ENGINEERING

GRAPHICS
 Introduction
• Engineering is the profession in which the knowledge of mathematics and science gained by study,
experience and practice is applied with good judgment to develop a functional, economical and satisfactory
solution to a given problem in tandem with codes and standards for the benefit of mankind.
• Graphics are drawings or pictures designed to represent objects or facts.
• Drawing as an art is the pictorial representation of the imagination of a scene in its totality by an individual
called Artist. Such drawings do not have standard guidelines and boundaries.
• Graphic design is the art of combining pictures, words, and decoration in the production of books,
magazines, etc.
• Engineering graphics is the geometric representation of solutions, engineering systems and
• components according to required national and international standards of practice. It can be read and
understood by all who have the knowledge of drawing principles. These drawings are
• produced with the purpose of solving specific human needs. Examples of such needs include agricultural
(food), energy, shelter, transportation, health care, education, etc. Engineering graphic is technically referred to
as engineering drawing.
• Like every other language, engineering graphics is primarily the language
of engineers
• for conveying ideas on technical issues to others. Since engineering
graphics are standardized (i.e. furnished with standard symbols, national and
international standard practice as well as codes), they display the exact
picture of an object and convey the same ideas to every trained personnel
across the nations of the world. Despite the social or economic or cultural or
language barriers, drawings can be effectively used in other countries, in
addition to the country where they are prepared. Hence, engineering drawing
is the universal language of all engineers. Therefore, engineering drawings
must be correctly drawn.
• Therefore, the engineer must gain a thorough knowledge of both the principles and
• conventional practice of draughting. If these are not achieved and practiced, the
drawings prepared by one may convey different meaning to others, causing unnecessary
delays and expenses in production shops.
3. Importance of engineering graphics
i. Engineers use graphics to communicate technical information without ambiguity to
executives, fabricators, customers, and each other.
ii. For systems, plants and facilities maintenance.
iii.Engineering graphics are essential documents for product development as well as for
regular production.
iv.The knowledge of engineering graphics is significant in innovative design projects.
v. Engineering graphics is used in industries as guide for assembly of separate parts into a
unit.
 Instruments
InstrumentsUsed
UsedininEngineering
EngineeringDrawing
Drawing
1.Drawing sheet
2.Drawing board
3.Mini drafter
4.T square
5.Compass
6.Divider
7.Set squares
8.Clinograph
9.Protractor
10.French curves
11.Templates
12.Pencils
13.Eraser
 Instruments Used in Engineering Drawing
Drawing Sheet
Drawing sheet is a white paper on which an object is drawn which is available in
various sizes. The sheet used for engineering should be of good quality. It should
be white in colour with uniform thickness with must resist the easy torn of
paper. The surface of sheet must be smooth.

Various sizes of drawing sheets.

 Instruments Used in Engineering Drawing

Drawing Board

It is an object(table) on which the drawing sheet is placed. It is made up of

wood and available in the rectangular cross-section.
3. Classification of drawings

1. Machine drawing
• It is concern with drawing of machine parts or components. Machine drawing is usually
drawn through a number of orthographic views, so that the size and shape of the part is fully
• understood. Component drawings and assembly drawings belong to this class. An
example of a machine drawing is given in Fig. 1.1.
2. Working drawing
• Working drawing is also called production drawing. It contains all the dimensions, limits
• and special finishing processes such as heat treatment, surface finish, to guide the
craftsman on the shop floor in producing the part. The material used for the product,
number of parts required for the assembled unit, etc are also specified. Figure 1.2 shows an
example of a production drawing.
Fig 1.2 Working drawing
3. Assembly drawing
• It is a design document containing a full representation of a particular machine or units
and all the data needed for its assembly and production. Assembly drawing shows the various
• parts of a machine in their proper working position in relative to each other. Fig 1.3
depicts an example of assembly drawing.
4. Part drawing
• Component or part drawing is a detailed drawing of a component to facilitate its
• production. All the principles of orthographic projection and the technique of graphic
representation must be followed to communicate the details in a part drawing. A part drawing
with production details is called production drawing or working drawing.
Part list
 Fig 1.3 Assembly drawing

5. Applications of Engineering Graphics

1.Mechanical : Design of machine elements, CNC machine tools, Robotics.
2.Automotive : Kinematics, Hydraulics, Steering.
3.Electrical : Circuit layout, Panel design, control system.
4.Electronics : Schematic diagrams of PCs, Ics, etc.
5.Communication: Communication network, satellite transmitting pictures, TV Telecasting
6.Civil : Mapping, contour plotting, building drawing, structural design.
7.Architectural: Town planning, interior decorations, multistoried complex.
8.Aerospace : Design of spacecraft, flight simulator, lofting
6. Engineering Standards and Codes

Codes are collection of laws and rules that assists government agency in meeting its
obligation to protect the general welfare by preventing damage to property or injury or
loss of life to persons. Codes tell the engineer what to do and when and under what
circumstances to do
it. Codes usually are legal requirements, as in the building code or the fire code.
Standards tell the engineer how to do it and are usually regarded as recommendations
that do not have the force of law. Codes often incorporate national standards into them by
reference, and in this way standards become legally enforceable.
Standards are generally acceptable uniform procedures, criteria, dimensions,
materials, or parts that affect the design, drawings, production, installation, operation and
maintenance of equipment or facilities. They may describe the dimensions and sizes of
small parts like screws and bearings, the minimum properties of materials, or an agreed-
upon procedure to measure a
property like fracture toughness, draughting procedure approved by BS or ISO.
Objectives of standardization
i.To make available the best practice to everyone, thereby ensuring efficiency and
safety.
ii.To provide interchangeability and compatibility between similarly functional
products manufactured by different organizations.
iii.To establish performance criteria for products, materials or systems.
iv.To establish a common basis for testing the performance and characteristics of
products, materials or systems.
v.To promote uniformity of practice among countries of the world
vi.To increase the efficiency of engineering effort.

ii. Examples of Stand organizations:

1. BSI: British Standards Institute.
2. ISO: International Organization for Standards.
3. SON: Standards Organization of Nigeria.
4. SAE: Society of Automotive Engineering
DRAWING PRINCIPLES
Introduction
The correct shape and size of the object can be visualized from the understanding of not
only the views but also from the various types of lines used, dimensions, notes, scale, etc. To
provide the correct information about the drawings to all the people concerned, the drawings
must be prepared following certain standard practices as recommended by British Standard
8888 published in 2011
Drawing sheet
Engineering drawings are drawn on standard drawing sheets sizes. The use of standard
sheet sizes save papers and facilitate convenient storage of drawings. According to BS EN ISO
5457, the different drawing sheet size and their dimension are given in table 2.1
 Table 2.1: sheet sizes
Designation Dimension
(mm)

A0 841 x 1189

A1 595 x 841

A2 420 x 594

A3 297 x 420

A4 210 x 297

TITLE BLOCK
It contains all the information for identification and interpretation of the drawing. The information contain in title block
includes:
(i)Title of the drawing
(ii)Sheet number
(iii)Scale
(iv)Symbol, denoting the method of projection
(v)Name of the firm
(vi)Initials of staff, who prepared, checked and approved the drawing.
 According to BS EN ISO 7200, a standard title block should have a maximum length of
180 mm and width 60 mm and should be placed within the drawing space at the bottom right
hand corner of the drawing sheet as shown in figure fig 2.1.

Fig 2.1 Details in title block

LINE WORK
Lines of different types and thicknesses are used for graphical representation of objects.
The types of lines and their applications are shown in Table 2.2 and fig. 2.2.

Fig 2.2 Line rule

Table 2.2 Types of lines and their applications
 LINE THICKNESS
The thickness of lines is chosen according to the size and type of the drawing from the
following range: 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1, 1.4 and 2 mm. It is recommended that the
space between two parallel lines, including hatching, should not be less than 0.7 mm.
LINE WORK RULES
I. All chain lines must begin and end with long dash.
II. Centre lines should extend beyond the object to which they refer, for a short distance
only, unless required for dimensioning.
III.They must not end at another line of the drawing.
IV.They must not cross each other at solid parts of the lines.
V.Chain lines having angles formed in them should be drawn with long dashes meeting at
the angles. Arcs should join at tangent points.
BORDERS AND FRAMES
Border is the space between the edges of the trimmed sheet and the frame. The frame is
referred to as borderline. It is recommended that borders should have a minimum width of
20
mm for the sizes A0 and A1 and a minimum width of 10 mm for A2, A3 and A4 paper
sizes as shown in Fig. 2.3.
Fig 2.3 Drawing sheet layout
SCALES
Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of a component of an object as represented in the
drawing to the real linear dimension of the same component of the object itself. It is always
advisable to make full size drawings, so as to represent true shapes and sizes. If this is not
practicable, the largest possible scale should be used. When drawing very small objects, such
as watch components and other similar objects, it is advisable to use enlarging scales.
The complete designation of a scale should consist of the word scale, followed by the
indication of its ratio as:
SCALE 1:1 for full size, SCALE 2:1 for twice full size SCALE 1:2 for half full size.
Note: The designation of the scale used on the drawing should be shown in the title block.
LETTERING
Lettering is the technique of writing letters, numerals and other character in engineering
drawing. It is use to provide detailed specification for an object. The essential features of
lettering in engineering drawings are legibility, uniformity and suitability for reproductions.
Guide to good lettering:
I. Use guidelines to ensure that the letters are of equal height and parallel.
II. The size of the numbers and figures depends on the available space and the size of the
drawing.
III.Print with a pointed HB pencil sharpened to avoid blunt.
IV.Straight or inclined lettering is acceptable but both should not be mixed.
V.Small or capital letters can be used, depending on which one is recommended.
Figures 2.4a and 2.4b show inclined and vertical letters respectively. They are given only
as a guide to illustrate the principles of lettering.

Fig 2.4a Inclined lettering

Fig 2.4a Inclined lettering Fig 2.4b Vertical lettering
DIMENSIONING
Dimensions are measures by which a physical variable is expressed quantitatively. They
include length, height, width, depth, or diameter of an object. A good engineering drawing
must contain information required to describe the size and complete shape of the object.
These are provided through the distances between the surfaces, location of holes, nature of
surface finishing, type of material used, etc. The expression of these features on a drawing,
using lines, symbols, figures is called dimensioning. It also involves the selection of
dimensions to ensure the correct functioning of the part, and to enable the workman to
make it without having to calculate any sizes. Fig 3.1 shows the dimensioning of a machine
part.

Fig 3.1: Dimensioning of bearing housing

RULES OF DIMENSIONING
1.Dimensions should be placed outside the outline of the view as far as possible.
2.Dimension lines should be placed on view which shows the features they defined.
3.Projection and dimension lines should be thin continuous.
4.Dimensions should be taken from visible outlines rather than from hidden lines.
5.Centre line should not be used as dimension line.
6.A complete circle should be dimension by the diameter either across the circle or projecting
the diameter outside the outline. The dimension must be preceded by the symbol ᶲ, meaning
diameter.
7.Radius is dimensioned using dimension line which passes through or a line with arc centre.
The symbol R is used to precede the radius.
8.The dimension line for an angle is circular arc having its centre on the point of the angle. The
dimension must be placed so that it can be read from the bottom or right-hand side of the
drawing.
9.Each feature should be dimensioned once only on a drawing.
9.Dimensions should be placed on the view or section that relates most clearly to the
corresponding features.
10.Each drawing should use the same unit for all dimensions, but without showing the unit
symbol.
11.Dimensions other than necessary to define a part should not be shown on a drawing.
12.No features of a part should be defined by more than one dimension in any one direction.
Figure 3.2a is an example of the violations of some of the dimension rules in drawing while
Fig. 3.2b gives corrected version of the same. The reasons are given below:

Fig 3.2 (a) Incorrect dimension and (b) Correct dimension

Conventional Representations
Many engineering components such as screws true projection are difficult and tedious to
draw. They are therefore represented by standard conventions on drawings. These
conventions
are design to save time and should be use wherever and whenever possible.
Figure 4.1 shows typical
examples of conventional
representation of various
machine components used in
engineering drawing.

Fig 4.1 Conventional

representation of machine
components.
 PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTIONS
Introduction
• Every engineering system or component has three dimensions, namely, length, width and
thickness. However, drawings are prepared on plane sheets which are usually two dimensional.
This has several limitations. For these reasons, projections are required for complete description
of the engineering component.
• Projection is defined as the representation of a three-dimensional object on a two dimensional
plane. This can be achieved with either orthographic or isometric or oblique projection. The
projections of any system or part must clearly express all the three dimensions as other details.
• Generally, the elements to consider while obtaining projections are:
➢ The object

➢ The plane of projection

➢ The point in space or point of sight
➢ (iv)The projector or rays of sight sight
Orthographic projection
• An orthographic projection is one in which the projectors are parallel to each other and
intersect the plane of projection at right angle to it as shown in fig 5.1. This is obtained by
viewing the object from a point in space and tracing in correct sequence, the points of
intersection between the projectors and the plane on to which the object is projected.
 Fig 5.1 Projection of views on planes.
Orthographic projection mainly uses the horizontal and vertical planes. These planes intersect
to produce four quadrants or angles. The object to be drawn is imagined to be placed in one these
quadrants and orthographic views of it are projected on to the planes. The object may have any
orientation to the planes, but normally it is positioned so that its main faces are parallel to them.
This is to ensure that views of the faces are true size and shape.
In engineering practice, only the First and Third Angles forms of orthographic projection are
used because views in the Second and Fourth Quadrants may overlap.
 Advantages of Orthographic Projection
1.It presents a true picture of each face: circles remain as circles etc.
2.There is no limit to the number of view that can be drawn.
3.The views drawn are related to each others in position.
First Angle Orthographic Projection
In first angle projection, the object is imagined to be positioned in the first quadrant. The view
from the front of the object is obtained by looking at the object from the right side of the
quadrant and tracing in correct sequence, the points of intersection between the projection plane
and the rays of sight extended. The object is between the observer and the plane of projection
(vertical plane). Here, the object is imagined to be transparent and the projection lines are
extended from various points of the object to intersect the projection plane as shown in fig 5.1.
Hence, in first angle projection, any view is so placed that it represents the side of the object
away from it.
In terms of conventional representation, first angle projection is usually denoted by the
symbol depicted in figure 5.2.

Fig 5.2 First angle projection convention

Arrangement of views in 1st angle projection
With reference to the front view (a) shown in fig.5.3, the other views shall be arranged
as follows:
The view from above (b) shall be placed underneath. The view from
below (e) shall be placed above.
The view from the left (c) shall be placed on the right. The view from
the right (d) shall be placed on the left.
The view from the rear (f) shall be placed on the left or right, as convenient.

Figure 5.3: Arrangement of views in 1st angle

projection.
Third Angle Orthographic Projection
In third angle projection, the object is imagined to be positioned in the third quadrant. The plan
comes between the observer and object. Since the plans are between the observer and the object,
they are imagined to be transparent and the object is view from them. An elevation and plan is
projected on to the vertical and horizontal planes respectively, using parallel projectors normal
to the planes as in first angle projection.
In terms of conventional representation, third angle projection is usually denoted by the symbol
depicted in figure 5.4.

Fig 5.4 Third angle projection convention

Arrangement of views in 3rd angle projection
With reference to the front view (a) fig 5.5, the other views shall be arranged as follows:
1.The view from above (b) shall be placed above.
2.The view from below (e) shall be placed underneath.
3.The view from the left (c) shall be placed on the left.
4.The view from the right (d) shall be placed on the right.
5.The view from the rear (f) shall be placed on the left or right, as convenient.
 Fig 5.5: 3rd angle projection
Spacing of Views
1.Leave enough space between the views on drawing to accommodate dimensions and notes
without overcrowding.
2. A minimum number of views (i.e three) should be consistently used to completely describe the
object.
3. Hidden detail should only be used where it is essential for complete description of the object.
Build up all the views together.
4.Selection of views
In order to completely describe any object in orthographic projections, it is important to select a
number of views. The number of views required to describe any object will depend upon the
extent of complexity involved in it. The higher the symmetry, the lesser the number of views
required.
 In general, most of the objects consisting of either a single component or an assembly of a
number of components are described with the help of three views. In such cases, the views
normally selected are the views from the front, above and left or right side. For symmetrical
objects two views are enough to completely define them.

Example
Draw in First Angle projection the following views of the machine block details shown.
1.Front elevation in the direction of arrow T.
2.End view in the direction of arrow S.
3.Plan view projected from the front elevation.
Solution

ASSIGNMENT
Choose a suitable scale of your own and show all
hidden details.
1. Draw in First angle projection the following
view in fig Q1.
(a)Front elevation from the direction of arrow.
(b)The end elevation.
(c)The plan.
Fig Q2
2. Draw in Third angle projection the following view in fig Q2.
(a)Front elevation from the direction of arrow.
(b)The end elevation.
(c)The plan.

6.0 SECTIONS
Sections are used in engineering drawing to reveal hidden details of a machine or structure which
can be shown by full lines instead of hidden detail lines. A sectional view is obtained by
imagining the object to be cut by a cutting plane and the portion between the observer and the
section plane being removed. The areas of sections are represented by hatching.
The simplest form of hatching in engineering drawing involve the use of continuous thin lines
inclined at angle 45° to the principal outlines or lines of symmetry of the sections as depicted in
Fig. 6.1.
 Fig. 6.2: Full section
Draw in first angle projection the following view of the shaft support shown in fig 6.3
1.The sectional view looking in the direction of arrow.
2.The end elevation looking from the right view.
3.The plan view
 1. Development of Missing Views
When two views of an object are given, the third
view may be developed by the use of a mitre line.
To construct end elevation given the front
elevation and plan views
1.Draw the given views.
2.Draw the projection lines to the right of the view
Fig. 6.2:Full section
from above.
3.Decide the distance, from the view from the front
at which, the side view is to be drawn.
4.Construct a mitre line at 45°.
5.From the points of intersection between the mitre
line and the projection lines, draw vertical
projection lines.
6.Draw the horizontal projection lines from the view
Fig 6.3: Shaft support.
from the front to intersect the above lines.
Solution

Fig. 6.2:Full section

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
1.Introduction
Engineering drawings are usually drawn in orthographic projections for detailed
presentation. This advantage made orthographic projection preferred to other methods of
drawing. However, it has the disadvantage of being very difficult to understand by people not
trained in its usage. It is therefore mandatory that an engineer be able to communicate his ideas
to anybody, especially people who are not engineers. This can be achieved by using a system of
projection called isometric projection or oblique projection. Among these two, isometric
presents
the more natural looking view of an object.
Isometric projection is a method of producing a pictorial view showing the three faces of
an object simultaneously. It can also be define as a 2D drawing make to 3D drawing.
 Fig 7.1 Shaped block in conventional isometrics projection
Isometric drawings are drawn on three axes inclined at angle 1200 to each other as shown in
fig 7.1. One of the axes is vertical while the other two are at 300 to the horizontal. Dimensions
measured along these axes or parallel to them are true lengths of the object.
The faces of the shaped block shown in fig 7.1 are all at 900 to each other. It shows that all
lines are parallel to the isometric axes. If the lines are not parallel to the isometric axes, they
will no longer represent true length.
DRAWING OF OBJECTS IN ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
1. Objects composed of only isometric lines
Fig 7.2 Isometric drawing of object composed of isometric lines with corner A at the bottom
These objects can easily be drawn because all measurements in the orthographic views can
be scaled directly on to the isometric view. It is unnecessary to drawn the orthographic
views since the object lines are not inclined at any angle. The view outline is obtained by
drawing a box that will contain the object and the building up the shape of the object in the
box as illustrated in fig 7.2.

7.2.2 Objects with non-isometric lines

Lines on an object which are inclined at angles are non-isometric lines. Angles cannot be
laid off directly on an isometric drawing as they do not appear as their true sizes. Lines
Inclined
at an angle can be drawn by fixing their ends with ordinates which are isometric lines. The
part of the orthographic view which shows the line positioned by the angle is drawn first
and the ordinates are transferred to the isometric view. This method is illustrated in fig 7.3.
 Fig 7.3 Isometric drawing of object with non-isometric lines and corner A at the bottom
3. Curves in isometric projection
Curves are drawn by selecting a number of points on the cured surface in orthographic view
and the ordinates of each point are transferred to the isometric view as shown in fig 7.4.
Parallel curve can also be obtained by drawing parallel lines through the points on the first
curve in the appropriate direction and marking off on them the width of the detail.
4. Circles in isometric projection
The faces of a cube are square. If a cube is drawn in isometric projection each square side
becomes a rhombus. When circles are drawn on the face of cube, they appear as an ellipse in
isometric projection as shown in fig 7.5.
The circle is first drawn as a plane figure and then divided into an equal number of strips.
The face of the cube is then divided into the same number of equal strips. Centre lines are
added and measurement from the centre line of the circle to the point where the strip
crosses the circle on plane drawing is transferred to the isometric projection with a pair of
dividers. The measurement is then applied above and below the centre line. This process is
repeated for strips 2, 3, etc.
 Fig 7.5 Circle construction by ordinates

Fig 7.4 Isometric drawing of curved object

with corner A at the bottom
 The ellipse shape is completed with a French curve. It should be noted that the dimension
transferred from the plane circle to isometric view are called ordinates. Also, this system can be
use for any regular or irregular shape.
Circles can also be drawn in isometric projection by approximate method. In this method of
construction, circular arc is used to draw ellipse in isometric drawing. The illustration is shown
in fig 7.6. The centre lines EF and GH are first drawn and their intersection becomes the
centre of an isometric square ABCD with sides equal to the diameter of the required circle.
The long diagonal AC of the square is drawn and either B or D is joined to the mid-points of
the opposite sides. Where these two lines cross the long diagonal (point a & b) are the two arc
centre.
Fig 7.6 also shows a cylinder drawn in isometric projection. When drawing the cylinder, the
above construction is only required one end. The length is measured with a pair of dividers and
then mark off from the point s, t, w, G and F. This same procedure can be used to draw a hole, if
both ends are visible.
Fig 7.6 Approximate circle and cylinder construction
1. OBLIQUE PROJECTION
2. INTRODUCTION
Oblique projection is another system for producing pictorial view of an object. It is
simpler than isometric but it does not present so realistic picture. Oblique
0 lines are neither
vertical nor horizontal but inclined at an angle. In practice, angle 45 is widely used. The
receding lines in oblique drawing are usually vertical or horizontal.
2. OBJECT ANGLES AND SHAPES IN OBLIQUE PROJECTION
Fig 8.1 shows a shaped block drawn in oblique0 projection.
0 The
0 front face is drawn on the
plane and the side and top faces are receding at 30 , 60 and 45 .

Although measurements on oblique

drawings are all true length, but distorted effect
in the view occurs as illustrated in fig 8.1.
This means that the drawing of object in
oblique view appear to be out of proportion
when compared with isometric views.
In order to overcome distortion of view, the
oblique lengths have to be altered as shown in
fig 8.2. The degree of alteration is determined
by the oblique angle.
Fig 8.1 Shaped block in oblique projection
Engineering Drawing

Engineering Curves

JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING

AND SUPPORT INT’L
 PLANE CURVES
Designing certain objects require shapes made out of curves
which satisfy specific mathematical equations to meet the
functional, aesthetic and ergonomic requirement of the
object.
 ENGINEERING CURVES
Part- I {Conic Sections}

ELLIPSE PARABOLA HYPERBOLA

1.Concentric Circle Method 1.Rectangle Method 1.Rectangular Hyperbola

(coordinates given)
2.Rectangle Method 2 Method of Tangents
( Triangle Method) 2 Rectangular Hyperbola
3.Oblong Method (P-V diagram - Equation given)
3.Basic Locus Method
4.Arcs of Circle Method (Directrix – focus) 3.Basic Locus Method
(Directrix – focus)
5.Rhombus Metho

6.Basic Locus Method Methods of Drawing

(Directrix – focus) Tangents & Normals
To These Curves.
 CONIC SECTIONS
ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA ARE CALLED CONIC SECTIONS
BECAUSE
THESE CURVES APPEAR ON THE SURFACE OF A CONE
WHEN IT IS CUT BY SOME TYPICAL CUTTING PLANES.
OBSERVE
ILLUSTRATIONS
GIVEN BELOW..

Ellipse

Section Plane Section Plane

Through Generators Hyperbola
Parallel to Axis.

Section Plane Parallel

to end generator.
 COMMON DEFINATION OF ELLIPSE, PARABOLA & HYPERBOLA:
These are the loci of points moving in a plane such that the ratio of it’s distances
from a fixed point And a fixed line always remainsconstant.
The Ratio is called ECCENTRICITY. (E)
A) For Ellipse E<1
B)For Parabola E=1
C) For Hyperbola E>1

ELLIPSE:-
It is a locus of a point moving in a plane such that the SUM of it’s distances from
TWO fixed points always remains constant. {And this sum equals to the length of
major axis.} These TWO fixed points are FOCUS 1 & FOCUS 2
Loci of points
Loci of the point is the path taken by the point as it moves in space.
E.g.
1. If a point moves on a plane in such a way that it keeps its distance
constant from a fixed straight line, the locus of the point is a straight line
parallel to and at a distance equal to the given distance from the given
fixed line.
2. If a point moves on a plane in such a way that it keeps its distance
constant from a given fixed point, the locus is a circle with the given
fixed point as the center and the radius equal to the distance from the
fixed point.
3. If a point moves on a plane in such a way that it keeps its distance
constant from a fixed circular arc, the locus of the point is a circular arc
with the same center and a radius equal to the radius of the given arc
plus or minus the fixed distance.
Conic sections (conics)
• Curves formed by the intersection of a plane with a right
circular cone. Right circular cone is a cone that has a circular
base and the axis is inclined at 90⁰ to the base and passes
through the center of the base.
• Conic sections are always "smooth". More precisely, they
never contain any inflection points.
• Important for many applications, such as aerodynamics, civil
engineering, mechanical engineering, etc.
Conic
• A conic is defined as the curve traced by the point moving in
a plane such that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point
and a fixed line is always constant. The fixed point is called
the focus and the fixed line the directrix. The ratio is called
the eccentricity (e)
Distance of a point from focus
• Eccentricity (e) =
Distance of a point from directrix

For Ellipse, e<1

For Parabola, e=1
For Hyperbola, e>1

Latus rectum: the chord of a conic

perpendicular to the axis & passing
through the focus is latus rectum.
Ellipse
An ellipse is also defined as a curve traced by a point, moving
in a plane such that the sum of its distances from two fixed
points is always the same.
Terminologies Elliptical curves application
Architectural, engineering design, arches,
bridges, elliptical gears, bullet nose etc.
Generating an ellipse
1. Focus-Directrix Or Eccentricity Method
General method of constructing any conics when the
distance of the focus from the directrix and its eccentricity
are given.
Drawing an ellipse if the
1. Draw the directrix AB & axis CC’ distance of focus from the
2. Mark F on CC’ such that CF = 80 directrix is 80 mm and the
eccentricity is 3/4.
mm.
3. Divide CF into 7 equal parts and
mark V at the fourth division
from C.
4. At V, erect a perpendicular VB =
VF. Join CB. Through F, draw a
line at 45° to meet CB produced
at D. Through D, drop a
perpendicular DV’ on CC’. Mark
O at the midpoint of V– V’.
Generating an ellipse
5. Mark a few points, 1, 2, 3, … on V– V’ and erect perpendiculars
though them meeting CD at 1’, 2’, 3’…. Also erect a
• perpendicular through O.
• 6. With F as a centre and radius = 1–1’,
cut two arcs on the perpendicular through 1
to locate P1 and P1¢. Similarly, with F
as a centre and radii = 2–2’, 3–3’, etc., cut arcs on the
corresponding perpendiculars to locate P/2 and P/2’, P/3 and
P/3’, etc. Also, cut similar arcs on the perpendicular through O
to locate V1 and V1’.
An ellipse is also the set of all
points in a plane for which the
sum of the distances from the
two fixed points (the foci) in the
plane is constant.
Generating an ellipse (Concentric circle method)
Draw ellipse by concentric circle method.
Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 2
3
4
mm long.
C
Steps: 1 5
3
1. Draw both axes as perpendicular 2 4
bisectors of each other & name their ends
1 5
as shown.
2. Taking their intersecting point as a A B
center, draw two concentric circles
considering both as respective diameters.
10 6
3.Divide both circles in 12 equal parts &
name as shown. 10 9 7 6
4. From all points of outer circle draw 8
D
vertical lines downwards and upwards
respectively.
9 7
5.From all points of inner circle draw
8
horizontal lines to intersect those vertical
lines.
6.Mark all intersecting points properly as Used when major axis and minor axis
those are the points on ellipse. of an ellipse are given.
7.Join all these points along with the ends
of both axes in smooth possible curve.
Generating an ellipse (Oblong - rectangular Method)
1 Draw a rectangle taking major
and minor axes as sides. Draw ellipse by Rectangle method.
2.In this rectangle draw both axes Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm long.
as perpendicular bisectors of each
other..
3.For construction, select upper
left part of rectangle. Divide D
4 4
vertical small side and horizontal
long side into same number of 3 3
equal parts.( here divided in four
2 2
parts)
4.Now join all vertical points 1 1
1,2,3,4, to D. And all horizontal
points i.e.1,2,3,4 to C. A B
5.Then extend C-1 line upto D-1
and mark that point. Similarly
extend C-2, C-3, C-4 lines up to
D-2, D-3, & D-4 lines.
7. Mark all these points properly
and join all along with ends A and
D in smooth possible curve. Do C
similar construction in right side
along with lower half of the Used when major axis and minor axis
rectangle. Join all points in of an ellipse are given.
smooth curve for required ellipse.
Generating an ellipse (Oblong – parallelogram Method
STEPS ARE SIMILAR TO
Draw ellipse by Oblong method.
THE PREVIOUS CASE
Draw a parallelogram of 100 mm and 70 mm long (RECTANGLE METHOD)
sides with included angle of 750.Inscribe Ellipse in it. ONLY IN PLACE OF RECTANGLE,
HERE IS APARALLELOGRAM.

Used when the conjugate axes with the angle

between them is given.

4 4

3 3

2 2

1
1

A B
Generating an ellipse (Arc of circle method)
Major axis AB & minor axis CD are 100 & 70mm long respectively. Draw ellipse
by arcs of circles method.
STEPS:
1.Draw both axes as usual.Name the
ends & intersecting point
2. Taking AO distance I.e.half major
p4 C
p3
axis, from C, mark F 1& F On
2 AB .
( focus 1 and 2.) p2
3.On line F1- O taking any distance, p1
mark points 1,2,3, & 4
4.Taking F1 center, with distance A-1
draw an arc above AB and taking F2
center, with B-1 distance cut this arc. A B
Name the point p1 F1 1 2 3 4 O F2
5. Intersection points of the two arcs are
points on the ellipse.
6.Repeat this step with same centers
but
taking now A-2 & B-2 distances for
drawing arcs. Name the point p2
7.Similarly get all other P points. D
With same steps positions of P can be
located below AB. As per the definition Ellipse is locus of point P moving in a
8.Join all points by smooth curve to get plane such that the SUM of it’s distances from two fixed
an ellipse. (use a french curve). points (F1 & F2) remains constant and equals to the length
of major axis AB.(Note A .1+ B .1=A . 2 + B. 2 = AB)
Draw Tangent & Normal to Ellipse at any point on it
Bisector Method when Focus and Directrix are
not known
1. First obtain the foci F and F by cutting the arcs
on major axis with C as a centre and radius
=OA
2. Obtain NN, the bisector of FPF. N-N is the
required normal
3. Draw TT perpendicular to N-N at P. T-T is the
required tangent
When Focus and Directrix are known
1. Mark the given point P and join PF1 .
2. At F1 draw a line perpendicular to PF1 to cut
DD at Q.
3. Join QP and extend it. QP is the tangent at P
4. Through P, draw a line NM perpendicular to QP.
NM is the normal at P
From a point outside ellipse
Parabola
A parabola is a conic whose eccentricity is equal to 1. It is an
open-end curve with a focus, a directrix and an axis.
Terminologies
PROBLEM 9: Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight lineAB.
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that
it always remains equidistant from point F and lineAB. P
SOLUTION STEPS:
A
PARABOLA A
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to
AB from point F. This will be initial
point P and also the vertex.
R
2. Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from
those
P1 A
draw lines parallel toAB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of Pand
name it 1.
(VERTEX) V B
O F
4. Take O-1 distance as radius and F as
center draw an arc
cutting first parallel line to AB. Name
123 4
( focus) O
upper point P1 and lower point P2.
(FP1=O1)
P2 L
5. Similarly repeat this process by taking
again 5mm to right and left and locate
P3P4.
A
B D
6. Join all these points in smooth curve. I
R
It will be the locus of P equidistance E
from line AB and fixed pointF. C
T
R
I
X
Generating a parabola
Focus-Directrix Or Eccentricity Method Drawing a parabola if the distance
of focus from the directrix is 60 mm
1. Draw directrix AB and axis CC
2. Mark F on CC’ such that CF = 60 mm.
3. Mark V at the midpoint of CF. Therefore, e
= VF/ VC = 1.
4. At V, erect a perpendicular VE = VF. Join CE.
5. Mark a few points, say, 1, 2, 3, … on VC’
and erect perpendiculars through them
meeting CE produced at 1’, 2’, 3’, …
6. With F as a centre and radius = 1–1’, cut
two arcs on the perpendicular through 1 to
locate P1 and P1’. Similarly, with F as a
centre and radii = 2–2’, 3–3’, etc., cut arcs
on the corresponding perpendiculars to
locate P2 and P2’, P3 and P3’, etc.
7. Draw a smooth curve passing through V, P1,
P2, P3 … P3
 PROBLEM 7: A BALL THROWN IN AIR ATTAINS 100 M HIEGHT
AND COVERS HORIZONTAL DISTANCE 150 M ON GROUND.
PARABOLA
Draw the path of the ball (projectile)-
RECTANGLE
STEPS: 6
METHOD 6
1.Draw rectangle of above size and
divide it in two equal vertical parts
2.Consider left part for construction. 5 5
Divide height and length in equal
number of parts and name those
1,2,3,4,5& 6 4 4
3. Join vertical 1,2,3,4,5 & 6 to the
top center of rectangle
4.Similarly draw upward vertical
3 3
lines from horizontal1,2,3,4,5
And wherever these lines intersect
previously drawn inclined lines in
sequence Mark those points and 2 2
further join in smooth possible curve.
5.Repeat the construction on right side
rectangle also.Join all in sequence. 1 1
This locus is Parabola.
.

1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Generating parabola (Parallelogram method)
Draw a parabola of base 100 mm and axis 50 mm if the axis makes 70° to
the base.
1. Draw the base RS = 100 mm and through its midpoint K, draw the axis
KV = 50 mm, inclined at 70° to RS.
2. Draw a parallelogram RSMN such that SM is parallel and equal to KV.
3. Follow steps as in rectangle method
Generating parabola (Tangent method)
Draw a parabola if the base is 70 mm and the tangents at the base ends
make 60° to the base.
C
1. Draw the base RS = 70 mm.
Through R and S, draw the lines at
60° to the base, meeting at L.
2. Divide RL and SL into the same
number of equal parts, say 6.
Number the divisions as 1, 2, 3 …
and 1’, 2’, 3’, … as shown.
3. Join 1–1’, 2–2’, 3–3’, ….
4. Draw a smooth curve,
A starting from R and ending at BS and tangent to 1–
1’, 2–2’, 3–3’, etc., at P1, P2, P3, etc., respectively
Tangent and Normal at any point P when Focus and Directrix are not
known

1. Draw the ordinate PQ

2. Find the abscissa VQ
3. Mark R on CA such that RV=VQ
4. Draw the normal NM perpendicular to RP at P

To find the focus and the directrix of a parabola given its axis

1. Mark any point P on the parabola

2. Draw a perpendicular PQ to the given axis
3. Mark a point R on the axis such that RV=VQ
4. Focus: Join RP. Draw a perpendicular bisector of RP cutting
the axis at F, F is the focus
5. Directrix: Mark O on the axis such that OV= VF. Through O
draw the directrix DD perpendicular to the axis 24
Hyperbola
• It is defined as a curve traced by the
point moving in a plane such that
the difference between its distance
from 2 fixed points in the same
plane is always the same. The fixed
points represent the foci.
• The hyperbolas exist in a pair. It is a
open-ended curve

Terminology

Draw a circle with O as centre and radius OF. Draw

perpendicular to (V V) at V and V cutting the circle at
E, J. The diagonals E, J are the asymptotes

• Application
• Cooling towers, Hyperbolic mirrors in telescopes
Generating hyperbola (Focus directrix or eccentricity method)

Draw a hyperbola of e = 3/2 if the distance of

the focus from the directrix = 50 mm.
1. Draw directrix AB and axis CC’ as
shown.

2. Mark F on CC’ such that CF = 50 mm.

3. Divide CF in to 3 + 2 = 5 equal parts

and mark V at second division from C.
Now, e = VF/ VC = 3/2.

4. Follow steps as in ellipse and parabola

26
Generating hyperbola (rectangle or
Abscissa- ordinate method)
Draw a hyperbola having the double ordinate of 100 mm, the abscissa of 60
mm and the transverse axis of 160 mm.
1. Draw axis OD and mark V and K on it such that OV = 1/2(Transverse Axis) =
80 mm and VK =Abscissa = 60 mm.
2. Through K, draw double ordinate MN = 100 mm.
3. Construct rectangle MNRS such that NR = VK.
4. Divide MK and MS into the same number of equal parts, say 5. Number the
divisions as shown.
5.Join O–1, O–2, O–3, etc. Also join
V–1’, V–2’, V–3’, etc. Mark P1, P2, P3,
etc., at the intersections of O–1 and
V–1’, O–2 and V–2’, O–3 and V–3’,
etc., respectively.
6.Obtain P1’, P2’, P3’, etc., in other
half in a similar way. Alternatively,
draw P1/ P1’, P2/P2’, P3/P3’, etc.,
such that P3 –x = x–P3’ and likewise.
Generating hyperbola (Arc of circle method)
Draw a hyperbola if the transverse axis is 50mm, and the distance between
the foci is 80 mm.
1. Draw axis CD and on it mark V-V’ = 50 mm & F-F’=80mm such that VF=V’F’.
2. On CD, mark a few points, 1,2,3,4 between F & D.
3. With F as a center and radius = V-1, draw 2 arcs on either side of CD. With F’
as a center and radius =V’-1, draw 2 arcs cutting the previous arcs at P1 &
P1’. Note that (V’-1)-(V-1)= transverse axis.
4. Repeat step 3, for the pairs of radii = (V-2,V’-2), (V-3,V’-3) to obtain points
(P2, P2’), (P3,P3’), etc. In each pair,
difference of radii = Transverse axis.
Therefore, (V’-P1)-(V-P1) = (V’-P2)-(V-
P2) = (V’-P3)-(V-P3)=…= Transverse axis
5. Draw a smooth curve through V, P1,
P2, P3.. P1’, P2’,…
6. To obtain the other half of hyperbola,
mark a few points 1’,2’,3’,4’ between F’
& C’ and repeat the similar procedure.
 Distance of the point from the focus
Eccentrici ty =
Distance of the point from the directric

When eccentricity
< 1 Ellipse
=1 Parabola
>1 Hyperbola

eg. when e=1/2, the curve is an Ellipse, when e=1, it is a parabola

and when e=2, it is a hyperbola. 2
 Focus-Directrix or Eccentricity Method
Given : the distance of focus from the directrix and eccentricity
Example : Draw an ellipse if the distance of focus from the directrix is 70
mm and the eccentricity is 3/4.
1. Draw the directrix AB and
axis CC’
2. Mark F on CC’ such that
CF = 70 mm.
3. Divide CF into 7 equal
parts and mark V at the
fourth division from C.
Now, e = FV/ CV = 3/4.
4. At V, erect a perpendicular
VB = VF. Join CB. Through
F, draw a line at 45° to meet
CB produced at D. Through
D, drop a perpendicular
DV’ on CC’. Mark O at the
midpoint of V– V’. 3
 Focus-Directrix or Eccentricity Method ( Continued)
5. With F as a centre and radius =
1–1’, cut two arcs on the
perpendicular through 1 to
locate P1 and P1’. Similarly,
with F as centre and radii = 2–
2’, 3–3’, etc., cut arcs on the
corresponding perpendiculars
to locate P2 and P2’, P3 and
P3’, etc. Also, cut similar arcs
on the perpendicular through
O to locate V1 and V1’.
6. Draw a smooth closed curve
passing through V, P1, P/2, P/3,
…, V1, …, V’, …, V1’, … P/3’,
P/2’, P1’.
7. Mark F’ on CC’ such that V’ F’
= VF.
4
 Constructing a Parabola (Eccentricity Method)
Example. Draw a parabola if the distance of the focus from
the directrix is 60 mm.
1. Draw directrix AB and axis CC’ as shown.
2. Mark F on CC’ such that CF = 60mm.
3. Mark V at the midpoint of CF. Therefore, e =
VF/ VC = 1.
4. At V, erect a perpendicular VB = VF. Join CB.
5. Mark a few points, say, 1, 2, 3, … on VC’ and
erect perpendiculars through them meeting
CB produced at 1’, 2’, 3’, …
6. With F as a centre and radius = 1–1’, cut two
arcs on the perpendicular through 1 to locate
P1 and P1’. Similarly, with F as a centre and
radii = 2–2’, 3–3’, etc., cut arcs on the
corresponding perpendiculars to locate P2
and P2’, P3 and P3’, etc.
7. Draw a smooth curve passing through V, P1,
P2, P3 … P3’, P2’, P1’.

5
 Constructing a Hyperbola (Eccentricity Method)

Draw a hyperbola of
e = 3/2 if the distance
of the focus from the
directrix = 50 mm.

Construction similar
to ellipse and
parabola

6
 Drawing Tangent and Normal to any conic

When a tangent at any point on the curve (P) is produced to meet the
directrix, the line joining the focus with this meeting point (FT) will be at
right angle to the line joining the focus with the point of contact (PF).
The normal to the curve at any point is perpendicular to the tangent at
that point.
7
 Another definition of the ellipse
An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane for which the sum of
the distances from the two fixed points (the foci) in the plane is
constant.

8
 Arcs of Circle Method
Given conditions: (1) the major axis and minor axis are known OR
(2) the major axis and the distance between the foci are known
Draw AB & CD perpendicular to each
other as the major diameter minor
diameter respectively.
With centre as C or D, and half the major
diameter as radius draw arcs to intersect
the major diameter to obtain the foci at X
and Y.
Mark a numbe of points along line segment
XY and number them. Points need not be
equidistant.
Set the compass to radius B-1 and draw
two arcs, with Y as center. Set the compass
to radius A1, and draw two arcs with X as
center. Intersection points of the two arcs
are points on the ellipse. Repeat this step
for all the remaining points.
Use the French curve to connect the points,
thus drawing the ellipse.
9
 Constructing an Ellipse (Concentric Circle Method)

Given:
Major axis and
minor axis

• With center C, draw two concentric circles with diameters equal to major and minor
diameters of the ellipse. Draw the major and minor diameters.
• Construct a line AB at any angle through C. Mark points D and E where the line
intersects the smaller circle.
• From points A and B, draw lines parallel to the minor diameter. Draw lines parallel to
the major diameter through D & E.
• The intersection of the lines from A and D is point F, and from B and E is point G.
Points F & G lies on the ellipse.
• Extend lines FD & BG and lines AF and GE to obtain two more points in the other
quadrants.
• Repeat steps 2-6 to create more points in each quadrant and then draw a smo10oth
curve through the points.
 Constructing a Parabola (Parallelogram Method)
Example: Draw a parabola of base 100 mm and axis 50 mm if the axis
makes 70° to the base.

1. Draw the base RS = 100 mm and through its midpoint K, draw the axis KV = 50 mm, inclined at
70° to RS. Draw a parallelogram RSMN such that SM is parallel and equal to KV.
2. Divide RN and RK into the same number of equal parts, say 5. Number the divisions as 1, 2, 3, 4
and 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’, starting from R.
3. Join V–1, V–2, V–3 and V–4. Through 1’, 2’, 3’ and 4’, draw lines parallel to KV to meet V–1 at
P1, V–2 at P2, V–3 at P3 and V–4 at P4, respectively.
4. Obtain P5, P6, P7 and P8 in the other half of the rectangle in a similar way. Alternatively, these
points can be obtained by drawing lines parallel to RS through P1, P2, P3 and P4. For example,
draw P1– P8 such that P1– x = x– P8. Join P1, P2, P3 … P8 to obtain the parabola. 11
 Hyperbola
A Hyperbola is obtained
when a section plane,
parallel/inclined to the axis
cuts the cone on one side of
the axis.

A Rectangular Hyperbola is
obtained when a section,
parallel to the axis cuts the
cone on one side of the axis.

12
Hyperbola Mathematical definition
A hyperbola is
defined as the set of
points in a plane
whose distances
from two fixed
points called foci, in
the plane have a
constant difference.

13
 Constructing a Hyperbola
Given: Distance between Foci and Distance between vertices
Draw the axis of symmetry and
construct a perpendicular through
the axis. Locate focal point F
equidistant from the perpendicular
and on either side of it. Locate points
A and B on the axis equidistant from
the perpendicular.
AB is the distance between vertices
With F as center and radius R1, and
draw the arcs. With R1 + AB, radius,
and F as center, draw a second set
of arcs. The intersection of the two
arcs on each side of the
perpendicular are points on the
hyperbola
Select a new radius R2 and repeat
step 2. Continue this process until
several points on the hyperbola are
14
marked
 Roulettes
• Roulettes are curves generated by the rolling
contact of one curve or line on another curve or
line, without slipping.

• There are various types of roulettes.

• The most common types of roulettes used in

engineering practice are: Cycloids, Trochoids, and
Involutes.
 Cycloid

Generating circle
Base line

A Cycloid is generated by a point on the circumference of a

circle rolling along a straight line without slipping

The rolling circle is called the Generating circle

The straight line is called the Directing line or Base line
 Constructing a cycloid

➢ Generating circle has its center at C and has a radius of C-P’. Straight line PP’is equal in
length to the circumference of the circle and is tangent to the circle at point P’.
➢ Divide the circle into a number of equal segments, such as 12. Number the intersections
of the radii and the circle.
➢ From each point of intersection on the circle, draw a construction line parallel to line PP’ and
extending up to line P’C’.
➢ Divide the line CC’ into the same number of equal parts, and number them. Draw
vertical lines from each point to intersect the extended horizontal centerline of the
circle. Label each point as C1, C2, C3, …. C12.
 Constructing a cycloid (contd.)

Using point C1 as the center and radius of the circle C-P’, draw an arc that
intersects the horizontal line extended from point 1 at P1. Set the compass at point
C2, then draw an arc that intersects the horizontal line passing through point 2 at
P2. Repeat this process using points C3, C4, …. C12, to locate points along the
horizontal line extended from points 3, 4, 5, etc..
Draw a smooth curve connecting P1, P2, P3, etc to form the cycloid
Draw normal NN and Tangent TT
 Epicycloid

The cycloid is called Epicycloid when the generating circle

rolls along another circle outside it.
 Constructing an Epicycloid

1) With O as centre
and OC as radius,
draw an arc to
represent locus of
centre.
2) Divide arc PQ in
to 12 equal parts
and name them as
1’, 2’, …., 12’.

3) Join O1’, O2’, … and produce them to cut the locus of centres at C1, C2, ….
4) Taking C1 as centre, and radius equal to 20 mm, draw an arc cutting the arc
through 1 at P1. Similarly obtain points P2, P3,…., P12.
5) Join P1, P2….. With French curve
 Hypocycloid

Hypocycloid is obtained when the generating circle rolls

along another circle inside it.
 Constructing an Hypocycloid

Construction is similar to epicycloid. The generating

circle is to be drawn below the base circle
 Trochoid

• Trochoid is a curve generated by a point outside or inside the

circle rolling along a straight line.
• If the point is outside the circle the curve obtained is called
Superior Trochoid
• If the point is inside the circle, the curve obtained is called
Inferior Trochoid
 Classification of Cycloidal curves

Generating Circle
On the Outside the Inside the
directing directing directing
line line line
On the Cycloid Epicycloid Hypocycloid
generatin
g circle
Generatin
g point Outside Superi Superior Superior
the or epitrochoi Hypotrochoi
generatin trochoi d d
g circle d
Inside Inferior Inferior Inferior
the trochoi epitrochoi hypotrochoi
generatin d d d
g circle
 Involute

An Involute is a curve traced by the free end of a thread

unwound from a circle or a polygon in such a way that
the thread is always tight and tangential to the circle or
side of the polygon
Construction of Involute of circle
Draw the circle with c as center
and CP as radius.
Draw line PQ = 2CP, tangent to
the circle at P
Divide the circle into 12 equal
parts. Number them as 1, 2…
Divide the line PQ into 12 equal
parts and number as 1 , 2 …..
Draw tangents to the circle at 1,
2,3….
Locate points P1, P2 such that 1-
P1 = P1 , 2-P2 = P2 ….
Join P, P1, P2….
The tangent to the circle at any point on it is always normal to the itsinvolute.
Join CN. Draw a semicircle with CN as diameter, cutting the circle at M.
MN is the normal.
Engineering Drawing

Intersections of Solids

1
Whenever two or more solids combine, a
definite curve is seen at their intersection. This
curve is called the curve of intersection (COI).
CASES OF INTERSECTION
The cases of intersection depend on the type of intersecting
solids and the manner in which they intersect. Two intersecting
solids may be of the same type (e.g., prism and prism) or of
different types (e.g., prism and pyramid). The possible
combinations are shown in Table below.
The two solids may intersect in different ways. The axes of the
solids may be parallel, inclined or perpendicular to each other.
The axes may be intersecting, offset or coinciding. Therefore,
the following sub-cases exist:
(i) Axes perpendicular and intersecting
(ii) Axes perpendicular and offset
(iii) Axes inclined and intersecting
(iv) Axes inclined and offset
(v) Axes parallel and coinciding
(vi) Axes parallel and offset
 Intersection
The type of intersection created depends on the types of
geometric forms, which can be two- or three-
dimensional.

Intersections must be represented on multiview drawings

correctly and clearly. For example, when a conical and a
cylindrical shape intersect, the type of intersection that
occurs depends on their sizes and on the angle of
intersection relative to their axes.

The line of intersection is determined using auxiliary

views and cutting planes
 Methods – (1) Line and (2) Cutting-plane methods

Line method: A number of lines are

drawn on the lateral surface of one of
the solids and in the region of the
line of intersection.

Points of intersection of these lines

with the surface of the other solid are
then located.

These points will lie on the required

line of intersection. They are more
easily located from the view in which
the lateral surface of the second
solid appears edgewise (i.e. as a
line). The curve drawn through these
points will be the line of intersection.
Cutting-plane method: The two solids are assumed
to be cut by a series of cutting planes. The cutting
planes may be vertical (i.e. perpendicular to the
H.P.), edgewise (i.e. perpendicular to the V.P.) or
oblique.

The cutting planes are so selected as to cut the

surface of one of the solids in straight lines and
that of the other in straight lines or circles.
 Intersection of two prisms
Prisms have plane surfaces as
their faces.
The line of intersection between
two plane surfaces is obtained
by locating the positions of
points at which the edges of one
surface intersect the other
surface and then joining the
points by a straight line. These
points are called vertices
The line of intersection between
two prisms is therefore a closed
figure composed of a number of
such lines meeting at the
vertices
Intersection of two prisms
A vertical square prism, base 50 mm side, is completely
penetrated by a horizontal square prism, base 35 mm side, so
that their axes intersect. The axis of the horizontal prism is
parallel to the prism., while the faces of the two prisms are
equally inclined to the prism. Draw the projections of the
solids, showing lines of intersection. (Assume suitable lengths
for the prisms.)
Steps:
Draw the projections of the
prisms in the required
position. The faces of the
vertical prism are seen as
lines in the top view.
Hence, let us first locate
the points of intersection
in that view.
 Steps:
Lines 1-1 and 3-3
intersect the edge
of the vertical
prism at points p1
and p3 (coinciding
with a). Lines 2-2
and 4-4 intersect
the faces at p2
and p4
respectively.
The exact positions of these points
along the length of the prism may
now be determined by projecting
them on corresponding lines in the
front view. For example, p2 is
projected to p2' on the line 2'2'. Note
that p4' coincides with p2'.
Intersection of two prisms
Draw lines p1’p2'
and p2‘p3'. Lines
p1‘p4' and p3‘p4'
coincide with the
front lines. These
lines show the line
of intersection.
Lines q1'q2' and
q2‘q3' on the other
side are obtained in
the same manner

Note that the lines for the hidden portion of the edges
are shown as dashed lines. The portions p1’p3' and
q1’q3' of vertical edges a'a' and c'c' do not exist and
hence, must be removed or kept fainter.
Intersection of Cylinder and Cylinder
 Intersection of Cylinder and Cylinder
As cylinders have their
lateral surfaces curved
– the line of intersection
between them will also
be curved. Points on
this line may be located
by any of the methods.

For plotting an accurate curve, certain critical or key

points, at which the curve changes direction, must
also be located. These are the points at which
outermost or extreme lines of each cylinder pierce
the surface of the other cylinder.
Intersection of Cylinder and Cylinder
Example - A vertical cylinder of 80 mm diameter is
completely penetrated by another cylinder of 60 mm
diameter, their axes bisecting each other at right
angles. Draw their projections showing curves of
penetration, assuming the axis of the penetrating
cylinder to be parallel to the VP.
 Intersection of Cylinder and Cylinder
Assume a series of horizontal
cutting planes passing through the
the horizontal cylinder and cutting
both cylinders.

Sections of the horizontal cylinder

will be rectangles, while those of
the vertical cylinder will always be
circles of the same diameter as its
own.

Points at which sides of the

rectangles intersect the circle will
be the curve of intersection. For
example, let a horizontal section
pass through points 2 and 12
In the front view, it will be seen as a
line coinciding with line 2' 2'. The
section of the horizontal cylinder will
be a rectangle of width (i.e. the line
2-12).

The section of the

vertical cylinder will
be a circle.

Points p2 and p12 at

which the sides (2-2
and 12-12) of the
rectangle cuts the
circle, lie on the
curve.
These points are first marked in the top view and then projected to
points p2' and p12' on lines 2’2’ and 12’12’ in the front view.
Points on the other side of the axis are located in the same manner.
Intersection of Cone and Cylinder
 Intersection of Cone and Cylinder
Example - A vertical
cone, diameter of base
75 mm and axis 100 mm
long, is completely
penetrated by a cylinder
of 45 mm diameter. The
axis of the cylinder is
parallel to HP and the VP
and intersects the axis
of the cone at a point 22
mm above the base.
Draw the projections of
the solids showing
curves of intersection.
Cutting-Plane Method
Draw lines dividing the surface of the cylinder into twelve equal parts.

Assume a horizontal cutting plane

passing through say, point 2. The
section of the cylinder will be a
rectangle of width w (i.e. the line 2-
12), while that of the cone will be a
circle of diameter ee.
These two sections intersect at
points p2 and p12. These
sections are clearly indicated in
the top view by the rectangle 2-
2-12-12 and the circle of
diameter ee .
In the front view, the cutting plane is
seen as a line coinciding with 2' 2’.
Points p2 and p12 when projected on
the line 2' 2’ (with which the line 12'-
12' coincides) will give a point p2'
(with which p12' will coincide). Then
p2' and p12' are the points on the
curve of intersection.
To obtain the points
systematically, draw circles with
centre 0 and diameters dd, ee, ff,
etc. cutting lines through 1, 2 and
12, 3 and 11 etc. at points p1, p2
and p12, p3 and pll etc . Project these
points to the corresponding lines in the
front view.
Final views