and hemoglobin can be
shown using the following equation.
Hemoglobin + oxygen = Oxyhaemoglobin
Oxygen diffuses out of the red blood cells, through the capillary walls to the tissues.
Transport of carbon dioxide
In the red blood cells, carbon dioxide combines with hemoglobin to form carbominohaemoglobin. This
compound is transported to the lungs where carbon dioxide is released and expelled from body.
White blood cells
Another name for the white blood cells is leucocytes. These cells have irregular shapes: milliliter of blood has
approximately 5000 to 10 white blood cells.

White blood cells are produced in the bone marrow and in the lymph nodes.
The function of white blood cells is to protect body against infection. They perform this function by

1. Engulfing and destroying pathogens (a process called phagocytosis).

2. Producing substances that neutralize toxins produced by pathogens.
3. Causing clumping together of foreign materials in the body.
4. Killing infected body cells.
5. Preventing clotting in damaged tissues.
The effect of HIV on white blood cells

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The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) attacks a type of white blood cells called helper-T cells. These
cells are essential for body immunity. When they encounter an antigen, the helper-T cells divide themselves to
form new cells. This increases the number of cells available to fight the infection. After the infection, some
cells remain as memory cells to activate an immune response if the infection happens again, in addition
helper-T cells activate other cells in the immune system.

HIV has a protein envelope that can only bind to its receptor called CD4 found on the cell membrane of the
helper-T cell. When it enters the human body, HIV fuses its protein envelope with the CD4 then enters the
cell. Once inside the cell, the virus becomes part of the helper-T cell and replicates together with it as it
undergoes division. This increases the amount of HIV in the blood. The HIV destroys helper-T cells resulting
in the reduction of the number of helper-T cells and reducing theCD4 count.
Diagram HIV attacking T-helper

HIV destroys helper-T cells in the following ways:

1. It reproduces inside the helper-T cell, and then raptures the cell's membrane and the new viruses are
released.
2. It alters the helper T-cells so that when it responds to an infection, it kills itself instead of dividing to
form new cells.
3. It marks helper-T cells as targets for destruction by other cells in the immune system.
4. It causes the fusion of many helper-T cells to form a giant‟ cell. Such a cell can survive but it cannot
perform normal helper-T cell functions
Thus, HIV lowers the body‟s immunity significantly making it vulnerable to opportunistic infections.

Platelets
Platelets are also called thrombocytes. They are fragments of cells produced in the bone marrow. One
milliliter of blood contains about 250,000 to 400,000 platelets. They play an important role in the clotting
process.

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The clotting process
Platelets at the site of an injury produce thromboplastin which starts off the clotting process. Thromboplastin,
with the help of vitamin K and calcium neutralizes heparin an anticoagulant in blood.
Heparin converts prothrombin (which is an inactive plasma protein) to thrombin (an active plasma protein).
Thrombin catalyzes the conversion of soluble Fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin. Fibrin forms a network of
fibres that traps debris and blood cells. The result is a clot at the site of the wound preventing further loss of
blood.

Blood clot

Blood Groups and Blood Transfusion

Grouping of human blood is done using the ABO system and the Rhesus factor.
The ABO system
The ABO system of grouping blood depends on two things. First is the presence or absence of antigen A or
antigen B on the membranes of the red blood cells. Second is the presence of antibody A or antibody B in the
blood plasma.

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A person cannot have a certain antigen membrane of the red blood cell and also have the corresponding
antibody in the plasma. For example, you cannot have both antigen “a” and antibody “a”. This would cause
agglutination clumping together of red blood cell. Agglutination can cause fatal.
The various blood groups and the antigens an antibodies present in them are summarized
Antigen on the Antibody in the plasma
Blood group membrane of the blood
cell
A A A
B B B
AB A and B (none)
O (none) a and b

Rhesus factor
This factor is named after the Rhesus monkey in which it was first observed. When the rhesus factor is present
on the red blood cell membrane, a person is said to be rhesus positive. This is abbreviated as Rh+. If it is
absent, the person is rhesus negative this is abbreviated as Rh-. Thus, a person‟s blood is said to be A+ if it is
blood group A and has the Rhesus factor or A- if it is blood group A but lacks the Rhesus factor. There is also
B+ or B-, O+ or O- and AB+ or AB- blood groups.
If a rhesus negative woman marries a rhesus positive man, their children are highly likely to be rhesus
positive. During the last months of pregnancy, the rhesus antigen from the foetus passes into the mother's
blood. This causes the mother's body to produce antibodies which destroy some of the foetus's red blood cells.
This destruction is minimal in the first child but in the children that follow, a lot of destruction could take
place, killing the foetus. This is called haemolytic disease of the newborn erythroblastosis foetalis. To prevent
this, the mother is treated with anti-rhesus globulin. This prevents her body from forming antibodies against
the rhesus antigen.
Blood transfusion
Blood transfusion is the transfer of blood from one person (the donor) to another (the recipient). It is
necessary to replace blood when the recipient has a blood disorder or has lost a lot of blood due to surgery or
an accident.

In order for the blood transfusion to be successful, the blood of the donor and that of the recipient must mix without agglutination. When
this happens, the blood is said to be compatible. If the blood is incompatible, agglutination occurs.

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Blood compatibility depends on the blood groups of the donor and the recipient. For example, if a person of
blood group A receives blood from a person of blood group B, the recipients‟ body produces antibodies
against antigen B. This is because the antigen is seen as foreign material.

Individuals with blood group AB are called universal recipients. They can receive blood from people of any
blood group. However, they can only donate blood to someone with blood group AB. Those with blood group
O arc universal donors. They can donate blood to people of all blood groups. On the other hand, they can only
receive blood from someone with blood group O.
The following is a compatibility table for the different blood groups.
Compatibility of blood groups Donor's blood group Recipient's blood group

KEY:
√- means compatible
X- Means incompatible
If blood from a rhesus positive person is transfused to a rhesus negative person, the recipient produces rhesus
antibodies. If such a transfusion is done a second time, massive agglutination can occur. This can lead to loss
of life.
Precautions taken during transfusion
 Blood from the donor must be checked for compatibility with blood from the recipient in terms of both
ABO blood group and Rhesus factor in order to avoid agglutination.
 The donor's blood must be screened to ensure that it does not have pathogens that can cause diseases
such as HIV and AIDS, syphilis and hepatitis B.
 Donated blood is stored in special bags and an anticoagulant is added to prevent it from coagulating.
 Donated blood is kept in a refrigerator for a maximum of 21 days. After that it expires and should not
be used.
 Transfusion should be done only when extremely necessary.
Advantages of blood transfusion
1. It ensures rapid replacement of blood lost from the body, for example during surgery or due to an
accident
2. Blood transfusion is used to treat diseases such as sickle-cell anemia
Disadvantages of blood transfusion

1) There are no exact blood matches. Blood is a complex tissue that contains many different. One person's
blood cannot be exactly the same as another's. Hence, there are chances of developing a reaction to transfused
blood.
2) Transfused blood may not always be 100% free of infections.

Blood circulation is the movement of blood from the heart to all part of the body and back to the heart.
Human being exhibit double circulation where by the blood passes through the heart twice for each complete
circulation

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Double circulation in human being
In other less complex organisms like the fish, blood goes through the heart only once: this is known as single
circulation.
Pulmonary circulation
• During pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood is brought to the heart through the vena cava. This
blood is emptied into the right auricle. The right auricle pumps blood to the right ventricle. When the right
ventricle contracts, it pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
• In the lungs, the blood is oxygenated. It then flows back to the heart through the pulmonary vein. The
movement of blood between the heart and the lungs is called the pulmonary cycle.
Systemic circulation
• In systemic circulation, the pulmonary vein transports blood to the left auricle. The left auricle then
pumps the blood into the left ventricle. The left ventricle has strong muscles that pump blood to all parts of
the body through the aorta.
• After the tissues have derived their requirements from the blood, it flows back to the heart through the vena
cava. This movement of blood between the heart and the various parts of the body is called the systemic cycle.
Formation of tissue fluid
The aorta is the largest artery in the body. It beaches into smaller arteries, which in him branch into even
smaller vessels called arterioles. Arterioles branch into capillaries which are in contact with the tissue of the
body. The capillaries have tiny pores that allow some components of blood to filter into the tissues.
At the arterial end of the capillary, there is high blood pressure. This forces fluid out through the any pores in
the capillaries

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The fluid is composed of water, oxygen, hormones and nutrients. This fluid bathes the cells. It is called tissue
fluid or interstitial fluid
The substances in this fluid diffuse into the cells through the cell membrane. In addition, the waste products
from the cells diffuse into the tissue fluid. These wastes include carbon dioxide, minerals, heat and
nitrogenous wastes.

At the venous end of the capillary, blood pressure is low; water potential is also low. The pressure of the
tissue fluid is higher. This forces the tissue fluid back into the capillaries. Diffusion also helps in the re-entry
of tissue fluid to the capillary. However, some tissue fluid remains within the cells. This later enters the
lymphatic system to form lymph
The capillaries join to form venules. Venules join to form veins. The veins transport blood back to the heart.
Veins in the lower part of the body unite to form the inferior vena cava while veins in the upper part of the
body unite to form the superior vena cava. These two large veins join to form the vena cava which transports
blood to the right auricle of the heart.

Importance of blood circulation

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1. It enables the transportation of cell requirements such as oxygen and nutrients to all the body tissues.
2. It ensures that waste products from the cells are removed in order to prevent accumulation.
Accumulation of waste products is harmful to the body.
3. Blood circulation is important for the regulation of body temperature. Body heat is transported to all
parts of the body through this system.
4. Blood circulation also transports hormones from the organs that produce them to the organs where
they are needed. For example, insulin from the pancreas is a hormone necessary for the regulation of blood
sugar levels
Blood pressure
Blood pressure is measured by considering the systolic pressure and the diastolic pressure.
Systole occurs when the ventricles contract and pump blood into the arteries.
Diastole is the phase when the auricles contract to pump blood into the ventricles.
The pressure developed during these actions can be felt in the arteries. It is measured in millimeters of
mercury (mmHg).
For example, if the pressure daring systole is 120 mmHg and the pressure daring diastole is 80 mmHg, the
blood pressure is 120/80 mmHg. This is the average blood pressure in a normal human being. A
sphygmomanometer is the instrument used to measure blood pressure.
Diseases and disorders of the human circulatory system
The diseases and disorders of the human circulatory system are increased by eating habits and lifestyles.
Fating food with high levels of cholesterol and fat causes narrowing of blood vessels due to deposition in
blood vessels. Lifestyles such as smoking, lack of exercise, stress and taking alcohol also put one in danger of
developing heart problems such as coronary heart disease and high blood pressure.
Arteriosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis is the hardening of arteries. It happens when there are fat deposits on the wall of the artery or
when fibrous tissues form in the artery wall or artery walls degenerate:
Arteriosclerosis hinders the arteries from pulsating normally. The lumen is narrowed, affecting the efficiency
of blood flow

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As a result, the heart has to pump harder in order to supply the tissues with enough blood. The result of this is
high blood pressure (hypertension). High blood pressure usually has no specific symptoms. However, it can
cause headaches, dizziness and ringing in the ears.
Causes of arteriosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis is mainly caused by excessive alcohol and smoking, stress, too much fat in the jet, lack of
exercise or old age.
Effects of arteriosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis causes swelling of part of a blood vessel and rupturing of the artery walls. It also causes total
blockage of an artery, thus depriving some tissues of oxygen. This can cause the affected tissue to become
severely damaged or to die.
Prevention and treatment of arteriosclerosis
People can prevent themselves from arteriosclerosis by avoiding alcohol and smoking, reducing stress,
minimizing intake of fatty foods and engaging in regular exercise. Arteriosclerosis can be treated by
medication or surgery.
Sickle-cell anemia
This condition is a genetic disorder which causes production of abnormal hemoglobin and malformed red
blood cells. The effect is a reduction of the blood's capacity to transport oxygen.

sicked red blood cell

Normal cell red blood cell

Signs and symptoms of sickle-cell anemia

The disease gets its name from the crescent or sickle shape of the red blood cells.
Sickle-cell anemia is characterized by fatigue or excessive tiredness, shortness of breath daring exercise,
headaches, dark-colored urine, abdominal pain, abnormal heartbeat and general body weakness.
Treatment and prevention of sickle-cell anemia
Sickle-cell anemia has no cure. It is difficult to prevent since it is inherited. However, patients can be helped
by making sure that they avoid excessive physical exercise and cat a well-balanced diet that is rich in minerals
and vitamins.
Leukemia
Leukemia is a type of blood cancer. It is caused by the over production of white blood cells and the

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suppressed production of red blood cells.

The excess white blood cells infiltrate body organs, for example the liver and the spleen. This causes reduced
efficiency in the functioning of these organs and their abnormal enlargement.
Signs and symptoms of leukemia
Leukemia is characterized by abnormally high numbers of white blood cells, abnormal bleeding, e.g. nose
bleeding, bleeding even from minor cuts, extreme body weakness, anemia, and throat and month infections
that may be recurrent.
Treatment of leukemia
Leukemia cannot be cured. However, it is controlled by frequent blood transfusions, radiotherapy and
chemotherapy to kill the abnormal cells, and bone marrow transplants

High blood pressure (Hypertension)

The blood pressure of a normal human being is 120/80mmHg. Very high blood pressure (over 140/90mmHg)
strains the blood vessels and causes hypertension and sometimes heart failure. Increase in blood pressure may
be caused by high fat levels due to over-consumption of felly foods, lack of exercise, obesity, high emotional
stress, alcoholism and smoking, and arteriosclerosis.
Signs and symptoms of hypertension
The signs and symptoms of hypertension include feeling dizzy, ringing sound in the ear and severe headaches
Prevention and treatment of hypertension
Hypertension can be prevented by engaging in regular exercises, avoiding alcohol and smoking, eating a
balanced diet with less fat to control weight and reducing stress as much as possible. Hypertension can be
treated using drugs.
Coronary thrombosis
Coronary thrombosis occurs when there are blood clots in the blood vessels that supply blood to the heart
(coronary arteries). This prevents blood from reaching some tissues of the heart. The affected tissues lack
adequate amounts of oxygen and waste materials accumulate in the cells to toxic levels.
Symptoms of coronary thrombosis

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Coronary thrombosis is characterized by uncomfortable pressure or sharp pain in the chest, sometimes
extending to the neck, shoulders and arms, excessive sweating dizziness or fainting, nausea or a feeling of
severe indigestion and shortness of breath.
Effects of coronary thrombosis
Coronary thrombosis can cause death of some cardiac tissue or sudden death
Prevention and treatment of coronary thrombosis
People can avoid coronary thrombosis by doing regular exercise, avoiding sudden strenuous activity, avoiding
alcohol and smoking, minimize intake of fatty foods and avoiding excessive stress Thrombosis can be treated
by drags.
Stroke
A stroke occurs when there is interference in the amount of blood flowing to the brain. Such interference can
be due to blockage or rapture of an artery supplying blood to the brain. This causes some brain cells to lack
adequate oxygen and nutrients.
Symptoms of stroke
Symptoms of a stroke include sudden numbness or weakness especially on one side of the body, sudden
confusion or trouble in understanding or speaking and sudden poor vision in one 01 both eyes. The patient
also experiences sudden dizziness, loss of balance, trouble when walking 01 lack of coordination, and sudden
severe headaches
Effects of a stroke
A stroke has severe effects on the victim such as weakness or paralysis on one side of the body, leading to
difficulties in movement and coordination. It also causes lack of feeling on one side of the body, speech or
language problem; and loss of memory. Other effects are behavior changes, difficulty when swallowing and
exhaustion.
Prevention and treatment of a stroke
A stroke can be avoided by avoiding drinking and smoking, ensuring your blood pressure remains it the
normal range and exercising regularly. Eating a low-fat, low-salt diet can also prevent a stroke Medication can
help in the treatment of a stroke.
The Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system closely resembles the blood circulatory system. It consists of lymph, lymph vessels
through which lymph travels, and lymphoid organs and tissues such as thymus, adenoids, tonsils, lymph
nodes and spleen.
Lymphatic system connects with the blood circulatory system at the superior vena cava

The Lymphatic System

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After cells get their requirements from tissue fluid, not all the fluid flows back into the capillaries, Part of it
flows into lymph vessels. Once in these vessels, the fluid is called lymph.

Lymph is a pale yellow fluid. It has the same components as tissue fluid, but more fatty substances.

Lymph vessels unite to form larger vessels called lymph ducts. There are two main lymphatic ducts; the right
lymphatic duct empties into the right subclavian vein while the left lymphatic duct drains into the left
subclavian vein. The two veins join to form the superior vena cava. In this way, the contents of lymph enter
the blood circulation system.

Formation of lymph
Lymphatic ducts form nodule-like structures called lymph nodes. These nodes are found in the abdomen,
groin, armpits and neck. Lymph nodes are important sites for the tissue before they enter the bloodstream
production of white blood cells. They also filter out foreign materials such as bacteria and dead tissue before
they enter the blood stream
The flow of lymph depends greatly on the squeezing of lymph vessels by breathing movements, intestinal
movements and muscular movements. The lymph vessels have valves to prevent back flow of lymph.
Importance of the lymphatic system

1. Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes (white blood cells) which help the body to fight diseases.
2. Lacteals enable absorption of fatty acids after digestion.
3. It provides a way of getting tissue fluid back to the circulatory system.

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4. The spleen destroys worn out red blood cells.
5. The spleen, the adenoids and the tonsils produce antibodies which help in fighting disease-causing
microorganisms
Disorders and diseases of the lymphatic system
There are many diseases and disorders that affect the lymphatic system. Some of these diseases and disorders
are explained below
Elephantiasis
This is a disease that is caused by worms (filaria) that block the lymph vessels causing accumulation of lymph
which leads to swelling of the arms or legs
Filaria worms are transmitted by mosquitoes. Elephantiasis is treated by destroying the parasites. One way of
preventing it is by eliminating breeding areas of mosquitoes, for instance bushes and stagnant water.
Oedema
This is tire swelling of body tissues due to excessive lymph. It is caused by increased blood pressure in the
capillaries; causing the production of large amounts of lymph that tire lymphatic system cannot transport
efficiently, pregnancy, obesity and protein deficiency.

Oedema can be controlled by taking measures to reduce blood pressure, pregnant women keeping the feet
slightly raised when sitting or lying down eating a well-balanced diet and taking measures to reduce body
weight, for example by exercising and avoiding eating excessive amounts of food.
Lymphoma
Lymphoma is tire term used to refer to cancers that affect the lymphatic system. These cancers cause
abnormal growth or functioning of the components of the lymphatic system. The result is weakened immune
response in the body.
Symptoms of lymphoma include swollen and painful lymph nodes, fatigue, weight loss, night sweats and
itching.
Lymphomas are treated using chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Severe cases may call for bone marrow
transplants

Tonsillitis
This is an infection and swelling of the tonsils. It is caused by bacteria or viruses that enter the body through
the mouth or sinuses.
Symptoms include red and swollen tonsils, sore throat, fever or chills, muscle ache and tiredness.
Mild cases of tonsillitis are treated by having adequate rest and taking plenty of fluids. More severe cases may
require medical treatment; frequent tonsillitis is sometimes solved by tonsillectomy (surgical removal of the
tonsils).
Summary

1. The mammalian heart is responsible for pumping blood to all parts of the body. It has four chambers:
two auricles (or atria) and two ventricles.
2. Valves in the heart and veins prevent the back flow of blood.
3. The flow of blood in the heart is as follows
(a) Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right auricle through the vena cava

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(b) The right auricle pumps blood to the right ventricle.
(c) The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
(d) Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left auricle through the pulmonary vein.
(e) The left auricle pumps blood to the left ventricle.
(f) The left ventricle pumps blood to all parts of the body through the aorta.
4. The main blood vessels are arteries, veins and capillaries.
5. Arteries are muscular vessels that transport blood away from the heart. Arteries contract and relax,
creating a pulse.
6. Veins are less muscular than arteries. They transport blood towards the heart.
7. Capillaries are very small vessels whose walls are one cell thick. They are in direct contact with the body
tissues.
8. Blood is a fluid tissue consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
9. Plasma is the fluid part of blood. It transports dissolved substances, helps to regulate body temperature
and pH and acts as a site for the exchange of nutrients and waste products.
10. Red blood cells are biconcave in shape, lack a nucleus and contain hemoglobin. Their function is to
transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
11. White blood cells are irregularly shaped. They are important for immunity.
12. Platelets are fragments of cells. They help in blood clotting.
13. Grouping of human blood is done according to the ABO system and the Rhesus factor.
14. Blood transfusion is the transfer of blood from a donor to a recipient.
15. Agglutination occurs if transfused blood is incompatible with the recipient‟s blood.
16. Blood circulation is the movement of blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Blood circulation in
humans involves a double circulation system where there are two cycles:
- Pulmonary cycle (from the heart to the lungs and back).
- Systemic cycle (from the heart to all parts of the body and back)
17. Diseases and disorders of the human circulatory system include high blood pressure, arteriosclerosis,
sickle-cell anemia and leukemia.
18. Blood pressure is measured by considering the pressure when the ventricles contract (systole) and the
pressure when the auricles contract (diastole).
19. Lymph is formed from tissue fluid that does not flow back into the capillaries.
20. Disorders of the lymphatic system include oedema, lymphoma, tonsillitis and elephantiasis.

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TRANSPORT IN PLANT

The transport system in plants is not as complex as that of animals. Materials are transported by vascular
bundles made up of xylem and phloem tissues. Xylem tissue transports water and mineral salts from the soil
to all parts of the plant. Phloem tissue transports manufactured food from the sites of photosynthesis to all
parts of the plant. In between the xylem and phloem is cambium. Tire cambium divides to form new xylem
and phloem

Vascular bundle in a stem showing the position of cambium

Components of the vascular system Xylem
Xylem tissue is made up of the xylem vessels and the tracheids. Mature xylem vessels and tracheids are made
up of hollow and dead cells. Their walls are made of cellulose and lignin. Lignin strengthens the cell walls
and makes them rigid. Therefore, xylem has an additional function of giving support to the plant.

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Xylem vessels
The movement of substances in the xylem is always upward and is by conduction. A xylem vessel is made of
hollow cells without end walls. These cells are joined end to end to form a pipe-like structure. See above
Xylem vessels begin in the roots, go up through the stem and branch into every leaf of the plant.
Xylem vessels have no cytoplasm and nuclei. This enables them to transport a larger volume of water and
mineral salts.
Tracheid elements are elongated with pointed (tapering) ends (Figure, below) they are also laid end to end to
enable continuous flow of water. Their end walls have perforations (pits) unlike in xylem where end walls are
missing. This makes them less efficient in conduction of water.

Phloem

The phloem tissue is made up of sieve-tube elements and companion cells.

Like xylem vessels, sieve-tube elements are made of cells that are joined end to end. However, the end walls
of these cells are not completely broken down. They have perforations or pores that form sieve plates. These
cells contain cytoplasm but they have no nucleus. Fibres run through the pores thereby connecting adjacent
sieve-tube cells.
Each sieve-tube element has a companion cell; they are separated by a thin wall made up of parenchyma cells
with pores called plasmodesmata which allow exchange of materials between them.
Companion cells have a high concentration of mitochondria. They provide the sieve-tube elements with
energy.

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The movement of substances in the phloem is by translocation. It can be in any direction.
The distribution of vascular bundles in plants
The way the vascular bundles are arranged in the roots, stems and leaves of monocots and dicots differ. This
arrangement also differs in the roots and stems of the two categories of plants.
Monocotyledonous root
The arrangement of vascular bundles is as shown:

Dicotyledonous root

The xylem is centrally positioned and star-shaped. The phloem is found between the extensions of the xylem
as shown in Figure below

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Monocotyledonous stem
The arrangement of vascular bundles is random. See Figure below

Dicotyledonous stem
The vascular bundles are arranged around the central pith, See Figure below

Absorption and movement of water and mineral salts

Plants absorb water and mineral salts from the soil through root hairs.
Structure and functions of root hairs
Root hairs are extensions of the epidermal cells of the root. Figure below shows the structure of a root hair.

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Root hairs are long and slender to provide a large surface area for the absorption of water and mineral salts
from the soil. The large number of root hairs also increases the total surface area of the roots.
The root hair cell sap is usually hypertonic to the surrounding. Hence, water enters the cell by osmosis.
Root hair cells have a higher concentration of minerals than the surrounding. Mineral salts are therefore
absorbed by active transport.
The root hairs are very thin in order to provide a short distance over which absorption of water and mineral
salts takes place.
Movement of water and dissolved mineral salts
When water is absorbed by the root hair, it dilutes the contents of the cell sap vacuole. As a result, the cells of
the cortex, which are adjacent to the epidermis, have less water than the root hair cells. Water moves from the
root hair cells to the cortex cells by osmosis. It moves the same way into the cells of the endodermis, then
into the pericycle and then into the xylem.

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Movement of water from root hair xylem
Once in the xylem, the water and the mineral salts dissolved in it move up the xylem vessel by transpirational
pull, capillarity and root pressure.
Transpirational pull
Transpiration occurs when water evaporates from the plant through the stomata in the leaves. As the water is
lost, the mesophyll cells draw water from the xylem in the leaf which in turn draws water from the xylem in
the stem. This creates a tension called transpirational pull which draws water from the roots.
This results in a continuous column of water from the roots, through the xylem to the leaves. This column of
water is called transpirational stream

Transpirational stream

Capillarity
Capillarity is the action that causes water to rise in narrow tubes. Xylem vessels have a narrow lumen which
makes it possible for water to rise in them by capillarity.

Capillarity is made possible by cohesion and adhesion forces. Cohesion is the attraction between like
molecules. It makes the water molecules Stick to each other. Adhesion is attraction between different
molecules. It causes water molecules to adhere to the xylem vessels.
Root pressure
Root pressure pushes water and dissolved mineral salts upwards from the root. This happens because the cells
of the endodermis push mineral it‟s into the xylem. This increases osmotic pressure in the xylem thereby
creating a force that moves the water and dissolved minerals up the xylem vessel. When a plant is cut, fluid
oozes out the remaining stem (Stump). This is proof of root pressure in plant.

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Stump oozing sap

TRANSIPIRATION
Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water through the stomata in the leaves.
Water flows from the roots to the leaves through the xylem vessels. It enters the spongy mesophyll by
osmosis. The spongy mesophyll has substomatal air spaces where water enters as water vapor. As a result, the
concentration of water vapor in the substomatal air spaces becomes higher than the concentration of water
vapor in the air. This causes water to diffuse into the atmosphere through the stomata.

Movement of water through leaves

Note: Another process known as guttation also occurs in plants. It is the process by which plants lose water
as droplets through special glands found where veins are in contact with the leaf margin. Guttation is different
from transpiration in that transpiration is the loss of water vapor mainly through the plant's stomata. Guttation
occurs mostly at night or in plants growing in wet areas

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Types of transpiration

There are three types of transpiration:

1. Stomatal transpiration occurs through the stomata on the leaves. It accounts for approximately 90% of the
water lost by plants.

2. Uticular transpiration happens through the cuticle of leaves. The cuticle is a waxy layer that covers the
surface of leaves. A thick cuticle prevents excessive loss of water.

3. Lenticular transpiration takes place through the lenticels. Lenticels are pores found on the bark of stems
or roots in woody plant
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
The rate of transpiration is affected by plant features as well as environmental factors.
Plant features
a) The size of leaves; a large leaf has more stomata than a small leaf. Therefore, plants with large leaves lose
more water than those with smaller leaves,
b) An extensive root system: Plants that have extensive roots absorb more water and can therefore lose more
water than those with few roots.
c) Leaf cuticle; A thick cuticle resists water loss by transpiration while a thin cuticle makes water loss by
transpiration easier.
d) Number of stomata: The more stomata a leaf have, the faster the rate of transpiration and vice versa.
e) Position of stomata: Stomata on the upper surface of the leaf lose water more easily than those on the
lower surface. If a plant has leaves with more stomata on the upper surface, the rate of transpiration is faster
than in a plant that has Leaves with more stomata on the lower leaf surface.
f) Size of substomatal air spaces: Larger air spaces allow for a faster rate of transpiration because the leaves
can hold more water vapor. Smaller substomatal air spaces slow down the rate of transpiration.
g) Sunken stomata: Sunken stomata occur in pits. They are not exposed to moving air so they slow down
transpiration rate.
h) Epidermal hairs: Epidermal hairs trap water on the surface of the leaves, thus preventing water

Environmental factors
a) Temperature: Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up. Higher temperatures cause the
stomata to open and release water into [the atmosphere. Lower temperatures cause the stomata to close.
b) Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the surrounding air rises, the transpiration rate falls. It is
easier for water to evaporate into dry air than into air saturated with moisture.
c) Wind and air movement: Increased movement of the air around a plant results in a higher transpiration
rate. As water transpires from a leaf, the water saturates the air surrounding the leaf. If there is no wind, the air
does not move, thus raising the humidity of the air around the leaf. Wind moves the air causing the more
saturated air close to the leaf to be replaced by drier air.
d) Availability of soil moisture: When moisture is lacking in the soil, plants begin to senesce (age
prematurely) resulting in leaf loss and reduced transpiration. Also, less water is absorbed by the roots when
the soil is dry.
e) Light: Increased sunlight increases the rate of photosynthesis in the guard cells, causing them to
become turgid and open the stomata. Higher light intensity also increases the plant's internal temperature and
hence increases the rate of transpiration.
f) Atmospheric pressure: When atmospheric pressure is low, for example at high altitudes, plants lose
water more easily. The rate of transpiration is reduced in areas with high atmospheric pressure.
Significance of transpiration

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 It helps to maintain transpirational pull which is important for maintaining a constant stream of water
between the roots and the leaves.
Transpiration enables the loss of excess water from the plant,
It helps to cool the plant and enables absorption and distribution of water and mineral salts.
Summary:
The vascular system in plants is made up of xylem and phloem tissues.
Xylem transports water and mineral salts from the roots to all parts of the plant.
Phloem transports manufactured food from the site of photosynthesis to all parts of the plant.
The distribution of vascular bundles is different in roots and stems and in dicotyledonous and
monocotyledonous plants.
Root hairs are extensions of the epidermal cells of the root. They absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.
Water is absorbed from the soil by osmosis.
Mineral salts are absorbed from the soil by active transport.
Water and dissolved minerals move up the xylem by transpiration pull, capillarity and root pressure.

Transpiration is the process by which plants lose excess water through their leaves. Transpiration is
important because it:

 Helps to maintain the transpirational stream.

 Enables the loss of excess water.
 Enables absorption and distribution of water and mineral salts in a plant.
 Helps to cool the plant.

1) Transpiration is affected by the features of the plant and environmental factors. The features of the
plant include: leaf size, size of root system, size of leaf cuticle, size of air spaces, number and position of
stomata and whether the stomata are sunken or not, and the presence of epidermal hairs.
2) Environmental factors include the amounts of moisture in air, temperature, and air movement,
availability of soil moisture, light and atmospheric pressure.

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 10. GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND RESPIRATION
Gaseous exchange
Gaseous exchange is the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide across a respiratory surface. Unicellular
organisms carry out gaseous exchange by diffusion across the cell membrane. Large organisms cannot carry
out diffusion efficiently so they have developed specialized organs for gaseous exchange. These are called
respiratory surfaces.

Table below shows examples of respiratory surfaces in various organisms.

Respiratory surfaces in various organisms
Respiratory surface
Organism
Amoeba Cell membrane
Insects Tracheal system
Spider Book lung
Fish Gills
Plants Leaves, stems, roots
Amphibians Skin, gills and lungs
Mammals Lungs
Birds Lungs
Reptiles Lungs

Characteristics of respiratory surfaces

1. They are thin to reduce the diffusion distance.
2. They are moist to dissolve gases so that they diffuse in solution form.
3. They are highly branched, folded or flattened in order to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange.
4. They are close to an efficient transport and exchange system so that gases can be taken to and from the
cells easily.
5. They are well ventilated so that gases can pass through them easily

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN MAMMALS

The components of the gaseous exchange system in mammals include the nostril, trachea, lungs, intercostals
muscles, diaphragm and ribs.

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The adaptations and functions of parts of the mammalian respiratory system
Part Adaptive features Functions
Nose and nasal Mucus lining and hairs (cilia) Trap dust and microorganisms
cavity
Glottis
Presence of epiglottis
Closes the trachea during swallowing to prevent
food from entering the respiratory system
Blood vessels near the surface
Warm the air
Trachea, bronchus Have rings of cartilage tissue Prevent collapse of the respiratory tract
and bronchioles along their length
Mucus lining and cilia Trap and filter dust and microorganisms
Spongy with air spaces Main organ of mammalian gaseous exchange
Lungs (alveoli) Airspaces hold inhaled air
Provide large surface area for gaseous exchange
Numerous in number

Thin membranes Reduce distance for diffusion of gases

Moist surface Enables gases to dissolve into solutions before
Alveoli
diffusing
(singular: alveolus) Transport oxygen from the alveoli to the tissues
Has dense network of and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the
capillaries alveoli

Constantly contain air Maintain shape to avoid collapsing

Pleural Lubricates the membranes so that the lungs can

Contain pleural fluid
membrane slide smoothly over the thoracic cavity during
breathing

Ribs Are made of hard bone tissue Protect the lungs from injury
Move antagonistically: when
one muscle contracts the other
Allow expansion and contraction of the thoracic
Intercostal muscles relaxes and vice versa
cavity

Diaphragm, Muscular sheet of tissue

Separates the thorax from the abdomen. Allows
for gaseous exchange by becoming dome-shaped
or flattens.

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The mechanism of gaseous exchange in mammals
Gaseous exchange in mammals happens as a result of inhalation (or inspiration) and exhalation (or
expiration). Inhalation is breathing in air into the lungs. Exhalation is breathing out air from the lungs
During inhalation the muscles of the diaphragm Contract, pulling the diaphragm downwards: As this happens,
the external intercostal muscles contract and pulls the ribcage upwards and outwards. The result of these
movements is an increase in the volume and a decrease in the air pressure of the thorax. This makes air rush
into the lungs through the nostrils, trachea and bronchioles.
During exhalation, the muscles of the diaphragm relax and the diaphragm resumes its dome shape. The
external intercostal muscles relax, pulling the ribcage inwards and downwards. As a result, the volume of the
thorax decreases and the pressure inside it increases. This forces air out through the bronchioles, trachea and
nostrils

Breathing in (inhalation) Breathing out (exhalation)

External intercostal muscles contract The external intercostal muscles relax

Internal intercostal muscles relax The internal intercostal muscle contract

The ribcage is lifted outward and upward The ribcage move inward and downward

The diaphragm contracts and flattens The diaphragm relaxes and become dome
shaped

The volume of thoracic cavity increase as The volume of thoracic cavity decrease as
pressure decrease pressure increase

This allows air to enter the thoracic cavity

Air enter the alveoli through the nostrils, Air leaves the alveoli through the
pharynx, glottis, trachea, bronchioles and bronchioles, trachea, glottis, pharynx and
finally alveoli finally nostrils

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Gaseous exchange across the alveolus

The actual exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli. One mammalian lung has
millions of alveoli. The alveoli are surrounded by network of capillaries.
When we breathe in, air accumulates in the alveoli. There is a higher concentration of oxygen in the air in the
alveoli than in the bloodstream.
Therefore, oxygen diffuses out the alveoli into the blood in the capillaries. It combines with hemoglobin to
form oxyhaemoglobin
The oxygen is then transported to the tissues. Once in the tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin breaks down to release
oxygen and hemoglobin. The tissues use released oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
This causes the levels of carbon dioxide to become higher in the tissues than in the blood. Carbon dioxide
therefore diffuses into the blood in the capillaries and combines with hemoglobin to form
carbaminohaemoglobin. The capillaries transport carbon dioxide in this form to the alveoli.

The concentration of carbon dioxide is higher in lie blood in the capillaries than in the air in the alveoli.
Carbon dioxide therefore diffuses from the Capillaries into the alveoli. It is then transported through the
bronchioles, trachea, glottis, pharynx and finally nostrils into the atmosphere
Composition of inspired and expired air

Factors affecting the rate of gaseous exchange

1. Concentration of carbon dioxide
High concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood increases the rate of gaseous exchange. This provides the
tissues with adequate amounts of oxygen and lower carbon dioxide concentration in the blood.

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2. Concentration of hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is responsible for the transportation of gases from the lungs to the tissues and back. Efficient
transportation of gases takes place when the body has adequate amounts of hemoglobin.
When a person is anaemic, the body has a low concentration of hemoglobin. Only small amounts of oxygen
can be transported at a time. As a result, the rate of gaseous exchange has to increase so that the tissues get
adequate amounts of oxygen.
3. Physical activity
A more active body requires more oxygen than a less active body. As a result, gaseous exchange takes place
faster when there is increased body activity.
4. Health status of the body
Generally, the rate of gaseous exchange increases when somebody is sick. This is as a result of increased
metabolism by the liver in order to remove the toxins released by disease-causing microorganisms or break
down the drugs taken. Certain diseases also make the body weak and cause slowing down of the breathing
process.
5. Altitude
Altitude is the height above sea level. At high altitudes, the concentration of oxygen is lower compared to low
altitudes. Breathing is therefore faster at high altitudes. At high altitudes, there is also decreased atmospheric
pressure. This makes breathing difficult. Organisms therefore have to breathe in faster in order to get enough
oxygen.
6. Age
Young people are generally more active than old people. Also, a lot of growth processes take place in the
bodies of young people. This increases the demand for oxygen and therefore increases the breathing rate.
Gaseous exchange in plants
In plants, gaseous exchange mostly takes place through the stomata on the leaves and lenticels on the stem.
Some plants such as mangrove and ficus also carry out gaseous exchange through breathing roots.
Gaseous exchange in the leaves
Atmospheric air moves into and out of the leaf through the stomata. Gaseous exchange mostly takes place in
the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll.
During the day, guard cells that surround the stomata absorb water by osmosis. As a result, the cell sap of
guard cells becomes hypertonic and draws in water from the neighbouring cells by osmosis.
The guard cells become turgid and the stomata open. Air from the atmosphere enters into the air spaces in the
spongy mesophyll. The cells next to the air spaces have more oxygen (produced by the cells during
photosynthesis) but less carbon dioxide (used up during photosynthesis).
On the other hand, carbon dioxide is more in the air within the air spaces but oxygen is less. Carbondioxide
and oxygen diffuse in opposite directions depending on their concentration gradients. The carbon dioxide
diffuses to neighbouring cells until it reaches the site for photosynthesis. Oxygen moves out through the open
stomata into the atmosphere.
At night, there is no light, therefore photosynthesis ceases. No glucose is produced therefore the guard cells
do not absorb water by osmosis. Hence, the stomata remain partially closed.
However, respiration takes place in plants at night. The partially open stomata allow in small amount of air
which accumulate in the air spaces. There is more oxygen and less carbon dioxide in the air spaces compared
to the plant cells.
Oxygen moves into the plant cells while carbon dioxide moves into the air spaces and eventually into the
atmosphere through the partially open stomata. This explains why plants produce carbon dioxide at night and
oxygen during the day.

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Gaseous exchange through the lenticels
Lenticels made up of loosely packed cork cells located on the bark of woody stems and roots. They are small
pores through which gaseous exchange occurs.
Gaseous exchange in the lenticels
The loose arrangement of the cells facilitates the movement of gases between them. The cells have a thin layer
of moisture so that gases diffuse in and out while in solution form
At night, there is a higher concentration of oxygen in the air spaces between the cork cells than in the ells
themselves. Oxygen therefore diffuses into the cells surrounding the lenticels. The cells use oxygen far
respiration and release carbon dioxide in the process. Thus, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the cells
becomes higher than in the air spaces. Carbon dioxide therefore diffuses out through the cells into the air
spaces and then out through the lenticels. The opposite happens during the day.

Gaseous exchange through the roots

This occurs through breathing roots. Plants with breathing roots have a very thin epidermal layer which
enables the root to carry out gaseous exchange.

Breathing roots

Oxygen is at a higher concentration in the atmosphere than in the root cells. Therefore, oxygen diffuses into
the root cells through the epidermis.

During respiration, the plant uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. This causes the concentration of carbon
dioxide in the root cells to be higher than in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the root cells into
the atmosphere through the epidermis.

Importance of gaseous exchange in plants

1. It Enables plants to obtain carbon dioxide, which is one of the raw materials necessary for
photosynthesis.
2. Plants obtain oxygen which is necessary for the production of energy. Energy is produced during
respiration.
3. It enables the plant to eliminate excess carbon dioxide at night of which if left, will harm the plant.
Respiration
Respiration is the process by which food substances are broken down to provide energy. It is controlled by
enzymes. Enzymes are substances that affect the rate at which a reaction occurs but are not used up in the
reaction themselves. Respiration takes place in the mitochondria of the plant cells.

There are two types of respiration: aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.

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Aerobic respiration

This is a type of respiration whereby oxygen is used to break down glucose, releasing energy, carbon dioxide
and water. The chemical reaction for aerobic respiration is:

O6H12O6 + 6 O2 ------------------- ► 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

Glucose + oxygen = carbondioxide +water
The energy produced is in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Thirty-eight molecules of ATP are
produced at the end of the aerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration takes place in two stages: glycolysis and Kreb's cycle.
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm. It does not require oxygen so it is a phase that is common for both
aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
During glycolysis, enzymes break down glucose into a three carbon compound called pyruvic acid.
Glycolysis produces 2 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose.
The pyruvic acid can further be broken down in the presence or absence of oxygen. If there is oxygen, the
pyruvic acid proceeds to the next stage of aerobic respiration, which is Kreb's cycle. If there is no oxygen,
anaerobic respiration occurs.

Note that pyruvic acid passes through a stage where it is decarboxylated (one carbon dioxide molecule
removed from it) before going through the Kreb's cycle.

Kreb's cycle is also called the citric acid cycle. It involves the formation of citric acid molecule (a six carbon)
from the two carbon molecule by addition of a four carbon molecule, i.e. oxaloacetic acid in a cyclic
process.

Kreb's cycle takes place inside the cristae of the mitochondria.

Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration takes place in the absence of [oxygen.

In plants, anaerobic respiration is also called fermentation. It involves the breaking down of glucose by
bacteria or fungi to form alcohol, carbon dioxide and energy. This is represented by the following equation:

In animals, anaerobic respiration leads to the formation of lactic acid and energy. This is written as

In animals anaerobic respiration takes place during strenuous activity, for example during sports. It leads to
the accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles. Lactic acid is toxic.
Anaerobic respiration occurs when the body's oxygen supply does not meet the body's needs. Therefore, an
oxygen debt or oxygen deficit occurs. This causes the animal to breathe fast and deeply in order to get enough

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oxygen to convert the lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water. Some of the lactic acid is converted to glucose.
Breathing goes back to normal when the acid has been broken down.
Anaerobes are organisms that respire anaerobically. They include bacteria, yeast and fungi. There are two
types of anaerobes:
Obligate anaerobes which can only live and respire in the absence of oxygen. They die in the presence of
oxygen.
Facultative anaerobes; which respire both in the presence and in the absence of oxygen

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

1. Oxygen is used 1. Oxygen is not used

2. Large amounts of energy are
produced 2. Small amount of energy are produced

3. Water molecules are produced 3. Water is not produced

4. Food substances are completely

broken down 4. Food substances are not completely broken down
5. Takes place in the mitochondria and
cell membrane 5.Takes place in the cytoplasm

6. Carbon dioxide and water are the 6. Lactic acid is produced in animals and alcohol is
end- products produced in plants

Factors affecting the rate of respiration

The rate at which respiration takes place varies depending on the state of an organism. Hence, respiration is
sometimes fast and at other times slow.
The following factors affect the rate of respiration:
Temperature
Respiration is controlled by enzymes. The functioning of enzymes is affected by temperature. The rate of
respiration is slow at low temperatures and increases with increase in temperature until the optimal
temperature. Optimal temperature is the temperature at which the enzymes function best. If the temperature is
raised above optimal temperature, the enzymes are denatured and the rate of respiration reduces.
Activity
When an organism is involved in a vigorous activity, it requires more energy than when it is at rest. For
example, a human being requires less energy when sitting than when taking part in arace. Therefore, the rate
of respiration changes to suit the needs of the organism‟s physical activity.
Size
Small organisms lose heat faster than big organisms. This is because small organisms have a larger surface
area to volume ratio. Heat is a form of energy. Therefore, small organisms need to respire faster than large
organisms to replace the energy lost through heat.
Age
Generally, young organisms respire faster than older organisms. This is because they need energy to grow. In
addition, young organisms are more active than old organisms.
Health
When we are sick, the rate of respiration increases so as to remove the toxic materials produced by the
pathogens in our bodies.

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Infections and diseases of the respiratory system
There are several airborne infections which affect the human respiratory system. The common ones are
influenza, pneumonia, common cold and tuberculosis.
Most of the airborne infections are as a result of close contact with an infected person. When the sick person
breathes out, coughs or sneezes, the pathogens are released into the air. Hence, a person who is close by may
catch the infection. Sometimes, droplets may infect bedding, clothes and surfaces used by the sick person.
Airborne infections can be controlled by isolation of the infected patient, proper disposal of infected
secretions such as sputum, living in a well-ventilated house and avoiding overcrowding, especially in
bedrooms.
Pneumonia
Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs. It is caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or by inhaling chemical toxins
or irritants. Pneumonia is normally followed by other illnesses such as cold or flu.
Signs and symptoms of pneumonia
• Fever
• Chills
• Shortness of breath associated with pain
• Increased mucus production
• Cough
Prevention and treatment of pneumonia
• Staying warm
• Avoiding overcrowded areas
• Avoiding cold food or drinks. Hot drinks are preferred more as they loosen secretions
• Get treatment as early as possible since it is curable by antibiotics
Bronchitis
Bacteria, viruses and inhaling of irritating substances can cause the lining of the respiratory system to become
inflamed. This causes an infection called bronchitis. Bronchitis can be acute or chronic.
Acute bronchitis
This is caused by whooping cough or recurrent attacks of influenza. Smoking can also cause acute bronchitis.
Signs and symptoms of acute bronchitis
• Pain in the chest
• Rapid breathing
• Fever
• Coughing
• Headaches
Prevention and treatment of acute bronchitis
• Staying warm. Cold temperatures make the body more susceptible to bacterial infections
• Get treatment for all infections as fast as possible
Chronic bronchitis
Chronic bronchitis is caused by heavy smoking and recurrent acute bronchitis.
Signs and symptoms of chronic bronchitis
• Coughing, with the production of thick sputum
• Breathing difficulties
Prevention and treatment of chronic bronchitis
• Avoid smoking
• Avoid very smoky or dusty areas
• Live in a well-ventilated house
• Keep your body warm

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• Seek medical help
Asthma
Asthma can be caused by:
• Allergic reactions to dust, pollen, spores or animal fur
• Hereditary diseases of the respiratory system
• Extremely cold weather
• Frequent viral or bacterial lung infections Signs and symptoms of asthma
• Narrowing of bronchioles resulting in breathing difficulties and a wheezing or hissing sound when
breathing
• Excessive production of mucus
• Dilation of blood vessels, leading to low blood pressure. Low blood pressure can be fatal Prevention
and treatment of asthma
• Avoid allergens (things that cause allergic reactions)
• Get treatment for respiratory infections as early as possible
• Keep the body warm
• Muscle relaxants in the form of sprays, pills and injections are used to prevent the narrowing of the
bronchioles.
Lung cancer
The main cause of lung cancer is smoking. The nicotine in cigarette smoke stops the cilia in the trachea from
expelling foreign materials leading to respiratory infection.
Signs and symptoms of lung cancer
• Chest pain
• Breathing difficulty
• Weight loss
• Persistent cough
• Abnormal production of mucus
Prevention and treatment of lung cancer

• Stop smoking
• There is no cure for cancer. However, chemotherapy and physiotherapy are used to control the disease
Emphysema
This is a lung disease which results from destruction of the structures supporting the alveoli leading to their
collapse. This significantly reduces the surface area available for gaseous exchange.
Causes of emphysema
• Mainly cigarette smoke
• Air pollution
• Hereditary o Old age
Signs and symptoms of emphysema
• Shortness of breath
• Coughing
• Obstructive lung disease
• Difficulties when breathing, especially during exercise
• Wheezing during breathing
Prevention and treatment of emphysema
• Avoid cigarette smoking and exposure to smoke
• Lung surgery is usually done to relieve the symptoms
• Use of medical drugs

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• In severe cases, lung transplant is necessary
Chapter Summary:

1. Gaseous exchange is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide through a respiratory surface.
2. Features of a gaseous exchange surface are:
■ thin membrane
■ large surface area
■ moist lining
3. Dense network of capillaries. The structures involved in gaseous exchange in mammals are the nose,
mouth, pharynx, glottis, trachea, lungs, bronchioles, alveoli, ribs, pleural membranes and diaphragm.
4. Gaseous exchange is affected by the amount of hemoglobin in the blood and carbon dioxide
concentration.
5. In plants, gaseous exchange can take place through the stomata in the leaves, lenticels in woody stems
or in breathing roots.
6. Respiration is the process by which food substances are broken down to release energy.
7. Aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria in the presence of oxygen
8. Aerobic respiration involves two stages: glycolysis and Kreb's cycle.
9. Anaerobic respiration takes place in the cytoplasm in the absence of oxygen.

10. Diseases and infections that affect the respiratory system include bronchitis, asthma, pneumonia,
tuberculosis, and emphysema and j influenza.

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********Prepared by Sr. Donny********

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