TENTH EDITION

WELDING
HANDBOOK

VOLUME 1

Welding and
Cutting Science
and Technology
 Welding
Handbook
Tenth Edition
Volume 1

WELDING AND CUTTING

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Prepared under the direction of the

Welding Handbook Committee

Kathy Sinnes
Editor

American Welding Society

8669 NW 36 St, # 130
Miami, FL 33166
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 Welding Handbook, Tenth Edition

Volume 1 Welding and Cutting Science and Technology

Projected:

Volume 2 Welding Processes—Arc Welding and Cutting

Volume 3 Welding Processes—Resistance, Solid-State, Oxyfuel,

Brazing, and Soldering

Volume 4 Materials and Applications—Ferrous and Surfacing

Metals, and Maintenance and Underwater Applications

Volume 5 Materials and Applications—Nonferrous and High-

Temperature Metals, and Nonmetallic Materials

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 © 2018 by American Welding Society
All rights reserved
First Printing: November, 2018

No portion of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, including mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
copyright owner.

Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use only, or the internal,
personal, or educational classroom use only of specific clients, is granted by the American Welding Society (AWS)
provided the appropriate fee is paid to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923; telephone: (978) 750-8400; Internet: www.copyright.com.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018953522

Print—ISBN: 978-1-64322-014-7
PDF—ISBN: 978-1-64322-015-4

The Welding Handbook is the result of the collective effort of many volunteer technical specialists who provide
information to assist with the design and application of welding and allied processes.

The information and data presented in the Welding Handbook are intended for informational purposes only. Rea-
sonable care is exercised in the compilation and publication of the Welding Handbook to ensure the authenticity of
the contents. However, no representation is made as to the accuracy, reliability, or completeness of this informa-
tion, and an independent, substantiating investigation of the information should be undertaken by the user.

The information contained in the Welding Handbook shall not be construed as a grant of any right of manufac-
ture, sale, use, or reproduction in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or sys-
tem, which is covered by patent, copyright, or trademark. Also, it shall not be construed as a defense against any
liability for such infringement. Whether the use of any information in the Welding Handbook would result in an
infringement of any patent, copyright, or trademark is a determination to be made by the user.

Printed in the United States of America

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 DEDICATION

Harvey R. Castner

In recognition of his distinguished service

to the welding industry and his
enduring contributions to the Welding Handbook

Harvey R. Castner—welding engineer, manager, researcher, mentor, and welding industry expert—used his exten-
sive technical expertise to expand the technology of welding for today and future generations. He generously
shared the knowledge acquired during his career in the welding industry by serving on various industry committees,
including the Welding Handbook Committee. He joined AWS in 1962 and has been active throughout his working
career.

Harvey served as a Welding Handbook chapter volunteer beginning in the early 1990s and became a Committee
member in 1993. He has provided valuable guidance to the Committee on the organization and technical content,
serving as the Welding Handbook Committee Chair from 1999 to 2004. He continued providing support after his
term as Chair through oversight and final reviews of various chapters in subsequent volumes of the 9th edition.

He holds a B.S. degree in Welding Engineering from The Ohio State University and an M.B.A. from Kent State
University. He began his career at Allis Chalmers Corporation in Milwaukee Wisconsin and moved on to the Edison
Welding Institute in Columbus, Ohio. He served not only as a welding engineer, but also as a project manager and
senior technical manager, leading various research projects. He is a Fellow of the American Welding Society, an
AWS Life Member, and recipient of the James F. Lincoln Gold Medal Award. He is also a past member of the AWS
Board of Directors. Harvey has tirelessly worked for the improvement of the greater welding community through
his technical research, and development of the next generation of welding personnel.

The Welding Handbook Committee is honored to dedicate this Volume to Harvey R. Castner for his loyal devotion
and service to AWS and the Welding Handbook.

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 CONTENTS
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................... xi
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................................ xii
REVIEWERS ...................................................................................................................................................... xiii
CONTRIBUTORS ............................................................................................................................................. xiv
PART I—THE SCIENCE OF WELDING, CUTTING, AND ALLIED PROCESSES
CHAPTER 1—SURVEY OF JOINING, CUTTING, AND ALLIED PROCESSES ................................. 1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Joining Processes ................................................................................................................................................... 3
Resistance Welding .............................................................................................................................................. 19
Cutting Processes................................................................................................................................................. 48
Thermal Spraying ................................................................................................................................................ 53
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 55
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................................ 55
Supplementary Reading List ................................................................................................................................ 56
CHAPTER 2—PHYSICS OF WELDING AND CUTTING........................................................................ 58
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 58
Fusion and Solid-State Welding ........................................................................................................................... 58
Energy Sources for Welding ................................................................................................................................. 64
Arc Characteristics .............................................................................................................................................. 74
Metal Transfer..................................................................................................................................................... 80
Melting Rates ...................................................................................................................................................... 87
Physical Properties of Metals and Shielding Gases ............................................................................................... 93
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 96
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................................ 96
Supplementary Reading List ................................................................................................................................ 96
CHAPTER 3—HEAT FLOW IN WELDING................................................................................................. 87
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 100
Fundamentals of Heat Flow .............................................................................................................................. 101
Quantitative Calculation of Heat Transfer in Fusion Welding ........................................................................... 107
Conduction of Heat during Fusion Welding ...................................................................................................... 110
Convective Heat Transfer in the Weld Pool ....................................................................................................... 117
Relative Importance of Conduction and Convection ......................................................................................... 119
Heat Flow in Dissimilar Welding ....................................................................................................................... 123
Heat Flow in Solid-State Welding ...................................................................................................................... 125
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 128
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 129
Supplementary Reading List .............................................................................................................................. 130
CHAPTER 4—WELDING METALLURGY ................................................................................................ 115
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 132
Physical Metallurgy ........................................................................................................................................... 132
Metallurgy of Welding....................................................................................................................................... 147
Weldability of Some Commercial Alloys............................................................................................................ 158
The Brazed or Soldered Joint ............................................................................................................................. 168
Corrosion in Weldments .................................................................................................................................... 171
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 175
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 175
Supplementary Reading List .............................................................................................................................. 176
CHAPTER 5—DESIGN FOR WELDING................................................................................................... 157
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 180

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Connection Design .............................................................................................................................................180
Basics of Welded Connections ............................................................................................................................183
Principles of Connection Design.........................................................................................................................191
Economics of Welding........................................................................................................................................201
Quality and Connection Design Detailing ..........................................................................................................203
Detailing of Welds..............................................................................................................................................215
Sizing of Steel Welds...........................................................................................................................................229
Special Conditions..............................................................................................................................................249
Other Alloys.......................................................................................................................................................270
Examples............................................................................................................................................................281
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................289
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................289

PART II—DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 6—SYMBOLS FOR JOINING AND INSPECTION .............................................................291
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................292
Fundamentals.....................................................................................................................................................292
Weld Symbols.....................................................................................................................................................293
Welding Symbols................................................................................................................................................293
Welding Symbols for Specific Weld Types...........................................................................................................307
Brazing Symbols.................................................................................................................................................313
Soldering Symbols ..............................................................................................................................................314
Nondestructive Examination Symbols................................................................................................................317
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................324
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................325
Supplementary Reading List...............................................................................................................................325
CHAPTER 7—RESIDUAL STRESS AND DISTORTION.......................................................................327
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................328
Fundamentals.....................................................................................................................................................328
Nature and Causes of Residual Stress.................................................................................................................332
Effects of Residual Stress....................................................................................................................................337
Measurement of Residual Stress in Weldments ...................................................................................................344
Residual Stress Distribution Patterns in Typical Welds .......................................................................................353
Effects of Welding Sequence on Residual Stress ..................................................................................................358
Residual Stress and Distortion in Welds Made with Different Welding Processes ...............................................361
Computational Weld Modeling ..........................................................................................................................361
Weld Distortion..................................................................................................................................................369
Reducing or Controlling Residual Stress and Distortion.....................................................................................396
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................411
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................411
Supplementary Reading List...............................................................................................................................415
CHAPTER 8—ECONOMICS OF WELDING AND CUTTING................................................................417
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................418
The Cost Estimate ..............................................................................................................................................418
Economics of Welding........................................................................................................................................419
Automated and Robotic Systems........................................................................................................................433
Economics of Resistance Spot Welding...............................................................................................................444
Capital Investment in Welding Automation and Robotics ..................................................................................447
Control of Welding Costs...................................................................................................................................451
Economics of Brazing and Soldering ..................................................................................................................456
Economics of Thermal Cutting...........................................................................................................................462
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................464
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................465
Supplementary Reading List...............................................................................................................................465

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 PART III—AUTOMATION OF JOINING PROCESSES
CHAPTER 9—MECHANIZED, AUTOMATED, AND ROBOTIC WELDING ...................................... 467
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 468
Mechanized Welding and Cutting...................................................................................................................... 468
Automated Welding........................................................................................................................................... 474
Robotic Welding................................................................................................................................................ 482
Planning for Automated and Robotic Welding .................................................................................................. 491
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 499
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 499
Supplementary Reading List .............................................................................................................................. 499

CHAPTER 10—WELDMENT TOOLING AND POSITIONING............................................................. 501

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 502
Fixtures ............................................................................................................................................................. 502
Positioners ......................................................................................................................................................... 509
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 528
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 528
Supplementary Reading List .............................................................................................................................. 528

CHAPTER 11—MONITORING AND CONTROL OF WELDING AND JOINING PROCESSES.... 529

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 530
Principles of Monitoring and Control................................................................................................................ 531
Sensing Devices ................................................................................................................................................. 532
Process Instrumentation .................................................................................................................................... 542
Process Monitoring Systems .............................................................................................................................. 542
Process Control Systems .................................................................................................................................... 543
Monitoring and Control Systems....................................................................................................................... 545
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 566
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 566
Supplementary Reading List .............................................................................................................................. 566

PART IV—QUALITY, TESTING STANDARDS, AND METHODS

CHAPTER 12—WELD QUALITY .............................................................................................................. 571
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 572
Defining Weld Quality....................................................................................................................................... 572
Overview of Weld Discontinuities...................................................................................................................... 574
Discontinuities Associated with Fusion Welding ................................................................................................ 575
Discontinuities Associated with Resistance Welding .......................................................................................... 600
Discontinuities Associated with the Solid-State Welding Processes..................................................................... 605
Discontinuities in Brazed and Soldered Joints .................................................................................................... 607
Significance of Weld Discontinuities .................................................................................................................. 610
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 613
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 614
Supplementary Reading List .............................................................................................................................. 614

CHAPTER 13—TEST METHODS FOR EVALUATING WELDED JOINTS ....................................... 617

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 618
Testing for Strength ........................................................................................................................................... 619
Hardness Testing ............................................................................................................................................... 633
Bend Testing ...................................................................................................................................................... 640
Fracture Toughness Testing................................................................................................................................ 642
Fatigue Testing .................................................................................................................................................. 653
Corrosion Testing .............................................................................................................................................. 658
Creep and Rupture Testing ................................................................................................................................ 662
Testing of Thermal Spray Applications .............................................................................................................. 664

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Weldability Testing.............................................................................................................................................667
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................676
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................676
Supplementary Reading List...............................................................................................................................680

CHAPTER 14—WELDING INSPECTION AND NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION...................681

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................682
Personnel Qualifications.....................................................................................................................................683
The Inspection Plan............................................................................................................................................685
Nondestructive Examination..............................................................................................................................686
Metallographic Examination Methods ...............................................................................................................739
Inspection of Brazed and Soldered Joints............................................................................................................740
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................740
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................740
Supplementary Reading List...............................................................................................................................742

CHAPTER 15—PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION ..........................................743

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................744
Welding and Brazing Procedure Specifications ...................................................................................................747
Qualification of Welding and Brazing Procedures ..............................................................................................761
Performance Qualification .................................................................................................................................769
Standardization of Qualification Requirements..................................................................................................789
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................789
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................789
Supplementary Reading List...............................................................................................................................791

CHAPTER 16—CODES AND OTHER STANDARDS .............................................................................793

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................794
Types of Regulatory Documents.........................................................................................................................794
Standards-Developing Organizations and Welding-Related
Publications........................................................................................................................................................795
Guidelines for Participating in International Standards
Activities ............................................................................................................................................................818
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................819
Supplementary Reading List...............................................................................................................................819

PART V—SAFETY AND HEALTH

CHAPTER 17—SAFE PRACTICES .................................................................................................................
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................822
Safety Management............................................................................................................................................822
Protection of the Work Area ..............................................................................................................................826
Personal Protective Equipment ...........................................................................................................................829
Protection against Fumes and Gases...................................................................................................................834
Safe Handling of Compressed Gases ..................................................................................................................843
Protection against Electromagnetic Radiation ....................................................................................................848
Electrical Safety..................................................................................................................................................849
Fire Prevention and Protection ...........................................................................................................................852
Explosion Prevention .........................................................................................................................................854
Process-Specific Safety Considerations ...............................................................................................................854
Safety in Robotic Operations .............................................................................................................................866
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................871
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................871
Supplementary Reading List...............................................................................................................................873

INDEX OF TENTH EDITION, Volume 1..................................................................................................875

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Welding Handbook Committee of the American Welding Society and the editor gratefully recognize the con-
tributions of the volunteers who have created, developed, and documented the technology of welding and shared
it in past editions of the Welding Handbook, beginning with the first edition published in 1938. The enthusiasm
and meticulous dedication of the authors and technologists reflected in the previous nine editions of the Welding
Handbook are continued in this volume of the tenth edition.

This volume was compiled by the members the Welding Handbook Volume 1 Committee and the WH1 Chapter
Committees, with oversight by the Welding Handbook Committee. Chapter committee chairs, chapter committee
members, and oversight persons are recognized on the title pages of the chapters.

The Welding Handbook Committee and the editor recognize and appreciate the AWS technical committees who
developed the consensus standards that pertain to this volume, and acknowledge the work of the editors of all
previous editions. The Welding Handbook Committee is grateful to members of the AWS Technical Activities
Committee and the AWS Safety and Health Committee for their reviews of the chapters. The editor appreciates the
AWS Publications staff and Standards Development staff for their assistance during the preparation of this volume.

Welding Handbook Committee Chairs, 1938–2015

1938–1942 D. S. Jacobus
Circa 1950 H. L. Boardman
1956–1958 F. L. Plummer
1958–1960 R. D. Stout
1960–1962 J. F. Randall
1962–1965 G. E. Claussen
1965–1966 H. Schwartzbart
1966–1967 A. Lesnewich
1967–1968 W. L. Burch
1968–1969 L. F. Lockwood
1969–1970 P. W. Ramsey
1970–1971 D. V. Wilcox
1971–1972 C. E. Jackson
1972–1975 S. Weiss
1975–1978 A. W. Pense
1978–1981 W. L. Wilcox
1981–1984 J. R. Condra
1984–1987 J. R. Hannahs
1987–1990 M. J. Tomsic
1990–1992 C. W. Case
1992–1996 B. R. Somers
1996–1999 P. I. Temple
1999–2004 H. R. Castner
2004–2007 P. I. Temple
2007–2009 C. E. Pepper
2009–2014 Wangen Lin
2015– D. D. Kautz

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