COURSE

GUIDE

BIO 304
GENERAL ECOLOGY

Course Team DR. G. A. OMOOGUN (Course Writer) - NITR

Dr. Aliyu Babale (Reviewer) – GSU Gombe
Prof. Mohammed Bello Abdullahi (Reviewed
Content Editor) – FU Gombe
Dr. Maureen N. Chukwu - NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

© 2023 by NOUN Press
National Open University of Nigeria
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Reviewed: 2023

Printed: 2023

ISBN: 978-978-058-991-2

ii
CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction………………………………………………. iv
Course Competencies…………………………………. iv
Course Objectives……………………………………... iv
Working Through This Course………………………….. iv
Study Units……………………………………………. v
References And Further Readings……………………. vi
Presentation Schedule…………………………………… vi
Assessment…………………………………………… vi
Online Facilitation………………………………………. vi
Course Information ………………………………….. vii

iii
INTRODUCTION

General Ecology is a one semester, 21 Units course. It will be suitable to

all students to take towards the core module of B.Sc. (Hons) Biological
Sciences. It will also be suitable as an elective course for any student in
Faculty of Sciences who does not want to complete an NOU
qualification but want to learn about Biology and Environmental
Science. The course involves basic concept and definition of ecology,
ecosystem at community level, ecological classification of habitat types,
terrestrial and aquatic biomes, with their specific features. The other
contents include natural disasters, interaction of communities and their
success, and aspects of energy and nutrient flows through natural cycles,
and dynamics of population.

COURSE COMPETENCIES

This course aims to enable you to know/understand the basic concepts

of ecology , life support and ecosystem. It will guide your understanding
of various natural phenomena in the planet earth

COURSE OBJECTIVES

The Comprehensive Objectives of the Course as a whole are to;

• Explain the meaning, scope and basic concepts in ecology and

ecosystem.
• Describe the major types of habitats, ecosystems and biomes.
• Discuss the natural disasters and their management
• Understand the cycles of energy and nutrient flows in the
ecosystem.
• Identify the various community interactions
• Explain the processes of population dynamics.

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To successfully complete this course, you are required to read each

study unit, read the textbooks and other materials provided.

Reading the reference materials can also be of great assistance. Each

unit has self –assessment exercise which you are advised to do.

There will be a final examination at the end of the course. The course
should take you about 8 weeks to complete.

iv
This course guide provides you with all the components of the course,
how to go about studying and how you should allocate your time to each
unit so as to finish on time and successfully

STUDY UNITS

The study units in this course are given below:

BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY (3 UNITS)

Module 1: General Ecology and Ecosystems

Unit 1: Ecosystems Ecology

Unit2: Functioning Ecosystem
Unit 3: Productivity of Ecosystems
Unit 4: The Cycling of Nutrients in Ecosystems
Unit 5: Interactions Within Ecosystems
Unit 6: Patterns of Community Structure

Module 2: Population Dynamics

Unit 1: Population Ecology

Unit 2: Population Patterns and Measurements
Unit 3: Population Growth
Unit 4: Population Regulation
Unit 5: Human Population Growth

Module 3: Biological Communities

Unit 1 Ecological Communities

Unit 2: Community Organization and Functioning
Unit 3: Biogeography
Unit 4: World Biomes
Unit 5: Marine and Freshwater Biomes

Module 4: Man and the Environment

Unit 1: Relationship between Man and the Environment

Unit 2: Pollution, Types, Sources and Characteristics
Unit 3: Effects of Pollution on the Environment
Unit 4: Pollution: Effects, Prevention and Control
Unit 5: Human, Environment and Health

v
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

You would be required to read the recommended references and

textbooks as provided in each unit of the course.

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

There is a time-table prepared for the early and timely completion and
submissions of your TMAs as well as attending the tutorial classes. You
are required to submit all your assignments by the stipulated date and
time. Avoid falling behind the schedule time.

ASSESSMENT

There are three aspects to the assessment of this course. The first one is
the in-text questions and the second is self-assessment exercises, while
the third is the written examination or the examination to be taken at the
end of the course. Review the exercises or activities in the unit by
applying the information and knowledge you acquired during the course.
The work submitted to your tutor for assessment will account for 30% of
your total work. At the end of this course you will have to sit for a final
or end of course examination of about a two hour duration and this will
account for 70% of your total course mark.
How to get the Most from the Course

In this course, you have the course units and a course guide. The course
guide will tell you briefly what the course is all about. It is a general
overview of the course materials you will be using and how to use those
materials. It also helps you to allocate the appropriate time to each unit
so that you can successfully complete the course within the stipulated
time limit.
The course guide also helps you to know how to go about your in-text
questions and Self-assessment questions which will form part of your
overall assessment at the end of the course. Also, there will be tutorial
classes that are related to this course, where you can interact with your
facilitators and other students. Please I encourage you to attend these
tutorial classes.
This course exposes you to Introductory Ecology, a sub-discipline and
very interesting field of Biological Sciences.

ONLINE FACILITATION

Eight weeks are provided for tutorials for this course. You will be
notified of the dates, times and location for these tutorial classes.
As soon as you are allocated a tutorial group, the name and phone
number of your facilitator will be given to you.

vi
The duties of your facilitator is to monitor your progress and provide
any necessary assistance you need.

Do not delay to contact your facilitator by telephone or e-mail for

necessary assistance if

You do not understand any part of the study in the course material.

You have difficulty with the self-assessment activities.

You have a problem or question with an assignment or with the grading

of the assignment.

It is important and necessary you attend the tutorial classes because this
is the only chance to have face to face contact with your facilitator and
to ask questions which will be answered instantly. It is also a period
where you can point out any problem encountered in the course of your
study.

Online facilitation for this course will hold once in a week for the period
of eight weeks. The time and day for the online facilitation will be one
hour as indicated in the time table

COURSE INFORMATION

Course Code: BIO304

Course Title: GENERAL ECOLOGY
Credit Unit: 2
Course Status: Elective
Course Blub: This course is designed to enable students to
understand the basic concepts of
ecology, life support and ecosystem. It will also
provide them to with the knowledge of the various
natural phenomena on earth
Semester: 2 SEMESTERS
Course Duration: 13 WEEKS
Required Hours for Study: 65 hours

vii
 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1: General Ecology and Ecosystems………… 1

Unit 1: Ecosystems Ecology ………………………. 1

Unit 2: Functioning Ecosystem…………………….. 12
Unit 3: Productivity of Ecosystems………………… 21
Unit 4: The Cycling of Nutrients in Ecosystems…… 34
Unit 5: Interactions Within Ecosystems……………. 48
Unit 6: Patterns of Community Structure………….. 59

Module 2: Population Dynamics……………………… 75

Unit 1: Population Ecology………………………… 75

Unit 2: Population Patterns and Measurements……. 87
Unit 3 Population Growth…………………………. 95
Unit 4: Population Regulation……………………… 102
Unit 5: Human Population Growth………………… 110

Module 3: Biological Communities…………………… 117

Unit 1 Ecological Communities…………………… 117

Unit 2: Community Organization and Functioning... 126
Unit 3: Biogeography………………………………. 134
Unit 4: World Biomes……………………………… 143
Unit 5: Marine and Freshwater Biomes…………… 152

Module 4: Man and the Environment………………. 164

Unit 1: Relationship between Man and the

Environment……………………………….. 164
Unit 2 Pollution, Types, Sources and
Characteristics …………………………….. 176
Unit 3 Effects of Pollution on the Environment…. 188
Unit 4: Pollution: Effects, Prevention and Control.. 199
Unit 5: Human, Environment and Health…………. 207
BIO 304 MODULE 1

MODULE 1

In this module we will discuss about the ecosystems and ecosystems

ecology with the following units:

Unit 1 Ecosystems Ecology

Unit 2 Functioning Ecosystem
Unit 3 Productivity of Ecosystems
Unit 4 The Cycling of Nutrients in Ecosystems
Unit 5 Interactions Within Ecosystems
Unit 6 Patterns of Community Structure

UNIT 1 ECOSYSTEMS ECOLOGY

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
1.3 Ecosystems Ecology
1.3.1 The Meaning of Ecosystem Ecology
1.3.2 General characteristics of an ecosystem:
1.4 Classification of Ecosystems
1.5 Subdivisions of Modern Ecology
1.5.1 Functions of an Ecosystem
1.5.2 Ecological Concepts
1.6 Summary
1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
1.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

1.1 Introduction

You will be introduced on the meaning and functioning of ecosystems

ecology. The functioning of which reflects the collective life activities
of plants, animals, and microbes and the effects these activities -
feeding, growing, moving, excreting waste, etc. - have on the physical
and chemical conditions of their environment. You will study also that
there are basically two types of ecosystems under which any other sub-
ecosystem falls.

1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Explain the meaning of ecology and ecosystems functioning
Describe the different types of ecosystems
Describe the different categories of freshwater ecosystems

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

1.3 Ecosystems Ecology

Ecology is the branch of science that examines how living things

interact with one another and with their physical surroundings. From the
perspectives of (1) the environment and the demands it throws on the
organisms living there or (2) organisms and how they adapt to their
environmental situations, ecology can be studied. An ecosystem is made
up of a collection of creatures that interact with one another and their
surroundings, exchanging materials in a generally circular way. Along
with energy sources and pathways for the exchange of materials and
energy, an ecosystem also consists of physical, chemical, and biological
components. A certain organism's habitat is the setting in which it exists.
The term "niche" refers to an organism's function within its
surroundings.

1.3.1 The Meaning of Ecosystem Ecology

The study of ecosystem components and interactions is referred to as

ecosystem ecology. In a nutshell, the study of interactions between
biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) elements within an ecosystem
framework is known as ecosystem ecology. We must research the
elements, traits, and categorization of ecosystems. So let's get started.
An ecosystem is a dynamic system in which biotic and abiotic elements
constantly operate and react upon one another, causing changes in a
community's structure and functionality. Thus, British ecologist A.G.
Tansely is credited with coining the term "ecosystem" initially (1935).
"A community and its abiotic surroundings form a complex, interacting
system known as an ecosystem." Ecosystems are made up of distinct
structural elements, such as creatures and the physical environment,
which interact with one another through processes like energy flow and
material cycle to achieve the objective of maintaining life. All of the
ecosystems are linked in some form; none of them are autonomous.
There are two basic mechanisms involved in this eating and being eaten
connection among living things. First off, only green plants and a small
number of autotrophic bacteria can create their own food by using solar
radiation energy (light) to bind basic molecules of O2, H2O, and other
elements like N, P, Ca, K, Mg, and S.

The flow of energy: the energy used by the plants passes through
various organisms and is ultimately lost as heat. It is called the flow of
energy. Bio-geochemical cycling: The energy and chemical substances
pass through the organism but become available for use again and again.
Therefore, the process is known as biogeochemical cycling. What are

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

the two processes that bind the organisms (eating and being) and their
environment into an interacting complex unit?

1.3.2 General Characteristics of an Ecosystem:

Smith (1966) highlighted the following common characteristics of the

majority of ecosystems:
An important structural and functional component of ecology is the
ecosystem. An ecosystem's structure and species diversity are related.
Energy flow and material cycling through and within an ecosystem are
related to its ability to perform its intended purpose. An ecosystem's
structure determines the proportion of energy required to keep it
functioning. The less energy anything need to maintain itself, the more
complicated it is. Ecosystems develop as they transition from simpler to
more complicated states. Early phases of such succession feature a
relatively high energy flow per unit biomass and excess potential
energy. Later (mature) stages accumulate less energy and have a greater
variety of components through which they pass. Every ecosystem has a
finite environment and energy supply that cannot be exceeded without
having significant negative effects. The population must adapt to
selective forces brought on by changing circumstances. The
environment is changing, and organisms that can't change with it must
disappear.

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What is ecosystems ecology?

2. What are the viewpoints upon which the study of ecology rest?

1.4 Classification of Ecosystems

In ecosystem classification, only the general categories, which comprise

similar types of organisms, can be used. There are two types of
ecosystems:

1. Natural Ecosystem – These are ecosystems that develop

spontaneously and are capable of surviving without assistance
from humans. Mountains, rivers, and other natural landscape
features are examples of ecosystems. According to the concept of
a natural ecosystem, it is an ecosystem found in nature in which
organisms can freely interact with other elements of their
surroundings. The fact that this ecosystem is self-sufficient is one
of its key features. For instance, both herbivores and carnivores
can be found in forests. Fruits, seeds, and grass are consumed by

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

herbivores. The carnivores subsequently eat them. When

carnivores perish, their bodies dissolve into the soil and replenish
it with vital nutrients that promote the development of trees and
grass, which herbivores eat. Thus, the biological cycle continues.
2. Human-Made or Artificial Ecosystem – Artificial ecosystems are
ones that humans either develop on their own to mirror the
natural environment or adapt an already existent ecosystem to
suit their needs. The fact that manmade ecosystems require
ongoing maintenance because they are not self-sustaining is one
of the key distinctions between natural and artificial ecosystems.
A few examples of this kind of habitat are aquariums, agricultural
areas, gardens, and dams.

Categories of Natural Ecosystems

There are two types of natural ecosystems:

A). Terrestrial Ecosystem: These refer to the ecosystems found on

land. They can be classified based on climate and temperature.
These are discussed in detail below:
i). Forests: They make up around 31% of the Earth's total land area.
There are three different types of forest ecosystems throughout
the world, depending on the climate and type of forest. These
include coniferous forest, temperate forest, and rainforest. A
tropical rainforest can be found in places that receive a lot of rain.
Contrary to temperate forests, which develop in locales with cold
winters and pleasant summers, coniferous forests can be found in
chilly mountainous places. Being the highest terrestrial
biodiversity in the world, they provide as habitats for a wide
range of animals, birds, insects, and other species. We also
depend on woods for a variety of other things.
ii). Deserts: Deserts come in two varieties: hot and cold. These
ecosystems experience extreme weather, including dry air,
temperatures that are excessively hot during the day and too cold
at night, and little to no rainfall. Because of this, there is little
vegetation and not many animals in the desert. A few insects and
animals that can be found in a desert are camels, desert snakes,
and scorpions.
iii). Grasslands: Temperate grasslands and tropical savannahs are a
couple of examples of this sort of natural environment. Tall grass
and a few bushes and trees make up the substantial vegetation.
The grasslands are home to a variety of animals, including
wolves, zebras, gazelles, and rabbits. What are the three types of
ecosystems under which any other sub-ecosystem falls?
B). Aquatic Ecosystem: As the name suggests, these include the
ecosystems found within water bodies. They are the most

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

common types of ecosystem found on the Earth as water covers

around 75% of the Earth’s surface. It is divided into two groups –

i). Freshwater – Freshwater constitutes only about 3% of a total

75%. Some examples of natural ecosystems that fall within this
category are lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, wetlands, etc.Rivers
and streams originating from mountains carry essential nutrients
which are then deposited in lakes and ponds. Freshwater is also
the habitat for a variety of plants, animals, and microbes.
ii) Marine Ecosystem – This is one of the most diverse forms of
ecosystems. It consists of coral reefs, kelp forests, mangroves,
salt marshes, rocky shores, deep sea, the open ocean, and so
on. Marine ecosystems depend on physical factors like high salt
content, availability of light, temperature, tides, geology, and
geography. For this reason, some areas, such as mangroves, and
salt marshes, are full of life, while the presence of life in areas
such as the abyssal plain at the bottom of the sea is scarce.
2. Artificial ecosystem: Artificial ecosystems are human-made
structures where biotic and abiotic components are made to
interact with each other for survival. It is not self-sustaining and
can perish without human help. Examples of artificial ecosystems
include aquariums, agriculture fields, zoos, etc. and the two broad
categories are: i). Cropland ecosystem and ii). Fish farm
ecosystem. What are the physical local conditions, which shape
the aquatic ecosystems?

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. What are the three basic categories of freshwater environments?

2.What are the variety of organisms that live in oceanic ecosystems?

1.5 Subdivisions of Modern Ecology

Two major subdivisions of modern ecology are:

• Ecosystem ecology - which views ecosystems as large units, and

• Population ecology - which attempts to explain ecosystem
behavior from the properties of individual units.

In actuality, the two strategies are frequently combined. Ecosystem and

community architecture, dispersal patterns, and population structures are
highlighted in descriptive ecology descriptions of the sorts and nature of
organisms and their surroundings. Functional ecology describes how
ecosystems function, including how populations react to environmental

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

change and how matter and energy circulate within them. Ecosystems
can be roughly categorised as natural and man-made. Terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems are subcategories of natural ecosystems, which are
those that exist in nature. Aquatic encompasses ponds, rivers, streams,
lakes, estuaries, oceans, mangroves, swamps, and bays, among other
things, whereas terrestrial includes hot desert, grassland, tropical and
temperate rainforest, and so on. These two ecosystems, however, are
open, self-regulating systems that allow for unrestricted inputs and
outputs from other systems. Artificial ecosystems are straightforward,
man-made, unstable, and open to human manipulation. Typically, it is
created by removing a section of grassland or forest to create a crop
field or other agricultural area. 2 Ecosystem Structure and Function The
biotic (consisting of living things) and abiotic (containing of elements
that are not alive) components make up an ecosystem. According to
some sources, the following are considered to be non-living
constituents: habitat, gases, sun radiation, temperature, moisture, and
inorganic and organic nutrients. You can further divide living things into
producers, consumers, and decomposers. Basic inorganic and organic
elements of the environment or habitat of the organism are considered
abiotic components. Carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, and calcium
phosphate are the inorganic elements that make up an ecosystem, and
they are all involved in the matter cycle (biogeochemical cycles).
Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids are the organic
components of an ecosystem. They are all produced by the biota (flora
and fauna) of an ecosystem and enter the ecosystem as waste products,
decomposing bodies, etc. Abiotic elements of ecosystems include
temperature, light soil, and other aspects of the climate or
"microclimate."

1.5.1 Functions of an Ecosystem

Ecosystem function is the ability of natural processes and elements to

directly or indirectly meet human demands for commodities and
services. Ecological processes and ecosystem structures are subsets of
ecosystem functions. The natural processes that make up the entire
ecological sub-system, of which each function is a part, produce each
function. Natural processes, on the other hand, are brought about by
intricate interactions between biotic (living things) and abiotic (chemical
and physical) elements of ecosystems, which are fueled by the universal
forces of matter and energy. There are four primary groups of ecosystem
functions

(1) regulatory functions,

(2) habitat functions,
(3) production functions and
(4) information functions.

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

This grouping concerns all ecosystems, not only for forests. The
following are the general characterization of ecosystem functions are:

(1) Regulatory functions: The ability of natural and semi-natural

ecosystems to control vital ecological processes and life support
systems via bio-geochemical cycles and other biospheric
processes is represented by this category of functions. In addition
to preserving the ecosystem's (and the biosphere's) health, these
regulatory activities offer a wide range of services that are
advantageous to people both directly and indirectly (i.e., clean
air, water and soil, and biological control services).
(2) Habitat functions: natural ecosystems provide refuge and a
reproduction habitat to wild plants and animals and thereby
contribute to the (in situ) conservation of biological and genetic
diversity and the evolutionary process.
(3) Production functions: Energy, carbon dioxide, water, and
nutrients are transformed by autotrophs through photosynthesis
and nutrient intake into a wide range of carbohydrate structures,
which are subsequently utilised by secondary producers to
produce an even wider range of living biomass. Numerous
ecosystem products for human use, including food and raw
materials, energy sources, and genetic material, are produced by
the wide variety of carbohydrate structures.
(4) Information functions: Natural ecosystems support human health
by 3 offering opportunities for introspection, spiritual
enrichment, cognitive development, recreation, and aesthetic
experience. Since the majority of human evolution occurred in
the context of an undomesticated habitat, natural ecosystems
contribute to the maintenance of human health. An ecosystem's
constituents are: The four basic elements of an ecosystem are
producers, consumers, decomposers, and abiotic elements like
ponds. If any of these four elements is missing, the ecosystem is
classified as being incomplete, such as a cave or an ocean depth.
Productivity in the Environment: There are three types of
productivity: primary productivity, secondary productivity, and
net productivity. Ecosystem productivity is the rate at which solar
energy is fixed by the vegetation within the ecosystem. Primary
productivity, also known as gross primary productivity (GPP)
and net primary productivity, is the rate at which radiant energy
is stored by producers' photosynthetic and chemosynthetic
activity (NPP). The unit of measurement is either weight
(g/m2/yr) or energy (kcal/m2). Energy storage rates at the
consumer level are referred to as secondary productivity. In order
to administer contemporary industrialised societies in ways that
are compatible with environmental preservation and

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

improvement, an understanding of ecology is a necessity.

Applied Ecology is the area of ecology that deals with foreseeing
how technology and development will affect ecosystems and
giving recommendations so that these actions will have as little
negative influence as possible—or even beneficial—on
ecosystems. The approach is multidisciplinary.

1.5.2 Ecological Concepts

There are some important concepts commonly used in the study of

ecology which enable one to understand the subject matter. Some of
these ecological concepts include.

(1) Environment: The environment include all the factors external

and internal, living and non- living factors which affect an
organism
(2) Biosphere or ecosphere: The biosphere or ecosphere is the zone
of the earth occupied by living organisms. It is a layer of life
which exists on the earth surface. The biosphere is a narrow zone
where complex biological and chemical activities occur. It can be
found on land soil, water and air. It provides habitat for
organisms like animals, plants and micro organisms.
(3) Lithosphere: The earth's solid core is known as the lithosphere.
It is the earth's crust's outermost layer or zone. It makes up 30%
of the earth's surface and is composed of rocks and minerals. The
lithosphere, which makes up the topmost layer of the landmass
and serves as the foundation for all human habitation, is
composed of loose rock components including gravel, sand, and
soils.
(4) Hydrosphere: The liquid or aquatic portion of the earth or the
biosphere is known as the hydrosphere. Approximately 70% of
the earth's crust is covered with it. It can store water in solid (ice),
liquid (water), and gaseous forms (water vapour). Lakes, pools,
springs, the ocean or sea, ponds, oases, rivers, and streams are
examples of hydrospheres.
(5) Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the gaseous portion of the earth.
It is a layer of gases surrounding fhe earth. Over 99% of the
atmosphere lies within 30 km of the earth surface. It contains
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen , 0.03% carbon dioxide and 0.97 rare
or inert gases.
(6) Habitat: A space or home inside an ecosystem where an
organism naturally resides is referred to as a habitat. A biotic
community's home is also referred to as a habitat. Or to put it
another way, a habitat is any environment that a creature inhabits.
For instance, fish live in water as their environment. The different
types of habitats include terrestrial habitats, which include

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

savanna forests and deserts, as well as aquatic habitats, which

include rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, lagoons, seas, and oceans.
Similar species frequently interact and coexist in groups. Every
habitat is impacted by biotic and abiotic environmental variables.
Habitats may be terrestrial e.g, Tropical rain forest / grassland/
savanna/ desert any suitable example , or aquatic e.g ocean/ lake
pond arboreal trunks/ leaf surface/ or any suitable example
(7). Biotic Community or biome: Any naturally occurring group of
various creatures coexisting and interesting in the same
environment is referred to as a biotic community. The greatest
group of living things is called a biome; examples include rain
forests and Guinea savanna. (8). Ecological niche: An ecological
niche is a distinct area of a habitat that a particular species or
organism occupies. Every organism is adapted to a particular
environment and has a certain function within that community,
such as feeding on other species or acting as their food source,
obtaining nutrients from its habitat or returning those nutrients to
it, or acting as either a producer or a consumer. For any specific
organism, the totality of all these functions is referred to as its
ecological niche. For instance, on the same plant, a caterpillar and
an aphid inhabit different places, or ecological niches. While the
aphid lives on the young stem and takes sap from it, the
caterpillar primarily dwells on the leaves and eats on them.
Despite sharing a habitat, each organism has a separate living
space and food supply.
(9). Population: Population is defined as the total number of
organisms belonging to the same species that are present in a
certain location and period. For instance, the population of tilapia
fish in a pond is equal to the total number of tilapia fish present in
that habitat.
(10). Ecosystem: It is a natural system made up of both living and
non-living components that work together to create a stable
system. An ecosystem is a collection of living things that coexists
with their inorganic surrounds. A habitat's ecosystem is made up
of both living and non-living components, to put it another way.
(11). Community: This describes a collection of organisms that live in
a certain location and can adapt to its conditions. They may
continue to live successfully and create new offspring because
they are interdependent, i.e., they depend on one another.
(12). Climax Community: When an ecological succession has
reached a stable or unchanging community, the climax
community is established. The community and the environment
are in balance. The level of vegetative development peaks. The
same species of creatures, plants, or organisms recur year.

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

Self-Assessment Exercise 3
1. What is an ecological niche?

2. What is a Biotic Community?

1.6 Summary

You have learned about the meaning of ecosystems ecology and

functioning as the combined study of components of ecosystems and
their interactions. Ecosystems have specific structural components (the
organisms and the physical environment) interacting among themselves
(through the processes of energy flow and cycling of materials) to
accomplish the goal of the continuance of life.. You have also studied
the classifications of ecosystems into natural and artificial. The
different categories of ecosystems, namely terrestrial and freshwater
and their various components have been highlighted.

1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Mader, S. (2017). Essentials of Biology. Published by McGraw-Hill

Education. ISBN 10: 1259660265 ISBN 13: 9781259660269

Putman, R.J. and S.D. Wratten (1984). Principles of Ecology,

Publisher Springer Dordrecht, eBook PackagesSpringer
Book Archive, DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1007, /978-94-011-6948-6,
eBook ISBN978-94-011-6948-6. 388pp

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/notes/ecology-lecture-notes-of-
ecology-and-
ecosystem/11169#:~:text=Ecosystem%20Ecology%3A,area%20a
nd%20its%20abiotic%20environment.

https://byjus.com/biology/ecosystem/

https://testbook.com/learn/ecology-and-ecosystem/

https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/what-is-an-ecosystem.php

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v6ubvEJ3KGM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhaldPmkoNE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhaldPmkoNE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GlnFylwdYH4

10
BIO 304 MODULE 1

1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Ecosystem ecology is the combined study of components of

ecosystems and their interactions.
2. Ecology can be approached from the viewpoints of (1) the
environment and the demands it places on the organisms in it or
(2) organisms and how they adapt to their environmental
conditions.

Answers to SAEs 2

1. Lentic, Lotic and Wetlands

2. These organisms include the corals, the brown algae,
echinoderms, cephalopods, sharks, and dinoflagellates.

Answers to SAEs 3

1. Ecological niche refers to the specific portion of a habitat which

is occupied by a particular species or organism.
2. A biotic community or biome is any naturally occurring group of
different organisms living together and interesting in the same
environment.

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

UNIT 2 FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
2.3 Functioning Ecosystem
2.4 The Concept of Food Chain and Food Web
2.5 Pyramid of Number and Pyramid of Energy
2.6 Summary
2.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
2.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

1.1 Introduction

You will learn the basic concepts and operations of a functional

ecosystem in this unit. You will understand the concept of food chain
and food web, and recognise that food relationship exists among living
things, and that chemical energy (in the form of carbohydrates, fats,
proteins) and nutrients are transferred among producers, consumers and
decomposers. The energy tropic levels, pyramid of energy/number and
the nature of energy flow in the ecosystem will also be highlighted.

2.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of the unit, learners should be able to:

• Have a knowledge of some ecosystem concepts

• Understand the concept of food chain and food web.
• Define the terms autrotrophy and heterotrophy,
• Recognise that food relationship exists among living things,
• Recognise that chemical energy (in the form of carbohydrates,
fats, proteins) and nutrients are transferred among
producers, consumers and decomposers,
• State that trophic level refers to the parts of food chain,
• Correctly define (or describe) food chains and pyramid of
energy/number,
• Describe the nature of energy transfer or flow in the ecosystem,

2.3 Functioning Ecosystem

Ecosystem is made up of inter independent communities of species and

their interaction with their physical environment. A single ecosystem
may cover thousands of hectares or just a few. They include major
natural systems such as grasslands, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands,
tropical forests and agricultural lands. Our major focus in this unit is on
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BIO 304 MODULE 1

how the ecosystem functions and so other etails regarding ecosystem

shall be discussed in the next unit.

Figure 1. Functioning ecosystem. Source www.myschoollibrary.com

The following concepts would give us clear understanding of a

functioning ecosystem.

1. Autotrophy: Autotrophy simply refers to the process whereby

certain organisms (e.g green plants) use sunlight or chemicals to
manufacture their food from inorganic substances through a
process called photosynthesis.
2. Heterotrophy: When an organism, such as an animal, cannot
produce food on their own and must rely either directly or
indirectly on plants for nutrition, this is referred to as heterotropy.
consumers, decomposers, heterotrophs, and autotrophs. Green
plants and some bacteria are examples of autotrophs—organisms
that produce their own food through the process of
photosynthesis using either sunlight or chemicals. In other words,
autotrophs are organisms that can make their own food, which is
why they are referred to as producers.
3. Producer
A producer is a type of green plant, also known as an autotroph,
that uses CO2, water, basic inorganic elements, or radiant energy
from the sun to capture and transform it into chemical energy,
which is then used to create organic molecules via
photosynthesis. Every food chain's origin or starting point is
represented by it. Food is provided by autotrophs to the other
species in the area. Grass, trees, and bushes are examples of
terrestrial autotrophs, while phytoplankton, water hyacinths, and
seaweeds are examples of aquatic autotrophs.

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

4. Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs are organisms, primarily animals, that rely directly
or indirectly on plants for nourishment. This is why they are also
known as consumers. Herbivores, also known as primary
consumers, are animals that eat only green plants (producers),
while carnivores, sometimes known as secondary consumers, are
creatures that eat the main consumers. Tertiary consumers are
animals that eat the secondary consumers. All animals,
carnivorous plants, fungi, the majority of protists, and some
bacteria are heterotrophs.
5. Consumer
This organism obtained all of its food, nutrients, and energy
either directly or indirectly from plants. It is an organism, in other
words, that relies on other creatures for food, energy, and
nutrition. Customers are all heterotrophs without chlorophyll.
They are either other animals (such as cats, hyenas, lions, and
leopards) that eat herbivores and thus obtain energy indirectly
from the producers, or they are animals that directly consume
plants for nutrients, food, and energy (such as cows and sheep).
These animals are known as herbivores or primary consumers.
Carnivores or secondary consumers are what these are.
Heterotrophs that consume other organisms are called consumers.
They comprise all holozoic creatures, including parasites,
decomposers, omnivores, herbivores, and carnivores. In a
terrestrial ecosystem, consumers or heterotrophs include things
like caterpillars, cows, dogs, lions, toads, hawks, lizards, and
humans, whereas aquatic heterotrophs include things like water
fleas, tadpoles, insect larvae, and fishes.

What are holozoic organisms?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What is the meaning of heterotrophy?

2. What are heterotophs?

2.4 The Concept of Food Chain and Food Web

The principal producers in an ecosystem are green plants, which harvest

solar energy that strikes their leaves and transform it into food energy. A
portion of the accumulated energy in these plants is really transformed
into the bodies of the other species that eat them when they are
consumed by them. These consumers can be broken down into several
levels. The primary consumers, the herbivores, eat the green plants

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

directly and provide the principal carnivores with food (secondary

consumers). These might then become food for secondary carnivores or,
in some situations, advance to other phases of nutritional dependence.
Parasites and various types of saprophytes may also devour the tissues
of the different plants and animals in the ecosystem after the creatures
have died. A food chain is made up of the creatures (plants and animals)
from each of these levels that may be feeding on one another. It defines
a one-line eating relationship between species within an ecosystem, to
put it simply. Examples of food chain in terrestial habitat are:

i. Guinea grass – grasshopper – toad – snake–hawk (Producer)

(primary consumer) (secondary (tertiary consumer)
Consumer)

Figure 2. Diagram of Food Chain: Source:www.myschoollibrary.com

ii. Grass – antelope – lion

(Producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer)

Every food chain typically starts with a producer (green plant), which is
then consumed by a herbivore (primary consumer), which is then
consumed by a carnivore (like a toad), which is then consumed by a
snake, which is then consumed by a larger carnivore like a hawk. An
illustration of an aquatic food chain is:

Diatoms - mosquito larvae- Tilapia fish- whales.

(Producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary

consumer).

Food energy is transported linearly from one creature to another

throughout the process that takes place in a food chain. Despite the fact
that most food chains start with producers, the hyphens indicate the
direction in which the food is being transmitted. There aren't many
exceptions that begin with dead animals or plants. For instance, Humus,
an earthworm, a domesticated bird, a man, etc. A food web is a complex
network of interconnected chains, also known as food chains, that

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

connects organisms living in the same environment. Food webs contain

two or more food chains, which means that there are more species in
them than in food chains. In nature, the interaction in feeding are more
complicated because a single plant could be fed upon by more than one
or two organisms. When a consumer feeds on different types of plants or
animals in a food web, it has a better chance of survival in its ecosystem.
A given kind of organism rarely feeds exclusively on another form of
organism in the natural world. Each creature typically feeds on two or
more different kinds before being fed on by a variety of other types of
organisms. Diagrammatic representations of the relationship show
multiple branching lines rather than a single straight line. It's known as a
food web (Figure. 3.). It is actually a network of interrelated food chains
that transport materials and energy across an ecosystem.

i. Guinea grass – grasshopper – toad – lizard – hawk (1st

trophic level) (2nd trophic level) (3rd trophic) (4th
trophic) (5th trophic) respectively. These are the top five
feeding or trophic levels. In other words, energy is transported
across five linkages, from producers (such Guinea grass) to end
users (e.g Hawks). The first trophic level is occupied by guinea
grass, the second by grasshoppers, the third by toads, the fourth
by lizards, and the fifth by hawks. Here is yet another illustration
of trophic level.
ii. Grass -goat - man (1st trophic level) (2nd trophic level) (3rd
trophic level)
In the above food chain, there are only three trophic or feeding
levels.

Figure 3. Diagram of Food Web: Source: wikihow.com

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. What is the initial stage of energy transfer in an ecosystem?

2. What is a food web?

2.5 Pyramid of Number and Pyramid of Energy

term "pyramid of number" describes how the number of distinct

creatures at each trophic level in a food chain gradually declines from
the first to the lowest trophic level. In a diagrammatic representation of
the food chain called a pyramid, producers are at the base and carnivores
are at the top. There are a proportionately large number of creatures at
various trophic levels in a food chain or food web. Typically, as one
moves up the trophic levels, there are less and fewer creatures present.
For example:

Grasses – Grasshoppers – Lizards –Hawks

The number of grasses consumed by grasshoppers exceeds the number

of grasshoppers, the number of lizards consumed by grasshoppers
exceeds the number of lizards, and the number of hawks consumed by
lizards exceeds the number of hawks. This justification reveals that the
number of creatures declines steadily from the first to the last trophic
level. The term "pyramid of number" refers to the diagrammatic
portrayal of this gradual decline in the population of creatures along the
food chain.

Figure 4.Pyramid of Number: Source: www.earthclipse.com

The energy content of living things at various trophic levels of a food

chain is referred to as the pyramid of energy. In a food chain or web, the

17
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

pyramid of energy depicts the gradual decline in energy from the first
trophic level to the last trophic level. The producers at the top trophic
level hold the most of the energy, much like the pyramid of numbers.
While the secondary or tertiary consumers have the least energy, the
primary consumers have less energy. The producers, like grasses, create
the base of the pyramid, just like the pyramid of numbers, while the
tertiary consumers, like hawks, form the summit. As a result, energy
decreases from the pyramid's base to its summit.

.
Figure 5. Pyramid of Energy: Source: www.en.wikipedia.com

The Principles of ecosystem operation

i. Food chain starts with photosynthesis (producers) and ends with

decay.
ii. Shorter food chains are made more efficient than larger food
chains in terms of waste of energy.
iii. Large population are characterised by more steps in food chain.

This means that useful energy decreases so that little of it will be

made available to the tertiary consumers.

Self-Assessment Exercise 3
1. What is the main difference between Pyramid and pyramid of number?

2. Outline the Principles of ecosystem operation

2.6 Summary

You have learned that an ecosystem is a large group of living things that
coexist with the physical elements of the environment (abiotic variables)
in a given area. The non-living aspects of the ecosystem, such as light

18
BIO 304 MODULE 1

energy and inorganic nutrients, as well as the live elements, such as

producers and consumers, make up the ecosystem. Additionally, you
have learnt about the many ecosystems, both natural and man-made.
You already know that the phrase "food chain" refers to a single feeding
link between species within an ecosystem. We have a food chain when
consumers consume numerous species and are then consumed by
multiple species. The term "trophic level" refers to each feeding level,
with plant producers constituting the first trophic level or the foundation
of natural ecosystems. We have a pyramid of biomass and a pyramid of
numbers because the feeding connection between trophic levels can be
depicted as pyramids. There are times when the pyramids are upside
down.

2.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Chapman J.L. and Reiss M.J.(1995). ECOLOGY, principles and

applications. Cambridge University Press, UK

Mader, S. (2017). Essentials of Biology. Published by McGraw-Hill

Education. ISBN 10:
1259660265 ISBN 13: 9781259660269
Putman, R.J. and S.D. Wratten (1984). Principles of Ecology,
Publisher Springer Dordrecht, eBook PackagesSpringer
Book Archive, DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1007, /978-94-011-6948-6,
eBook ISBN978-94- 011-6948-6. 388pp

https://inspire.education.gov.ng/lessons/v/589334805

https://serc.si.edu/research/research-topics/ecosystems-
ecology/ecosystem-functioning

http://woodlandhighag.weebly.com/functioning-of-ecosystems.html

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X20303162

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5hb5ddl2Vk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KAuf-oBNvOU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z3pMdEpEoUE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yaw_rhdlLhI

19
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

2.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. What is the meaning of heterotrophy? Heterotrophy refers to the

process or situation where certain organisms such as animals
cannot manufacture their own food but depends directly or
indirectly on plants for their food.
2. What are heterotophs? Heterotrophs are organisms, mainly
animals, which cannot manufacture their own food but depend
directly or indirectly on plants for their food, hence they are
called consumers.

Answers to SAE 2

1. It starts when green plants, the primary producers in an

ecosystem capture energy from sunlight that fall on their leaves
and convert it to food energy.
2. Food web is defined as a complex feeding relationship among
organisms in the same environment with two or more interrelated
chains-called food chains.

Answers to SAE 3

1. Pyramid of number refers to the number of individual organisms

at each trophic level which decreases progressively from the first
to the last trophic level in a food chain. Pyramid is a
diagrammatic representation of food chain in which producers
form the base and the carnivores form the apex.
2. The Principles of ecosystem operation are:
i. Food chain starts with photosynthesis (producers) and ends with
decay.
ii. Shorter food chains are made more efficient than larger food
chains in terms of waste of energy.
iii. Large population are characterised by more steps in food chain.
This means that useful energy decreases so that little of it will be
made available to the tertiary consumers.

20
BIO 304 MODULE 1

UNIT 3 PRODUCTIVITY OF ECOSYSTEMS

Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.3 Productivity in Ecosystems
3.3.1 Primary Productivity in Ecosystem
3.3.2 Secondary Productivity in Ecosystem
3.4 Energy Flow
3.5 Concepts of Productivity
3.5.1 Environmental Factors Affecting the Productivity in
Ecosystem
3.5.2 Productivity of the major ecosystems
3.6 Summary
3.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
3.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

3.1 Introduction

Energy is needed by all living things for metabolic processes and

sustaining themselves. Through the producers, who are able to create
organic materials from sunlight, this energy enters the environment. In
this lesson, we'll talk about how solar energy is captured by living things
and how it moves up the energy spectrum from producers to consumers.
At each step, the effectiveness of this energy transfer will be examined.

3.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the term primary productivity and recognize its

significance to the ecosystem
• Differentiate between gross primary productivity and net primary
productivity
• Understand the manner of energy flow in the ecosystem
• Understand the efficiency of energy flow from one trophic level
to the next
• Recognise the pyramid of energy

3.3 Productivity in Ecosystems

Did you realise that Earth's days are getting longer? It's a fact, so don't
be shocked. Earth's day used to last around six hours when it was
founded nearly 4.5 billion years ago. The moon's gravitational attraction
caused the Earth's rotation to slow down over 4.5 billion years, and it

21
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

still does so at a rate of 1.7 miliseconds per year. What would happen to
our world, its environment, and its productivity if a day were to shorten
to six hours today? We must comprehend the operation and productivity
of our environment in order to comprehend that. Productivity in
ecosystem can be defined as the rate at which the biomass increases per
unit area. It can be measured in units of biomass per unit volume per
unit area, i.e., gm–2 yr–1 or (kcal m–2) yr–1. Dry matter or dry mass
can be used to define biomass. The ecosystem has a strong influence on
productivity. Each ecosystem has a unique distribution of producers,
consumers, and decomposers, which has a significant impact on
production. The food web is typically represented as a pyramid shape by
the ecological productivity. Additionally, ecological productivity is just
as important as primary and secondary productivity. Productivity can be
studied at two different levels:

Figure 1: Types of Productivity

3.3.1 Primary Productivity in Ecosystem

1. It is carried out by autotrophs or producers.

2. Primary productivity can be defined as the amount of solar
energy converted to chemical energy by an ecosystem’s
producers for a given area during a certain time period.
3. Producers produce biomass by performing photosynthesis.
4. Some primary producers can be chemosynthetic as well, i.e., they
produce biomass by chemosynthesis. E.g., Purple sulfur bacteria.
5. Primary productivity can be divided into two types as below:

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

Fig. 2. Types of Primary Productivity

Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the term used to describe how

much solar energy is used to produce biomass during the photosynthesis
process (GPP). It is the pace at which organic stuff is produced. A small
portion of GPP is transferred to the consumers and some is used by the
plant itself. The internal metabolism, cellular respiration, or
development and repair processes of plants cause the majority of the
GPP to be lost. Respiratory loss is the term used to describe the GPP lost
(R). Net primary productivity (NPP) is the amount of biomass that
remains after respiratory loss for consumers or heterotrophs. The plants
store this biomass. In order to produce food, fibre, wood, and
increasingly biofuels, humans heavily influence net primary production,
which is the foundation of ecological food chains. This can be described
as:

23
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

NPP = GPP – R

Figure 3. Depiction of GPP, NPP, and R

In terrestrial environments, tropical forests exhibit the highest primary

productivity, whereas deserts exhibit the lowest primary output.
Approximately 170 billion tonnes of net primary productivity are
produced annually in the entire biosphere, compared to the ocean's only
55 billion tonnes of biomass, according to estimates. There is a positive
association between primary productivity and solar radiation, and the
amount of solar energy has a significant impact on the primary
productivity of a natural environment. Primary production diminishes
noticeably as we approach towards the poles because the amount of
solar energy received at the Earth's surface reduces as we move from the
equator to the poles. E.P. Odum asserts that there are three degrees of
productivity in the world:

1. Shallow water areas, moist forests (tropical and temperate),

alluvial plains, and regions of intensive farming represent the
regions of high ecological productivity.
2. Arctic snow-covered wastelands, deserts, and deep ocean areas
represent the regions of low ecological productivity.
3. Grasslands, shallow lakes, and farmlands represent regions of
intermediate ecological productivity. What are the three levels of
productivity as outlined by Odum?

3.3.2 Secondary Productivity in Ecosystem

The rate of biomass generation by consumers or herbivores is known as

secondary productivity. organisms that can take energy from biomass
produced as a result of primary productivity but cannot manufacture
24
BIO 304 MODULE 1

their own food. The important thing to note here is that, unlike primary
productivity, different trophic levels, such as herbivores, carnivores,
omnivores, etc., exist at the level of secondary productivity. Only 10%
of the biomass that each trophic level consumes is converted into
energy; the remainder is discharged as faeces and is available for
utilisation by lower trophic levels or by decomposers. The energy that is
ingested is used for a variety of metabolic functions, including growth
and reproduction. The entire secondary production is a representation of
trophic level energy flow. Secondary productivity is basically the
amount of energy stored in the tissues of consumers of each trophic
level.

Figure 4. Secondary Productivity and Energy Flow

In terrestrial ecosystems, productivity is highest in Swamps, marshes,

tropical rain forests (most productive), while lowest in the desert. In
contrast, in aquatic ecosystems, productivity is highest in the Estuaries,
lowest in the open ocean.

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

Figure 5: Productivity and Energy Flow Through the Different Trophic

Level

26
BIO 304 MODULE 1

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What is the primary source of energy in an ecosystem?

2. When are all the ecosystems equally productive?

3.4 Energy Flow

Energy is the core of life and is defined as the capacity to perform tasks.
Ecological systems and life could not exist without energy flows. All
living activities utilise energy that is produced from solar radiant energy.
The rules of thermodynamics define how energy behaves: (i) Energy
may be transformed from one type into another but is never created or
destroyed, and (ii) no process involving an energy transformation will
spontaneously occur unless there is a degradation of the energy from a
concentrated form into a dispersed form, etc.
The sun's radiance energy leaves the body and moves through space in
waves. However, only a small portion of solar radiation, which is
needed to power the biotic elements of the ecosystem, reaches the
planet. The fate of radiant energy that reaches the earth's atmosphere is
depicted in Figure 5. The image makes it evident that the majority of the
radiation is lost in space as a result of scattering, absorption, and
reflection processes. Its energy is significantly changed as light travels
through vegetation, water, and clouds.

Figure 5. Radiant energy reaching earths surface.

Source: https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsatmospheric-
radiation

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

The average daily solar energy intake to an ecosystem's autotrophic

layer ranges from 100 to 800 to 300 to 400 g cal per cm2 (or 3000 to
4000 kcal per m2 in the temperate zone).
Seasonal variations in the total radiation flow within the ecosystem's
many strata, along with variations in the surface characteristics of the
earth, regulate the distribution and behaviour of species.

Plants and other living things change and/or absorb the energy that
reaches the earth's surface. By transforming light energy into chemical
energy during photosynthesis, it is used by green plants to provide food
for other living things. In 1942, Lindeman conducted the first study of
these energy exchanges in the food chain. He claimed that by
understanding two properties of each trophic level—the degree of
energy storage and the effectiveness of energy transfer—all the
processes of an ecosystem could be explained in terms of energy.
Odum's simplified representation of the process of energy flow in an
ecosystem is illustrated in Figure 2.3, where the trophic levels are
represented by the "boxes" and the energy flow into and out of each
level is displayed by the "pipes." This simple model shows that the
energy transfer from producers to herbivores and then to carnivores is
significantly reduced at each subsequent trophic level. IN -TEXT
QUESTION (ITQ): How does the radiant energy reach the Earth?
Energy is transferred from the sun to Earth via electromagnetic waves,
or radiation. Most of the energy that passes through the upper
atmosphere and reaches Earth's surface is in two forms, visible and
infrared light. The majority of this light is in the visible spectrum.

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

Figure 6. Energy flow in a food chain

Source: https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsatmospheric-
radiation
Self-Assessment Exercise 2
1. What is trophic level?

2.What are the stages of energy flow in an ecosystem?.

3.5 Concepts of Productivity

By comparing the quantity of goods and services produced (output) with

the quantity of inputs required to generate those goods and services,
productivity is a measure of economic performance. Productivity in
ecology refers to the pace at which biomass is formed within the
ecosystem, as explained in the previous section. It also goes by the name
"photosynthesis-generated energy" and is made up of the ideas listed
below:

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

a. Standing crop,
b. Materials removed, and
c. Production rate.

a. Standing Crop:

This is the amount of creatures that are present in the area at any one
time. It can be expressed in terms of the quantity of people, the biomass
of the creatures, the energy content, or in other appropriate measures.
The concentration of people in the different populations of the
ecosystem can be found by measuring the standing crop.

b. Materials Removed:

The second concept of productivity is the materials removed from the

area per unit time. It includes the yield to man, organisms removed from
the ecosystem by migration, and the material withdrawn as organic
deposit.

c. Production Rate:

The third concept of productivity is the production rate, at which the

growth processes are going forward within the area. The amount of
material formed by each link in the food chain per unit of time per unit
area or volume is the production rate.

3.5.1 Environmental Factors Affecting the Productivity in

Ecosystem:

1. Solar radiation and temperature.

2. Moisture, i.e., leaf water potential, soil moisture, fluctuation of
precipitation, and transpiration.
3. Mineral nutrition, i.e., uptake of minerals from the soil,
rhizosphere effects, fire effects, salinity, heavy metals and
nitrogen metabolism.
4. Biotic activities, i.e., grazing, above ground herbivores, below
ground herbivores, predators and parasites and diseases of
primary producers.
5. I mpact of human populations, i.e., populations of different sorts,
ionising radiations, such as atomic explosions, etc.
6. In aquatic systems, productivity is generally limited by light,
which decreases with increasing water depth. In deep oceans
nutrients often become limiting for productivity. Nitrogen is most
important nutrient limiting productivity in marine ecosystems.

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

3.5.2 Productivity of the Major Ecosystems

The size of primary productivity is dependent on the capacity of

producers for photosynthetic activity as well as the current
environmental factors, such as solar radiation, ambient temperature, and
soil moisture. In tropical environments, primary productivity may
continue year-round if sufficient soil moisture is available. While in
temperate regions, the cold environment and a brief snow-free growing
season of the year limit primary productivity.

Upon which factors does the largeness of primary productivity depends?

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. What is the primary source of energy in an ecosystem?

2. When are all the ecosystems equally productive?

3.6 Summary

We have learnt about ecosystem productivity in this unit. Primary

productivity is a term used to describe the amount of organic matter or
energy produced by plants from sunlight (solar energy) in a given area
during a given period of time, and Gross primary productivity refers to
the total organic matter(energy) produced by the photosynthetic
organism (plant or algae)while net primary productivity excludes the
energy expended by the metabolic activities of the organism in for
example respiration. We have also learned that the energy acquired by
the producers is transferred from one trophic level to the next along the
food chain and the length of food chain is limited to 3 or rarely 4 levels
because too much energy is lost at each transfer point.

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

3.7 References/ Further Reading/Web Sources

Chapman, J. L. and Reiss, M. J. (1995).Ecology, Principles and

Application. Cambridge University Press, UK.
Miller, G. Tyler Jr. and Scott E. Spoolman (2009). Essentials of
Ecology, 5e, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 10 Davis Drive
Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA, ISBN-13: 978-0- 495-
55795-1, 383pp

https://byjus.com/biology/productivity-in-ecosystem/

https://www.vedantu.com/biology/productivity-in-ecosystem

https://www.embibe.com/exams/productivity-in-ecosystem/

https://www.pearson.com/channels/biology/asset/30b73714/ecological-
productivity-part-1-basics-and-limiting-factors

https://www.doubtnut.com/question-answer-biology/the-component-of-
the-ecosystem-are-seen-to-function-as-a-unit-when-you-consider-
which-of-the-followi-645053470

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnAKICtJIA4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zO0algdgNM

3.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. What is the primary source of energy in an ecosystem?

Sun is the primary source of energy in an ecosystem. The
producers such as plants, cyanobacteria and algae use sunlight to
prepare their food. This marks the beginning of energy flow
through the food chain.
2. When are all the ecosystems equally productive?
All the ecosystems are equally productive under drought
conditions. According to researches, under drought conditions,
the tropical forests can use water as efficiently as deserts

Answers to SAE 2

1. The feeding level from producers to consumers is called a trophic

level. Energy flows only one way through various trophic levels.

32
BIO 304 MODULE 1

2. Energy flow can be described through food chains as the transfer

of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with the
autotrophs and moving up the chain as animals are consumed by
one another. Another way to display this type of chain or simply
to display the trophic levels is through food/energy pyramids.

Answers to SAE 3

1. Sun is the primary source of energy in an ecosystem. The

producers such as plants, cyanobacteria and algae use sunlight to
prepare their food. This marks the beginning of energy flow
through the food chain.
2. All the ecosystems are equally productive under drought
conditions. According to researches, under drought conditions,
the tropical forests can use water as efficiently as deserts.

33
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

UNIT 4 THE CYCLING OF NUTRIENTS IN

ECOSYSTEMS

Unit structure

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
4.3 Nutrient Flows and Cycles
4.3.1 The Carbon Cycle
4.3.2 Steps of the Carbon Cycle
4.4 The Nitrogen Cycle
4.4.1 Nitrogen Fixation
4.4.2 Ammonification and Nitrification
4.4.3 Denitrification
4.5 The Water Cycle
4.5.1 Oxygen Cycle
4.5.2 Phosphorus Cycle
4.5.3 Pollution by Nutrients
4.6 Summary
4.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
4.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

4.1 Introduction

Element interactions between animals and reservoirs in the liquid or gas

(oxygen, water, carbon, and nitrogen) or solid (phosphorus) phases are
essential to the survival of species throughout their life cycles within
ecosystems. It starts when they are absorbed into the bodies of
organisms from the atmosphere or from worn rock. Since the elements
are immutable under earthly natural conditions, when molecules move
from one trophic level to another, they continue to circulate. Since they
function in a closed system, they can be recycled repeatedly. Some of
these elements will be examined in this unit along with their recycling
processes.

4.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Know the major nutrients in ecosystems that are cycled and

recycled by living organisms.
• Understand how the nutrient cycles include the living biosphere
and the nonliving lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere.
• Know the process of recycling of water and some of the
important nutrients within the ecosystem.

34
BIO 304 MODULE 1

• Explain the processes of Ammonification, Nitrification,

NitrogenFixation and Dentrification.
• Understand how the phosphorus cycle differs from other
nutrientcycles
• Know how the various nutrient cycles interact.
• Understand the importance of the nutrient cycles to
organismswithin an ecosystem.

4.3 Nutrient Flows and Cycles

One of the most crucial processes that takes place in an ecosystem is

nutrient cycling. The nutrient cycle explains how nutrients are used,
transported, and recycled in the environment. In order for organisms to
exist, valuable elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, hydrogen, oxygen,
and carbon must be recycled. Both living and nonliving elements are
included in the nutrient cycles, which also incorporate biological,
geological, and chemical processes. These nutrient circuits are referred
to as biogeochemical cycles for this reason. Global cycles and local
cycles are the two basic subtypes of biogeochemical cycles. Abiotic
ecosystems including the atmosphere, water, and soil recycle elements
like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen. These elements' cycles are
of a global scale because the atmosphere serves as their primary abiotic
source environment. Before being absorbed by living things, these
elements may travel over long distances. The primary abiotic habitat for
the recycling of elements like calcium, potassium, and phosphorus is
soil. As a result, they usually travel across a small area. What is Nutrient
cycling?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1
1. What does the organic compartment of the nutrient cycles consists of?

2. What are the three functional groups of the nutrient cycle compartment?

4.3.1 The Carbon Cycle

Since carbon is the primary component of all living things, it is

necessary for all life. It acts as the main building block for all organic
polymers, such as lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Global climates
are influenced by the circulation of carbon molecules in the atmosphere,
such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). The processes of
photosynthesis and respiration are principally responsible for the
movement of carbon among living and nonliving ecosystem
components. CO2 is a gas that is used by plants and other
photosynthetic organisms to create biological components. Through
respiration, organisms such as plants, animals, and decomposers

35
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

(bacteria and fungi) return CO2 to the atmosphere. The rapid carbon
cycle is the flow of carbon through biotic elements of the environment.
The time it takes for carbon to move through the biotic elements of the
cycle is significantly shorter than the time it takes it to go through the
abiotic elements. For carbon to flow through abiotic components like
rocks, soil, and oceans, it can take up to 200 million years. The sluggish
carbon cycle is the name given to this carbon cycle.

4.3.2 Steps of the Carbon Cycle

Photosynthetic organisms (plants, cyanobacteria, etc.) take CO2 from

the atmosphere and use it to produce organic molecules and increase
biological mass. Animals eat photosynthetic organisms to obtain the
carbon that the producers have stored. All living things breathe,
returning CO2 to the environment. Dead and decaying organic matter is
broken down by decomposers, who also produce CO2. Burning organic
material releases some CO2 back into the atmosphere (forest fires).
Erosion, volcanic eruptions, or the burning of fossil fuels can release
CO2 that has been trapped in rock or fossil fuels back into the
atmosphere.

36
BIO 304 MODULE 1

Figure 1. The Carbon Cycle

4.4 The Nitrogen Cycle

As with carbon, biological molecules cannot exist without nitrogen.

Amino acids and nucleic acids are a few of these compounds. Although
there is a lot of nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere, most living things can't
use it to make chemical compounds. Prior to being turned to ammonia
(NH3), atmospheric nitrogen must first be fixed by certain bacteria.
Nitrogen cycle steps: In aquatic and soil habitats, nitrogen-fixing
microorganisms transform atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia
(NH3). These organisms create the biological compounds necessary for
their survival using nitrogen. Nitrifying bacteria are then responsible for
converting NH3 to nitrite and nitrate. Through the roots of the plant,
ammonium (NH4-) and nitrate are absorbed to provide plants with
nitrogen from the soil. Organic chemicals are created using nitrate and
ammonium.

Animals consume plants or other animals to obtain nitrogen in its

organic form. Decomposers break down solid waste and dead or
decaying stuff to release NH3 into the soil. NH3 is converted to nitrite
and nitrate by nitrifying bacteria. Nitrite and nitrate are converted to N2
by denitrifying bacteria, which then releases N2 back into the
atmosphere.

37
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

Figure 2. Nitrogen cycle. Source

4.4.1 Nitrogen Fixation

Dinitrogen gas has a strong triple bond holding its two nitrogen atoms
together, making N2 a very inert substance. Because of this, although
being relatively common in the environment, only a few specialised
organisms can directly utilise N2. All of these microbes that fix nitrogen
have the capacity to break down N2 into NH3 gas, which they can
subsequently use as food. More crucially, the majority of autotrophic
plants and microorganisms that are unable to fix N2 on their own can
now indirectly access the NH3. The majority of ecosystems rely on
biological nitrogen fixation to supply the nitrogen that supports their
primary productivity. In reality, N2 fixation is ultimately responsible for
nearly all of the organic nitrogen in the biomass of animals and
ecosystems across the biosphere because nitrogen is not a significant
component of rocks and soil minerals. The only other substantial
sources of fixed nitrogen for ecosystems are plant uptake of NO and
NO2 gases and atmospheric deposition of nitrate and ammonium in
precipitation and dust fall. However, in comparison to biological N2
fixation, these sources are typically insignificant.

The Rhizobium bacteria, which are found in specialised nodules on the

roots of leguminous plants like peas and beans, are the most well-known
N2-fixing microorganisms. Some non-legumes, like alders, coexist with
N2-fixing bacteria in a beneficial symbiosis. Most lichens, a mutualistic

38
BIO 304 MODULE 1

relationship between an alga and a fungus, share this trait. In soil or

water, many additional N2-fixing microorganisms, including
cyanobacteria, live in the open (blue-green bacteria).

Non-biological nitrogen fixation also happens, for example, during a

lightning strike when atmospheric N2 and O2 combine under extremely
hot and pressured conditions. N2 can also be fixed by humans. For
instance, the production of NH3 nitrogen fertiliser involves mixing N2
with hydrogen gas (H2, which is created from the fossil fuel CH4) in the
presence of iron catalysts. Additionally, when N2 and O2 combine at
high pressure and temperature in car internal combustion engines, NO
gas is created. Vehicle exhaust releases a lot of NO into the atmosphere,
which contributes to air pollution. Currently, fertiliser production
accounts for around 83% of the 120 million tonnes of anthropogenic N2
fixation every year. This is a crucial part of the current nitrogen cycle
that is comparable in importance to non-human N2fixation on a global
scale (about 170 million tonnes per year). The majority of Fabaceae
species, including these soybeans, form a mutualistic relationship with
Rhizobium bacteria. In nodules on the roots, the Rhizobium convert
nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonia (NH3), which the plant can utilise as a
fertiliser.

4.4.2 Ammonification, Nitrification and Denitrification

The organically bound nitrogen in an organism must be changed into

inorganic forms when it dies in order for its fixed nitrogen to be
recycled. Ammonification, the first step in this process, involves
converting the organic nitrogen in dead biomass into ammonia, which
then picks up a hydrogen ion (H+) to create ammonium (NH4+). As a
result, ammonification is a part of the intricate degradation process that
is unique to the nitrogen cycle. Numerous microbes perform
ammonification. Many species of plants can benefit from the ammonium
that is produced, especially those that thrive in situations with acidic
soil. The majority of plants, however, are unable to efficiently absorb
NH4+ and must instead rely on nitrate (NO3-) as their primary source of
nitrogen nutrition. The creation of nitrate from ammonium is known as
nitrification. The first process is the conversion of NH4+ to nitrite
(NO2-), which is done by Nitrosomonas bacteria. Nitrobacter bacteria
quickly convert the produced nitrite to nitrate by oxidation. Acidic soil
or water prevents nitrification because Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter are
sensitive to acidity. This is why plants need to be able to utilise
ammonium as a source of nitrogen in environments that are acidic.

The graphic shows the most significant inorganic nitrogen changes that
occur in soil and aquatic ecosystems. What is Nitrification? Nitrification
is the process by which nitrate is synthesized from ammonium. Nitrate is

39
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

transformed into one of the gases N2O or N2, which are then released
into the atmosphere, during denitrification, which is another process
carried out by a wide range of microbial species. Under anaerobic
conditions, denitrification takes place, and its rate is highest when there
is a high concentration of nitrate, such as on fertilised agricultural land
that is briefly flooded. In some ways, denitrification can be seen as a
process that balances off nitrogen fixation. The total amount of fixed
nitrogen in the biosphere is actually not changing all that much over
time since the rates of denitrification and nitrogen fixation are roughly
equalised on a global scale.

Self-Assessment Exercise 2
1. what is ammonification?

2. How is atmospheric nitrogen converted to ammonia?

4.5 The Water Cycle

The hydrosphere is the region of the planet where water is moved

around and stored as liquid water in rivers, lakes, and seas, as well as
underground (groundwater), in ice sheets and glaciers, and as water
vapour in the atmosphere. Human cells contain more than 70% water,
while the average human body contains roughly 60% water. 97.5
percent of the water reserves on Earth are salt water. More than 99
percent of the remaining water is either ice or groundwater. Lakes and
rivers therefore contain less than 1% of freshwater. This small fraction is
essential to many creatures, and its absence can harm ecosystems. Of
course, humans have created technology to improve the availability of
water, such as drilling wells to gather groundwater, collecting rainwater,
and desalinating ocean water to produce potable water. Despite the fact
that humans have been seeking drinkable water throughout history, there
is still a significant problem with the availability of fresh water today.
The various processes that occur during the cycling of water are
illustrated in Figure 2 below. The processes include the following:

Figure 1. Sources of Water

40
BIO 304 MODULE 1

Only 2.5 percent of water on Earth is fresh water, and less than 1 percent
of fresh water is easily

accessible to living things.

evaporation and sublimation
condensation and precipitation
subsurface water flow
surface runoff and snowmelt
stream flow

The Sun's energy, which heats the seas and other surface waters, drives
the water cycle. Due to the evaporation of liquid surface water into
water vapour and the sublimation of frozen water into water vapour,
significant volumes of water are transferred into the atmosphere as water
vapour. This water vapour eventually condenses into clouds of liquid or
frozen droplets and produces precipitation (rain, snow, and hail), which
brings water back to the Earth's surface. When rain falls on Earth, it may
re-evaporate, run off the surface, or seep into the earth. Surface runoff,
or the movement of freshwater over land from rain or melting ice, is the
easiest to witness. Runoff can go from lakes and streams to the oceans.
Rain usually comes into contact with vegetation before it reaches the
soil surface in most natural terrestrial ecosystems. On plant surfaces, a
large portion of the water evaporates right away. The remainder reaches
the ground and starts to sink. Only after the earth is completely saturated
with water during a severe downpour can surface runoff occur. Plant
roots can absorb water from the soil. Most of this water will be lost back
to the atmosphere through a process known as transpiration, while some
of it will be used by the plant for its own metabolism and some will end
up in animals that eat the plants: Through the stomata (tiny microscopic
apertures) of the leaves, water evaporates or transpires through the
vascular system of plants. Evapotranspiration, a term coined by
ecologists to describe the process of water being returned to the
atmosphere, combines the terms transpiration and evaporation. When
water in the soil is not absorbed by plants or evaporates, it can percolate
into the bedrock and subsoil, where it becomes groundwater.

A large subterranean fresh water storage is groundwater. It can be found

in the cracks in rocks or the spaces between the granules of soil, sand,
and gravel. These pores and fissures allow for the sluggish movement of
groundwater, which finally makes its way to a lake or stream where it
rejoins the surface water. Many streams continue to flow even when
they are not directly refilled by rainwater but rather by a steady inflow
of groundwater from below. Deep within the bedrock, there is some
groundwater that can stay there for centuries. The majority of
groundwater aquifers, also known as reservoirs, are where wells take
water for cultivation or drinking. These aquifers are frequently being

41
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

used up more quickly than they are being refilled by water that
percolates down from above. Minerals, such as phosphorus and sulphur,
are frequently cycled from land to water by rain and surface runoff. The
environmental effects of runoff will be discussed later as these cycles
are described.

Figure 3. Water cycle

4.5.1 Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is an element that is essential to biological organisms. The vast

majority of atmospheric oxygen (O2) is derived from photosynthesis.
Plants and other photosynthetic organisms use CO2, water, and light
energy to produce glucose and O2. Glucose is used to synthesize organic
molecules, while O2 is released into the atmosphere. Oxygen is removed
from the atmosphere through decomposition processes and respiration in
living organisms.

42
BIO 304 MODULE 1

Figure 4. Oxygen cycle

4.5.2 Phosphorus Cycle

Biological substances include RNA, DNA, phospholipids, and

adenosine triphosphate contain phosphorus (ATP). A highly energetic
chemical called ATP is created during fermentation and cellular
respiration. Phosphorus is primarily transported throughout the
phosphorus cycle by soil, rocks, water, and living things. The phosphate
ion is the form of phosphorus that is present organically (PO43-).
Runoff from the weathering of phosphate-containing rocks adds
phosphorus to soil and water. Plants take up PO43- from the soil, and
people take it in when they eat plants and other animals. Decomposition
causes phosphorus to be reintroduced to the soil. In aquatic situations,
phosphates can also get caught in sediments. Over time, these
phosphate-containing sediments produce new rocks.

43
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

Figure 5. Phosphorus cycle

4.5.3 Pollution by Nutrients

The healthy metabolism of living things and the proper operation of

ecosystems depend on nutrients. The idea behind the usage of fertiliser
in agriculture is that, frequently, increasing the availability of specific
nutrients would raise the productivity of both wild and domesticated
plants. There are, however, instances where an abundance of nutrients
has seriously harmed the environment. These are typically the most
plentiful nutrients in fertiliser because the supply of readily available
forms of nitrogen, especially NO3- and NH4+, is frequently a limiting
factor to agricultural output. However, the usage of agricultural fertiliser
may lead to NO3- concentrations in drinking water that are too high to
be safe for people, particularly for young children. Along with NO3-
and NH4+ from precipitation and soil water, plants may also absorb
gaseous NO and N2O from the atmosphere and use them as nutrients.
However, gaseous NO and N2O are air pollutants if they are present in
large quantities, particularly in sunny situations where they are

44
BIO 304 MODULE 1

implicated in the photochemical synthesis of harmful ozone. Acid rain

may also be a result of high NO3- and NH4+ concentrations in snow
and rain.

There are further instances of how too many nutrients can harm the
environment. For instance, because carbon makes up almost half of
plant biomass, CO2 is one of the most crucial nutrients for plants. The
atmospheric quantity of this important nutrient, however, is only about
0.04%. However, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has
increased by about 45% during the past two centuries and it continues to
amplify. This well-documented change is contributing to global
warming, an important environmental problem. Eutrophication, or an
excessive productivity of waterbodies, is another environmental problem
related to an excessive supply of nutrients. It is most often caused by an
excess of PO43–, usually because of sewage dumping or runoff from
fertilized agricultural land. Highly eutrophic lakes are degraded
ecologically and may no longer be useful as a source of drinking water
or for recreation.

Clearly, these examples show that there is a fine balance between

chemicals serving as beneficial nutrients, or as damaging pollutants.

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. As oxygen is an element that is essential to biological organisms, where does the

vast majority of atmospheric oxygen (O2) comes from?

2. I what form is phosphorus is found organically ?

4.6 Summary

Nutrients are chemicals that are essential for the metabolism of

organisms and ecosystems. If they are insufficient in quantity, then
ecological productivity is less than it potentially could be. Nutrients can
also be present in excess, in which case environmental damage may be
caused by toxicity and other problems. Nutrients routinely cycle among
inorganic and organic forms within ecosystems. Key aspects of nutrient
cycles are illustrated by the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur
cycles.

4.7 References/Further Reading/Web Sources

Botkin, D.B. and E.A. Keller. (2014). Environmental Science: Earth as a

Living Planet. 9th ed. Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.

45
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

Freedman, B., J. Hutchings, D. Gwynne, J. Smol, R. Suffling, R.

Turkington, R. Walker, and D. Bazeley. (2014). Ecology: A
Canadian Context. 2nd ed. Nelson Canada, Toronto, ON.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-
sciences/nutrient-cycling

https://study.com/learn/lesson/nutrient-cycle-steps.html

https://mdocs.skidmore.edu/crandallparktrees/ecosystem/nutrient-
cycling/

https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/biosphere-
to-ecosystems/08-biosphere-to-ecosystems-07

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NVhY4ssMtbI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2yb1ERU9p4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2lMdMa0bnQw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=urmKLXwv_50

4.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. The organic compartment of the nutrient cycle consists of

nutrients present within living and dead organic matter.
2. The compartment can be divided into three functional groups
namely: (a) living biomass of autotrophs such as plants, algae,
and autotrophic bacteria, (b) living heterotrophs including
herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and detritivores, and (c) and
all forms of dead organic matter.

Answers to SAE 2

1. Ammonification, in which the organic nitrogen of dead biomass

is transformed to ammonia, which acquires a hydrogen ion (H+)
to form ammonium (NH4+).
2. Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted to ammonia (NH3) by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in aquatic and soil environments.

46
BIO 304 MODULE 1

Answers to SAE 3

1. The vast majority of atmospheric oxygen (O2) is derived

from photosynthesis.
2. Phosphorus is found organically in the form of the phosphate ion
(PO43-).

47
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

UNIT 5 INTERACTIONS WITHIN ECOSYSTEMS

Unit Structure

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
5.3 Ecological communities
5.4 Competition
5.5 Symbiotic Relationships
5.6 Summary
5.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
5.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

5.1 Introduction

When we took a tour through population ecology, we mostly looked at

populations of individual species in isolation. In reality, though,
populations of one species are rarely—if ever!—isolated from
populations of other species. In most cases, many species share a
habitat, and the interactions between them play a major role in
regulating population growth and abundance. This is what we shall
study in this unit. Together, the populations of all the different species
that live together in an area make up what's called an ecological
community.

5.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• State the significance of the community in ecology, and list types

of community interactions.
• Define predation, and explain how it affects population growth
and evolution.
• Describe competition, and outline how it can lead to extinction or
specialization of species.
• Define symbiosis, and identify major types of symbiotic
relationships.

5.3 Ecological communities

The biotic element of an ecosystem is known as a community in

ecology. It is made up of communities of several species that coexist
and communicate in the same space. Species interactions in
communities are significant biotic factors in natural selection, just like
abiotic elements like climate or water depth. The interconnections

48
BIO 304 MODULE 1

influence how the interacting species evolve. Predation, competition,

and symbiosis are three main categories of community interactions.

1. Predation

Predation is a situation in which individuals from one species—the

predator—consume individuals from another species (the prey). In
Figure 1, the lions and cape buffalo serve as classic illustrations of
predators and prey. In addition to the lions, this statue also features
another predator. Can you locate it?" The Cape Buffalo is the other
predator. It eats prey animals like the lion does, in this instance grass
species. In food chains and webs, predator-prey interactions are
responsible for the majority of energy transfers.

Figure 1: An adult male lion and a lion cub feed on the carcass of a
South African cape buffalo.

2. Types of Predators

The lions in Figure 1 are true predators. The predator kills its prey in
real predation. True predators like lions will take enormous prey, dissect
it, and chew it before devouring it. The smaller prey is caught and
swallowed whole by other genuine predators. Snakes, for instance, can
consume mice entire. Because they don't kill their victims, some
predators aren't actually predators. They graze on their prey instead.
When grazing, a predator usually consumes only a portion of its prey.
Deer, for instance, graze on plants but rarely harm them. It is also
possible to "graze" on animals. For instance, female mosquitoes can
spread disease but only consume minute amounts of animal blood
without causing harm.

3. Predation and Populations

The size of prey populations is regulated in part by true predators. This

is particularly valid when a predator only feeds on one species. In
general, the balance of both species' populations is maintained via the
predator-prey interaction. In Figure 2, this is displayed. Every shift in

49
BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

one species' population size is followed by an equivalent shift in the

other species' population size. Predator-prey populations often continue
to fluctuate in this manner so long as there is no outside interference..

Figure 2. As the prey population increases, the predator population starts

to rise. When there are more predators, the prey population begins to
diminish, which, in turn, results in a decline in the predator population.
This pattern keeps coming back. Between changes in one population and
changes in the other population, there is usually a small lag. Because
they are so vital to their community, some predator species are referred
to as keystone species. The population of a keystone species is
drastically impacted by the introduction or eradication of that species.
This in turn has an i Both prey and predators have predation adaptations.
The predator's adaptations aid in catching prey. They benefit from
adaptations that assist prey avoid them. Camouflage, or disguise, is a
typical adaptation in both predator and prey species. To become
invisible in the background is one technique to use camouflage.mpact on
the populations of numerous other species in the neighbourhood. For
instance, certain species of sea stars are important components of coral
reef communities. The only natural predators of mussels and sea urchins
are the sea stars. A coral reef community would be destroyed if sea stars
were eliminated because the populations of mussels and sea urchins
would explode and drive out the majority of other species. In order to
control pests, people occasionally purposefully bring predators into an
area. The term for this is biological pest control. A species of insect
known as a scale bug was among the first pests managed in this manner.
Inadvertently, the scale insect was brought from Australia to California
in the late 1800s. It was destroying the citrus trees in California and had
no natural predators there. The scale insect was then imported into
California along with its natural predator from Australia, a kind of
beetle. The insect was entirely under the predator's control within a short
period of time. Unfortunately, this is not always the case with biological
pest control. Pest populations frequently recover after a decline.

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BIO 304 MODULE 1

4. Adaptations to Predation

Both predators and prey have adaptations to predation. Predator

adaptations help them capture prey. Prey adaptations help them avoid
predators. A common adaptation in both predator and prey species
is camouflage, or disguise. One way of using camouflage is to blend in
with the background. Several examples are shown in Figure 3 below:

Figure 3: Can you see the crab in the photo on the left?

It is camouflaged with algae. The preying mantis in the middle photo

looks just like the dead leaves in the background. The stripes on the
zebras in the right photo blend the animals together, making it hard to
see where one zebra ends and another begins.

Taking on the appearance of a different, more dangerous species is

another method of camouflaging. Mimicry is the act of copying another
animal's look. A mimicking example can be shown in Figure 4. The
moth in the illustration has markings on its wings that resemble owl
eyes. The moth only shows the patterns when a predator is close by. The
moth has time to flee when the predator is startled by this. The opposite
of camouflage-like adaptations can be found in some prey species. They
have conspicuous features that warn potential predators to stay away,
such as vivid colours or other easily apparent characteristics. For
instance, birds have learnt to avoid eating some of the most vibrant
butterflies since they are hazardous to them. By being so colorful, the
butterflies are more likely to be noticed—and avoided—by their
predators.

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Figure 4. The moth on the left mimics the owl on the right. This
“disguise” helps protect the moth from predators.

5. Predation, Natural Selection, and Co-evolution

Natural selection is the process by which predation adaptations develop.

It is more suitable for a prey creature to evade a predator than it is for a
member of the same species to be consumed by it. The organism may
produce more offspring and lasts longer. As a result, characteristics that
enabled the prey organism to elude the predator gradually increase in
frequency in the population of prey. The evolution of comparable
qualities in the predator species follows the evolution of traits in the
prey species. We refer to this as co-evolution. Each species plays a
significant role in the natural selection of the other species during co-
evolution. Predator-prey co-evolution is illustrated by rough-skinned
newts and common garter snakes, both shown in Figure 5. Through
natural selection, newts evolved the ability to produce a strong toxin. In
response, garter snakes evolved the ability to resist the toxin, so they
could still safely prey upon newts. The capacity to create larger
quantities of poison then evolved in newts. Garter snakes then
developed a tolerance to the greater doses. Simply put, the interaction
between predators and prey sparked an evolutionary "arms race," which
resulted in exceptionally high toxin levels in newts.

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Figure 5: The rough-skinned newt on the left is highly toxic to other

organisms. Common garter snakes, like the one on the right, have
evolved resistance to the toxin.

What is biological pest control?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1
1. What is co-evolution?

2. What is true predation?

5.4 Competition

A relationship between creatures that compete for the same scarce

resources is called competition. Food, nesting grounds, or territory are
some examples of the resources. Intraspecific and interspecific
competition are two separate types of competition.

• Intraspecific competition:Members of the same species compete

against one another. For instance, in the same region, two male
birds of the same species can compete for mates. Natural
selection requires intraspecific competition as a necessary
component. It eventually causes a species to adapt over time.
• Interspecific competition: Members of various species compete
against one another interspecifically. Two predator species might
compete for the same prey, for instance. In communities of
interacting species, interspecific rivalry occurs.

1. Interspecific Competition and Extinction

When multiple species' populations rely on the same resources,
there could not be enough of those resources to go around. One
species may receive fewer of the essential resources if it has a
disadvantage, such as more predators. As a result, members of
that species will have a lower chance of surviving and a higher
mortality rate than members of other species. The species may
eventually become extinct in the area since there will be fewer
offspring born. Competition between species has frequently
resulted in the extinction of species in nature. When humans
introduced new species into regions where they had no predators,
many more extinctions have place. For example, rabbits were
introduced into Australia in the mid-1800s for sport hunting.
Rabbits had no predators in Australia and quickly spread
throughout the continent. Many species of Australian mammals
could not successfully compete with rabbits and went extinct.

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2. Interspecific Competition and Specialization

The emergence of characteristics that distinctly distinguish
competing species is another effect of interspecific rivalry.
Competing species can grow more specialised through natural
selection. As a result, they may coexist without having to fight
over the same resources. The anolis lizard is one illustration. In
tropical rainforests, a variety of anolis species can be found that
feed on insects. Specializations emerged as a result of
competition between several species. To hunt for insects under
leaf litter on the forest floor, several anolis have developed
specialised traits. Others developed specialised traits to eat
insects on tree branches. This made it possible for the many
anolis species to coexist together. What causes evolution of
specialization in species?

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. What is competition?

2. What is the difference between Intraspecific competition Interspecific

competition?

5.5 Symbiotic Relationships

A close relationship between two species, in which at least one species

gains, is referred to as symbiosis. The result of the relationship for the
other species could be favourable, unfavourable, or neutral. Symbiotic
relationships can be divided into three categories: parasitic,
commensalist, and mutualistic.

1. Mutualism

A symbiotic relationship in which both species profit is called

mutualism. Lichen is a nice illustration. A lichen is made up of an alga
and a fungus, not one single organism. The fungus takes up minerals
from rock or soil as well as water from the air. The water and minerals
are used by the alga to produce nourishment for both the fungus and
itself. Another illustration involves shrimp and goby fish. The fish and
the virtually blind shrimp spend the majority of their time together. The
goby and shrimp coexist in a tunnel that the shrimp maintains in the
sand. The fish warns the shrimp that a predator is close by by touching
the shrimp with its tail. Then, until the predator has left, both fish and
shrimp withdraw to the burrow. Each gains from this mutualistic
relationship: the shrimp gets a warning of approaching danger, and the
fish gets a safe home and a place to lay its eggs.

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Figure 6: The multicolored shrimp in the front and the green goby fish
behind it have a mutualistic relationship. The shrimp shares its burrow
with the fish, and the fish warns the shrimp when predators are near.
Both species benefit from the relationship.

In mutualistic organisms, co-evolution is a frequent occurrence.

Flowering plants and the species that pollinate them offer numerous
examples. Flowers on plants have evolved characteristics that encourage
pollination by specific species. In turn, pollinator species have
developed characteristics that make it easier for them to collect pollen or
nectar from particular types of flowers. For instance, hummingbirds and
the plant with tube-shaped blooms in Figure 7 co-evolved. Long, narrow
beaks were developed by the birds, enabling them to consume the nectar
from the tubular blossoms.

Figure 7. This hummingbird’s long slender beak and the large tubular
flowers of the plant are a good match, which resulted from a long period
of co-evolution. Their relationship is an example of mutualism. The

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hummingbird uses nectar from the flowers for food and pollinates the
flowers in the process.

2. Commensalism

A symbiotic relationship known as commensalism occurs when one

species benefits while the other is unaffected. Commensalism is when
one animal makes use of another for something than food. Hermit crabs
use the shells of deceased snails as a form of refuge, and mites cling to
larger flying insects to receive a "free ride." Some commensal
interactions are explained by co-evolution. The human species and some
of the bacterial species that reside inside of people are two examples.
Many bacterial species have developed the capacity to dwell inside the
human body without causing harm as a result of natural selection.

3. Parasitism

A parasitic relationship is one in which one species, the parasite,

benefits and the other, the host, suffers. Some parasites reside on their
host's exterior. Others have a home inside their host, arriving via a skin
crack or by food or water. For instance, roundworms are intestine-
parasitic parasites. The worms create enormous quantities of eggs,
which are released into the environment through the host's excrement.
By consuming the eggs in tainted food or water, other people can
contract the disease. Typically, this only occurs in unsanitary areas.
Some parasites kill their host ultimately. Most parasites don't, though.
Successful parasitism, which does not result in the death of the host, is
quite prevalent in nature. The majority of animal species exhibit
parasitism at some point during their life cycles. Many different kinds of
plants and fungi are parasitic at different stages. Most animals serve as
hosts for one or more parasites, which is not surprising. Co-evolution
between parasitic species is likely to occur. Both parasites and hosts
develop strategies to circumvent each other's defences throughout time.
For instance, numerous plants have developed poisons that kill parasitic
fungus and bacteria that live on plants. Human malaria is caused by a
small parasite that has developed a means of dodging the immune
system. It hides out in the host’s blood cells or liver where the immune
system cannot find it.

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. What is parasitism?

2. What is a Lichen

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5.6 Summary

You have studied an ecological community as consisting of all the

populations of all the different species that live together in a particular
area. Interactions between different species in a community are
called interspecific interactions—inter- means "between."You have
learned the significance of the community in ecology, types of
community interactions and how predation affect population growth and
evolution. The different types of associations of competition, symbiosis
and predation have been explained.

5.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Miller, G. Tyler Jr. and Scott E. Spoolman (2009). Essentials of

Ecology, 5e, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 10 Davis Drive
Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA, ISBN-13: 978-0- 495-
55795-1, 383pp

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/species-interactions-
and-competition-102131429/

https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Gettysburg_College/01%3A_Ecology_
for_All/14%3A_Introduction_to_Species_Interactions

https://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/ec
ol_com/ecol_com.html

https://byjus.com/biology/what-are-the-types-of-interactions-between-
organisms/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyT--fATbJU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U-QSKHi5l04

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uUe4EfYY9-8

5.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. It is evolution of traits in the prey species that leads to evolution

of corresponding traits in the predator species.
2. The condition on which the predator kills its prey

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Answers to SAE 2

1. Competition is a relationship between organisms that strive for

the same limited resources
2. Intraspecific competition occurs between members of the same
species, while Interspecific competition occurs between members
of different species.

Answers to SAE 3

1. Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species (the

parasite) benefits while the other species (the host) is harmed.
2. A lichen is not a single organism but a fungus and an alga.

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UNIT 6 PATTERNS OF COMMUNITY

STRUCTURE
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Learning Outcomes
6.3 Ecological Succession
6.3.1 Process of Ecological Succession
5.3.2 Causes and Characteristics of Ecological Succession
6.3.3 Cyclic succession
6.4. Types of Ecological Succession
6.5 Community equilibrium and species diversity
6.5.1 Ecological Stability
6.5.2 Human Influence on Succession
6.6 Summary
6.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
6.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

6.1 Introduction

Even though a region's climate is consistent from year to year,

ecosystems have a propensity to go from being extremely simple to
complex through a process called as succession. Uninhabited open area
or cut-down trees gradually fill with an increasing number of bigger and
bigger plants. Vegetation encroaches from the margins of a pond and
gradually fills it with itself, transforming it into vegetation-covered dry
land. This unit under succession will study the gradual change of
vegetation throughout time.

6.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to understand fully the;

• The meaning of succession

• Difference between primary succession and secondary succession
• Process of primary succession
• The influence of man on succession

6.3 Ecological Succession

Due to (1) changes in climatic and physiographic variables and (2) the
actions of the species and communities themselves, the environment is
constantly changing over time. These forces significantly alter the
dominants of the current community, which is eventually replaced by a
new community in the same location. Throughout this process,

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successive communities grow one after the other over the same region
until the terminal last community once more stabilises for a while. It
happens in a very defined order. The succession of communities is this
orderly transition. Odum referred to this systematic process as
ecological succession or ecosystem development. Succession is a
systematic process of community growth that includes adjustments to
species composition and community dynamics across time. It is
generally directed and so predictable. Succession is ongoing and has a
global scope. For instance, if a wooded area is cleaned and left
unattended, the vegetation will gradually retake the space. The clearing
will eventually vanish, returning the region to its natural state as woods.
Succession is a logical evolution. Therefore, changes brought about by
human activity such as clearing and replanting land cannot be referred to
as succession. There are two types of succession: main and secondary.
Despite the fact that the physical environment dictates the pattern,
succession is regulated by the society. The completion of this process
will bring the ecosystem to equilibrium. A climax community is the one
that succeeds in achieving this goal. Some species multiply in an effort
to reach this balance, while others decline in number. Sere refers to the
order of changing communities in a region. As a result, each evolving
community is referred to as a seral stage or seral community. Every
community that we see around us today has gone through succession
over the course of its history. Therefore, we may claim that ecological
succession and evolution have both occurred at the same time. Also, the
initiation of life on earth can be considered to be a result of this
succession process. The examples of ecological succession are as
follows:

a) Off the coast of Iceland sits the volcanic island of Surtsey. This
island was created in 1963 as a result of the volcano's eruptions.
The earth was largely rocking after the eruption. On the rock,
mould and fungi began to develop. These started to decompose
the rock and create soil. The little grasses then begin to establish
themselves and grow. Smaller shrubs then start to sprout. As the
larger plants started to emerge, the small burrowing critters crept
in to disturb the soil. Where there was simply rock, trees started
to sprout after a few years.

b) Tropical forests are examples of secondary succession in which

forests were cleared for timber and agricultural needs. In these
areas, the reestablishment took place at varying speeds, and it
took several years for a community to be fully restored.

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6.3.1 Process of Ecological Succession

Natural succession takes place across a number of phases and

procedures. Succession starts with a change to the ecosystem that
already exists, then as the area recovers, organism variety and density
increase. Ecologists use the following terminology to describe
environmental succession:

Initial Conditions (Equilibrium)

Disturbance
Colonization
Competition
Succession

Climax

Interactions between various plant species and biotic (or alive) and
abiotic (or nonliving) environmental variables occur during these stages
and processes. The stages of ecological succession show a complex
process that is mainly reliant on chance. The direction of the wind, the
weather, human activity, geological occurrences, animal movement, and
the species makeup of the immediate area all affect when each cycle
occurs and which species are engaged.

Initial Conditions (Equilibrium)

Before a big ecological change, the first conditions were present. This
may be an equilibrium state in some ecosystems when species
populations are steady and balanced. This equilibrium is significantly
influenced by the output of primary producers, such as plants and algae.
Due to apex predator extinction, habitat damage, or other ecological
imbalances, the initial conditions may already be unstable.

Disturbance

Before a big ecological change, the first conditions were present. This
may be an equilibrium state in some ecosystems when species
populations are steady and balanced. This equilibrium is significantly
influenced by the output of primary producers, such as plants and algae.
Due to apex predator extinction, habitat damage, or other ecological
imbalances, the initial conditions may already be unstable.

Colonization

Tiny organisms eventually restore themselves in the harmed ecosystem

following the disturbance. Colonization is the process of microscopic

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organisms and small primary producers returning. The first species that
repopulates the habitat needs to be able to withstand challenging
circumstances.

Competition

New species can flourish when colonising organisms alter

environmental factors, such as the composition of the soil. Resource
rivalry grows as biodiversity, or the number of species in the area,
increases. For instance, bushes and shrubs limit the amount of sunshine
that smaller plants can receive. Shade-tolerant species eventually
triumph over plants that demand more sunlight.

Succession

Succession is the process by which new species supplant established

ones. Due to resource competition, the earliest organisms to occupy the
area become less numerous or extinct, and larger plant species take over.
This process might occur in stages if the founding ecosystem had a
diversified population of herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees. The
process has fewer phases in habitats with fewer plant species, such as
grasslands and some wetlands.

Climax

The last stage of ecological succession is the formation of a climax

community. There is minimal resource competition and no further
replacement of dominant plant species.

6.3.2 Causes and Characteristics of Ecological Succession

1). Some important causes may be defined as below:

i). Climatic Causes: these can be rainfall, temperature variations,
humidity, gas composition, etc.
ii) Biotic Causes: the organisms in a community compete to thrive
for existence. Some of them are lost in the process while some
new ones are incorporated.
iii). External Causes: soil conditions are affected by the process of
migration, invasion, and competition amongst various species.

2). Characteristics of Ecological Succession

Ecological succession has subsequent characteristics:

i). It results from the disparity in the physical atmosphere of the

community.

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ii). It is a systematic procedure of community development.

iii). It involves variations in species structure and it increases the
diversity of species.
iv). Nutrient variation regulates the settlement of new communities.
v). Succession operates in a stabilized ecosystem.

6.3.3 Cyclic Succession

A pattern of vegetation change known as "cyclic succession" occurs

when a small number of species gradually replace one another over time
in the absence of widespread disturbance. The old Clementsian theories
of a fixed species composition in the end-state climax community have
been refuted by observations of cyclic replacement. A concept in
community ecology, cyclic succession is one of several types of
ecological succession. When used specifically, the phrase "cyclic
succession" refers to processes that are not the result of extensive
exogenous disturbances or significant long-term environmental physical
changes. In instances of secondary succession, however, where frequent
perturbations like bug outbreaks can 'reset' a whole population to a prior
stage, broader cyclic patterns can also be seen. These examples are
distinct from the traditional cyclic succession situations detailed below
in that entire species groups are traded instead of a single species.
Climate cycles can cause cyclic vegetation changes over geologic time
spans by directly changing the physical environment.

Figure 1. Graphic Model of Cyclic Succession

Self-Assessment Exercise 1
1. What are the Main Causes of Ecological Succession?

2. What is the Importance of Ecological Succession?

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6.4 Types of Ecological Succession

1. Primary succession

When a new piece of land is produced or is first exposed, primary

succession occurs. This may occur, for instance, when lava solidifies
and forms new rocks or when a glacier recedes and reveals bare rocks.
In the initial succession, organisms have to start over. First, lichens may
cling to rocks, followed by a few small plants capable of surviving
without much soil. The term "pioneer species" refers to these. More and
larger plants start to colonise the region as a result of the decomposition
of those plants, which gradually helps to create soil. Once sufficient soil
has accumulated and sufficient nutrients are accessible, a climax
community, such as a forest, is created. In the event that the area is
disturbed after this, secondary succession happens..

Figure 1. Primary succession begins when no plant life is present on the

landscape, such as after a lava flow or glacial retreat. Over centuries,
soil forms and deepens and successive communities of plants grow.
Source:

2. Secondary succession

When a climax community or an intermediate community is affected by

a disturbance, secondary succession occurs. The succession cycle is
restarted, but not to the start because the soil and nutrients are still there.
For instance, after a forest fire decimates all the mature trees in a
particular terrain, grasses, shrubs, and various tree species may sprout
up before the community that was there before the fire reappears.

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Figure 2. Secondary succession begins after a disturbance, like a fire.

Crucially, some soil and nutrients remain present—fire, in fact, may
help recycle those nutrients.

3. Seral Community

“A seral community is an intermediate stage of ecological succession

advancing towards the climax community.” A sere, or seral community,
is defined as the evolution of an ecological community's growth phases
from the pioneers to the climax. "A seral community is a transitional
stage of ecological succession going in the direction of the climax
community." The last stage of succession is defined as an ecological
community's climax, where populations are stable and cohabit
peacefully with one another and their environment. This community
remains mostly intact until it is destroyed by a natural calamity or
human intervention. The succeeding community takes the place of the
seral community. It comprises of straightforward food chains and food
webs. It demonstrates relatively little variability. There are fewer people
overall, and there are also less nutrients. There are seven different types
of seres:

Types of Seres Explanation

Hydrosere Succession in aquatic habitat.

Xerosere Succession in dry habitat.

Lithosere Succession on a bare rock surface.

Psammosere Succession initiating on sandy areas.

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Halosere Succession starting in saline soil or water.

Succession of microorganism on dead

Senile
matter.

Eosere Development of vegetation in an era.

4. Climax Community

The "endpoint" of succession in the context of a specific climate and

geography is a climax community. A climax community will stay put
until a disturbance happens in that area. But in many ecosystems,
disturbances happen frequently enough that a variety of community
types might be seen on the landscape on a regular basis. an ecological
setting where plant or animal populations are stable and coexist in
harmony with one another and their surroundings. The last stage of
succession is a climax community, which lasts until it is destroyed by an
occurrence like a fire or human intervention. For instance, mature
forests may be found close to grassy meadows with fewer, dispersed
trees in a region like the western U.S. that is prone to wildfires. Thus,
numerous plant and animal communities can flourish within a certain
climatic and geographic niche—not just those adapted to the absence of
disturbance found in climax communities—due to persistent disturbance
and fluctuation in parameters like water and nutrient availability over
the course of decades. What do we refer to succession in aquatic
habitat?

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. What is primary succession?

2. What do you mean by halosere?

6.5 Community equilibrium and species diversity

In some situations, succession achieves a pinnacle, resulting in a

steadfast society ruled by a select few notable species. It is believed that
this equilibrium, known as the climax community, arises when the web
of biotic interactions becomes so complex that no additional species can
coexist. In other habitats, a variety of species coexist in communities
that are constantly disturbed on a tiny scale; any species can take over as
the dominant species. The consequences of unanticipated disruptions on
the formation of community structure and composition are highlighted
by this nonequilibrium dynamic. Within a square kilometre, certain
tropical forests with a variety of species can support hundreds of tree
species. The area created when a tree perishes and tumbles to the earth is

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available for sale. Similar to coral reefs, some of which support

hundreds of fish species, the species that establishes a new disturbance
area will prevail. The struggle for dominance reemerges after every
minor disturbance.

Ones that are diverse are healthy communities. Long-term ecological

research have demonstrated that communities with more species are able
to rebound from perturbations more quickly than communities with
fewer species. In the Midwest of the United States, grasslands with more
species tend to have higher primary output. The community's ability to
withstand drought is affected to a greater and greater extent with each
additional species lost from these grasslands. Similar to this, more
diversified plant communities exhibit stronger species composition
stability during extreme drought than less diverse ecosystems do in
Yellowstone National Park. Additionally, the more diversified
communities in Africa's Serengeti grassland exhibit greater biomass
stability over the course of the seasons and greater capacity for recovery
following grazing. The link between species variety and community
stability emphasises the need to keep biological communities as rich as
possible. A rich interactive web of native species that have had time to
adapt to one another is substantially different from a field of weeds
comprising species that were only recently introduced to the community.
Undisturbed communities with a variety of species have the resilience to
maintain a healthy ecosystem, which is essential to life. Additionally,
these groups are better equipped to deal with the consequences of alien
species, which, even when unintentionally introduced, can cause
significant ecological and economic damage in less stable societies. The
tight web of interactions that make up natural biological communities
sustains both biodiversity and community stability.

6.5.1 Ecological Stability

Ecosystem stability refers to an ecosystem's capacity to sustain

equilibrium even after a stressor or disturbance has taken place. An
ecosystem must have systems in place to assist it in returning to its
initial state after a disruption for it to be deemed stable. OR The ability
of an ecosystem to remain in the same state is what is meant by stability.
The introduction or eradication of a species is one type of alteration that
can have a profoundly negative impact on natural ecosystems.
Equilibrium, which is a comparatively steady state that maintains
population sizes within a reasonable range, is referred to as a healthy
ecosystem (not too many of a certain species alive or dead). Ecosystem
stability is often divided into two components: resistance and resilience.

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1. Resistance:
Resistance is the capacity of an ecosystem to maintain
equilibrium in the face of perturbations. Or A community or
ecosystem's capacity to sustain structure and/or function in the
face of possible disturbance is known as resistance. (A minor
change in a species' abundance brought on by a disturbance
suggests better resistance than a bigger shift.) The absence of
resistance to ecological change is typically researched, that is,
when a system finally adapts to ecosystem change. These studies
frequently demonstrate that when ecological redundancy is
minimal and essential species' ecological roles cannot be
substituted by other species within the ecosystem, change
happens more swiftly. Recent human removal of important
species, such as top predators, can drastically diminish
redundancy and hence change an ecosystem's capacity to
withstand ecological change, particularly in maritime
environments. Example: I). Soils with a high level of organic
matter and biodiversity are drought-resistant. Healthy,
organically rich soils that have been nourished by agroecological
fertilisers (green manures, compost, animal dung, etc.) are less
likely to erode and better able to retain water. According to a
wealth of scientific data, organic matter has the single most
crucial role in improving soils' drought resistance and ability to
handle variable rainfall. Organic matter expands the soil's pore
space, where water can be stored more easily. This allows the soil
to store more water for a longer length of time and facilitates
infiltration during heavy rains, allowing for the total capture of
more water. Soil with more organic matter can grow crops with
less water than soil with less organic matter. Additionally,
organic matter increases the activity of worms, fungus, and
microorganisms, which reduces soil density, prevents
compaction, and improves the soil's capacity to hold water. These
traits increase the ability of organic matter-rich soils to withstand
drought and raise the water-use efficiency of the entire farm as
well as the crop. II). Invasion Resistance: Increased survival and
percentage cover of invasive species were found to be connected
with declines in the diversity of native taxa in numerous marine
habitats. This shows that, similar to terrestrial plant ecosystems,
the integrity of the local species pool enhances invasion
resistance. For instance, certain systems make better use of
resources like available space. A decrease in the diversity of
native taxa was associated with an increase in the survival and
percent cover of invasive species in benthic (sea bottom)
communities that were artificially built. Open space served as the
invaders' only resource, and communities were insulated from
invasion by more species by boosting temporal stability. High

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levels of functional redundancy are also anticipated to increase

community resilience by providing insurance. Even though there
are few research on the effects of biodiversity in marine
ecosystems, the information that is currently available points to
the possibility that marine systems may have invasion resistance
mechanisms that are comparable to those found in terrestrial
systems.

2. Resilience:
Resilience is the ease with which an ecosystem recovers its
equilibrium after being disturbed. Or The term "resilience" refers
to the capacity to recover quickly after a setback. A resilient
community or ecosystem can withstand major disruption and
soon recover to its previous state. Or The ability of an ecosystem
to bounce back from a disturbance or sustain ongoing stressors is
referred to as ecological resilience. It is a gauge of how well an
ecosystem can withstand disruption without degenerating into
another state governed by a distinct set of mechanisms.
Resilience refers to a dynamic system of disruption and recovery
rather than a single ideal ecological condition. Thresholds are the
boundaries of natural variability, and they are crossed when an
ecosystem undergoes a disturbance or invasion and does not
naturally return to its previous state before transitioning to a new,
alternative one. Example: Cyclones, outbreaks of the crown-of-
thorns starfish, freshwater intrusions, and a variety of human
activities are among the dangers that frequently affect coral reefs
and other tropical marine ecosystems. These occurrences
frequently harm, stress, or even kill ecological elements. A
resilient ecosystem will be able to completely recover from such
disruptions and return to being as bio diverse and healthy as it
was before the damage, given enough time. A resilient ecosystem
might also be able to handle the strain brought on by these events
with little to no deterioration. What influences resilience?
Because so many different factors can have an impact on
ecosystem resilience, it is difficult to comprehend and evaluate.
The natural biology and ecology of an ecosystem's constituent
species or habitats; the state of these individual components; the
type, severity, and duration of the impacts; and the extent to
which potential impacts have been eliminated or mitigated all
affect an ecosystem's capacity to absorb or recover from impacts
and its rate of recovery. Populations of species or habitats can
frequently absorb or recover from effects if all of these qualities
are present, allowing the ecosystem to continue to operate.
However, if any limitations exist, the capacity of the ecosystem
to absorb impacts without changing will be lower than optimal
and recovery will take much longer, or even fail.

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6.5.2 Human Influence on Succession

There is vegetation covering a sizable amount of the earth's surface that

is no longer growing in a normal succession. Natural vegetation has
been partially or entirely destroyed by human intervention for
agricultural production. On arable land, where monocultures of crops
are planted in place of the natural flora, farming methods are most
obviously felt. Only a few months are spent growing these plants before
they are harvested, the earth is turned, and a fresh crop is sown. The
only wild plants that can withstand such methods are annual weeds that
grow quickly and can blossom and set seed before the crop is collected.
Grassland is a significant managed vegetation type. All of these
practises preserve grassland and stop succession to scrub, including
grazing by sheep, cattle, or other domestic animals, as well as annual
hay-making and short-term turf mowing.

Today, it is clear that human land management has a negative impact on

succession prevention and diversion. Large tracts of natural vegetation
have been removed, with the removal of tropical rainforest to provide
grassland for cattle arguably being the most contentious. The
environment in question is typically altered by such extensive clearing.
Upon what does an ecosystem’s ability to absorb or recover from
impacts, and its rate of recovery, depend?

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. What is Ecosystem stability?

2. What is Ecosystem resilience?

6.6 Summary

In this unit, we have learnt that succession is a process of ecological

change from simple to complex that occurs over time in a given area of
an ecosystem. The different types of succession namely primary or
secondary have been highlighted. While primary succession starts from
a bare surface either of rock, sanddunes, volcanic eruption or open
water, secondary succession takes place after a disturbanceon a
community of organisms that had existed initially. You have also
recognise that humans by their agricultural activities have disrupted the
process of succession in many parts of the world.

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6.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Matthew, R. Fisher (2018). Environmental Biology, Publisher: Open

Oregon Educational Resources

Raven, P.H. and Johnson, G.B. (1998).Dynamics of Ecosystems (569 –

583) in Biology WCB/McGrow-Hill, Boston.

https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/what-is-ecological-
succession#:~:text=Ecological%20succession%20is%20the%20process,
a%20fundamental%20concept%20in%20ecology.

https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/ecological-succession

http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/successn/summary.htm

https://edepot.wur.nl/94469

https://byjus.com/biology/ecological-succession/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ceDE01iWLE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uqEUzgVAF6g

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V49IovRSJDs

6.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. The main causes of ecological succession include the biotic,

topographic, and climatic factors that can destroy the populations
of an area. Wind, fire, soil erosion, and natural disasters include
the climatic factors.
2. Ecological succession is important for the growth and
development of an ecosystem. It initiates colonization of new
areas and recolonization of the areas that had been destroyed due
to certain biotic and climatic factors. Thus, the organisms can
adapt to the changes and learn to survive in a changing
environment.

Answers to SAE 2

1. Primary succession starts in a barren area, never having

vegetation of any type where no living organism ever existed.

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2. The plant succession that begins in salty or saline water is called

halosere.

Answers to SAE 3

1. Ecosystem stability is the ability of an ecosystem to maintain a

steady state (equilibrium)
2. Ecosystem resilience refers to the capacity of an ecosystem to
recover from disturbance or withstand ongoing pressures.

Glossary

Ecology Abundance: The number of organisms in a population,

combining “intensity“ (density within inhabited areas) and “prevalence“
(number and size of inhabited areas).

Adaptation:

1) Characteristics of organisms evolved as a consequence of natural

selection;
2) Changes in the form or behavior of an organism during life as a
response to environmental stimuli;
3) Changes in the excitability of a sense organ as a result of
continuos stimulation. Allochoton: see biomass.

Biodiversity: (Gk. bios, life) Refers to aspects of variety in the living

world; used to describe the number of species, the amount of genetic
variation or the number of community types present in the area.

Biogeochemical Cycle: The movement of chemical elements between

organisms and non-living compartments of the atmosphere, lithosphere
and hydrosphere.

Biogeography: The study of the geographical distribution of organisms

Biomagnification: The increasing concentration of a compound in the

tissues of organisms as the compound passes along a food chain,
resulting from the accumulation of the compound at each trophic level
prior to its consumption by organisms at the next trophic level, as seen
with DDT.
Biomass (organic matter): Total dry weight of all organisms in a
particular population, sample or area; Biome: Large, ecological unit
composed of similar types of climax communities on a global scale,
arising as a result of complex interactions of climate, other physical
factors, and biotic factors (e.g., rainforest, tundra, grassland....)

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Biosphere: The zone of air, land and water at the surface of the earth
that is occupied by organisms. Biotic: Living; usually applied to the
biological aspects of an organism’s environment, i.e. the influence of
other organisms (opposite of abiotic). Abiotic: Non-living; usually
applied to the physical and chemical aspects of an organism’s
environment;

Biotope: Canopy: (Gk. canopion, net) The dense roof-forming

vegetation, typically represented by the crowns of the trees; kelps,
brown algae, can also form dense forest-like canopies.
Carrying Capacity (K): The maximum population size that can be
supported indefinitely by a given environment

Climate: The accumulation of seasonal weather patterns in an area over

a long period of time.

Macroclimate: Global climatic patterns. Microclimate: The climate

within a very small area or in a particular, often tightly defined habitat;
e.g., temperature gradient a few mm above a leaf, or along a tree trunk,
etc.).

Climax: The presumed endpoint of a successional sequence.

Climax Community: Is largely determined by the climate and soil of

the region; such a community has reached a steady state in a
successional series (see there).

Climax Mosaic: A once established climax community can’t be

considered stationary but rather follows a pattern of micro-successional
events caused by death and birth cycles of every organism living within.

Coexistance: The living together of two species (or organisms) in the

same habitat, such as that neither tends to be eliminated by the other.

Community: The species that occur together in space and time; (see
diversity and isotherms).

C. Stability: The tendency of a community to return to its original state

after a disturbance (competition, temporarily changing environment,
etc.)

Resiliance: The speed at which a community returns to its former state

after it has been disturbed.

Resistance: The ability of a community to avoid displacement from its

present state by a disturbance. C. Competition: Interaction between

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members of the same population or of two or more populations to obtain

a resource that both require and which is available in limited supply,
hence, limiting overall fitnes

Cycle: Biogeochemical cycles on a global and local scale.

Carbon C.: The global flow of carbon atoms from plants through
animals to the atmosphere, soil, water and back to plants.

End of Module Questions

1 What do you understand by the term ecology?

2 What are the two main branches of ecology? Explain each.
3 Mention and explain the various concepts of ecology.
4 Compare and contrast key aspects of the cycling of carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur.
5 If soil becomes acidic, the process of nitrification may no longer
occur. What are consequences of this change for the nutrition of
plants?
6 What are the basic aspects of a nutrient cycle? In your answer,
describe the roles of compartments and fluxes.
7 How is soil formed from a parent material? Include the influences
of physical and biological processes in your answer.
8 What are the major kinds of soil? How do they differ?
9 What are the key chemical transformations in the nitrogen cycle,
and which ones are affected by human influences?

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BIO 304 MODULE 2

MODULE 2 POPULATION DYNAMICS

In this module we will discuss about the population ecology, demography. regulation
and dynamics with the following units:

Unit 1 Population Ecology

Unit 2 Population Patterns and Measurements
Unit 3 Population Growth
Unit 4 Population Regulation
Unit 5 Human Population Growth

UNIT 1 POPULATION ECOLOGY

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
1.3 Characteristics of Population
1.3.1 Population Size and Density
1.3.2 Natality
1.3.3 Mortality
1.4 Life Tables and Survivorship Curve:
1.4.1 Types of Survivorship Curve:
1.4.2 Population Growth:
1.5. Age Distribution:
1.5.1 Age Pyramids:
1.5.2 Population Fluctuations:
1.6 Summary
1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.1 Population ecology

A population is a collection of interdependent species-specific creatures that includes

individuals at all life stages, from pre-reproductive juveniles to reproductive adults.
Most populations are made up of a mix of young and old people. You may determine
the demographic makeup of a population by counting the number of people in each
age group or stage. Population size, also known as population, and population density,
which refers to how closely those individuals are clustered together, are two factors
that distinguish populations in addition to demographic structure. The boundaries of a
population's geographic range are determined by the physical conditions that the
population can withstand, such as temperature or aridity, as well as by the
encroachment of competing populations. Population ecologists often first consider the
dynamics of population size change over time, of whether the population is growing in
size, shrinking, or remaining static over time.

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1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit you shall be able to:

• Describe the characteristics of populations

• Explain the Population characteristics of size, density, natality and mortality
• Describe life tables and survivorship curve, types of survivorship curve and age
distributions and pyramid
• Describe population growth and fluctuations

1.3 Characteristics of Population

Some of the most important characteristics of population are as follows:

1. Population density
2. Natality
3. Mortality
4. Population growth
5. Age distribution of population
6. Population fluctuations.

1.3.1 Population Size and Density

The number of people in a population is the most basic demographic variable. The
number of people living inside a geographical area that has been arbitrary assigned as
the population size. Ecologists typically estimate population size by counting
individuals within a small sample area and extrapolating that sample to the larger
population because, despite the simplicity of the concept, it is nearly impossible to
locate all individuals during a census (a full count of every individual).

Despite the difficulties in determining population size, it is a crucial aspect of a

population that has a big impact on how that population behaves overall. Based on
their size, populations behave differently. Smaller populations are more vulnerable to
extinction. Fewer people mate in these populations because it can be difficult for
individuals to locate compatible partners; those who do run the risk of inbreeding.
People in tiny populations are also more vulnerable to unplanned fatalities. Events like
fires, floods, and diseases have a higher likelihood of wiping out the entire population.
Large populations have their own set of issues. Large populations exhibit typical
behaviour when they get close to the carrying capacity, or maximum sustainable
population size.

Greater resource competition, changes in the predator-prey interaction, and decreased

fecundity are all symptoms of populations that are getting close to their carrying
capacity. If the population expands too much, it can start to exceed the environment's
carrying capacity and deteriorate the existing habitat. The size of any population in

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relation to some unit of space is referred to as population density. For example, 500
teak trees per hectare, 40 lions per 100 km2, and 5 million diatoms per cubic metre of
water are some examples of how it is described in terms of the number of people or
biomass per unit area or volume. The population density fluctuates across time and
space and is rarely constant.

Population size can be measured by several methods:

(i) Abundance: Absolute number of individuals in population.

(ii) Numerical Density: Number of individuals per unit area or volume. It is
expressed when the size of individuals in the population is relatively uniform,
as in mammals, insects and birds.
(iii) Biomass Density: Biomass density is expressed in terms of wet weight, dry
weight, volume, and carbon and nitrogen weight per unit area or volume.
Population density can be expressed in two ways:

• Crude Population Density: When the density is expressed with reference to total
area at a particular time.
• Ecological Density: when the density is stated in terms of the total area of the
species's habitat. Because individual distribution patterns in nature vary, it is
crucial to understand the relationship between ecological density and crude
density. For example, individuals of some species, such as Cassia tora and
Oplismenus burmanni, are found to be more crowded in areas with shade than in
other areas of the same area. Therefore, the ecological densities would be
estimated separately for the shaded and open areas, while the population density
determined for the entire area would be crude density.

Population density can be calculated by the following equation:

D = n/a/t

Where D is population density; n is the number of individuals; a is area and t is unit

time. Density of human population can be obtained by dividing the total number of
persons in the area by the total land area of the region. Density of population of a
country can be obtained by dividing the total number of persons living in the given
region by total land area of that region. Average population density in developing
countries is more as compared to those in developed countries. Population density is
affected by a number of environmental factors, such as geographical factors,
mortality, natality, emigration and immigration and socio-economic factors.

1.3.2 Natality

Natality refers to the rate of reproduction or birth per unit time. It is an expression of
the production of new individuals in the population by birth, hatching, germination or
fission.

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Natality is calculated by the following formula:

Birth rate or Natality (B) = Number of births per unit time/Average population.
Potential natality is the greatest number of births that a person can produce under
perfect environmental conditions. It is also known as maximum natality, absolute
natality, or biotic potential. Each organism has a unique natality. The population
density and environmental conditions will determine this. It is a common rule that the
birth rate will be low if the population density is typically low. This is true because
there are few opportunities for males and females to mate. A low birth rate may also
be caused by malnutrition, crowdedness-related medical or psychological issues, or
extremely high population density. When the ecological and genetic conditions for the
species are optimum, the highest or absolute natality is seen. In comparison to
absolute natality, the actual number of births under the current environmental
conditions is substantially lower. It is also known as realised natality or ecological
natality. Population is not constant and may change with time as well as with
population density.

1.3.3 Mortality

Mortality refers to the number of deaths in population per unit time.

Mortality rate = D/t where D is the number of deaths in the time t.

Mortality can be expressed in the following two ways:

(i) Minimum or Specific or Potential Mortality: The actual number of births under
the current environmental conditions is significantly less than absolute natality.
It is sometimes referred to as ecological natality or realised natality. Population
fluctuates throughout time and can vary depending on population density.
(ii) Ecological or Realized Mortality: It speaks about a population's demise due to
current environmental circumstances. It is never continuous since it changes
depending on the surrounding circumstances. The egg, larva, seedling, and old
age have the highest mortality rates. Numerous elements, including density,
competition, illness, predation, and environment, have an impact on mortality.
The correlation between birth rates and death rates varies between species. The
population is constant when the rate of natality is equal to the rate of mortality.
A birth death ratio (Births/death x 100) is called vital index. For a population,
the survival of individuals is more important than the death. One key element
affecting the mortality rate is the ratio of births to the carrying capacity of the
habitat. When there are more offspring than the habitat can support, the excess
must either perish or move elsewhere. Mortality is best represented as survival
or life expectancy because the number of survivors is more significant than the
number of dying people. The average number of years that a population's
members have left to live is referred to as the life expectancy.

What is the meaning of vital index in population studies?

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Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. What is the difference between crude population density and

ecological density?
2. What is a minimum or specific mortality?

1.4 Life Tables and Survivorship Curve:

Regarding birth rates, average life spans, and mortality rates, the species vary. A life
table that provides crucial statistics of mortality and life expectancy for people in
various age groups in the population can be created when enough information about a
species is available. The subscript index x, which is typically some convenient portion
of the species life span, such as years or stage of development, is used in such tables
to signify age. The life table is set up on the basis of an initial cohort or group of 100,
1000, 10,000 10, 00, 00 individuals and the number of living in the beginning of each
successive age interval is symbolized as Ix. Plotting these data gives a survivorship
curve for a species. The number of dying individuals within each age group is denoted
as dx. The rate of mortality during each age interval (qx) is commonly expressed as
the percentage of the number at the beginning of the interval.

qx = dx/lx x 100

Survival rate is the difference between the mortality rate and 100 per cent (i.e., 100 —
qx) and is denoted by 5x. Life expectancy (ex), thus, is the mean time between any
specified age and the time of death of all individuals in the age group.

1.4.1 Types of Survivorship Curve

Plotting the number of survivors against time would result in a survivorship curve that
looked like a right angle if it could be assumed that every member of an initial
population has the same potential for survival (environmental variables are
temporarily ignored). There are three common forms of survivorship curves, each of
which depicts a different characteristic of survival in a particular population. (Fig. 1.).

Type I. Humans and most primates have a Type I survivorship curve. In a Type I
curve, organisms tend not to die when they are young or middle-aged but, instead, die
when they become elderly. Species with Type I curves usually have small numbers of
offspring and provide lots of parental care to make sure those offspring survive.

Type II. Many bird species have a Type II survivorship curve. In a Type II curve,
organisms die more or less equally at each age interval. Organisms with this type of
survivorship curve may also have relatively few offspring and provide significant
parental care.

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

Type III. Trees, marine invertebrates, and most fish have a Type III survivorship
curve. In a Type III curve, very few organisms survive their younger years. However,
the lucky ones that make it through youth are likely to have pretty long lives after that.
Species with this type of curve usually have lots of offspring at once—such as a tree
releasing thousands of seeds—but don't provide much care for the offspring.

Figure 1. Showing the different types of survivorship curve

Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/population-
ecology/a/life-tables-survivorship-age-sex-structure

1.4.2 Population Growth:

One of the dynamic characteristics of a species' population is its expansion. The

population grows in a recognisable way. A curve that shows the trend in the rise of
population size in a particular time may be generated by plotting the population's
number of individuals on the y-axis and the times on the x-axis. The population
growth curve is the name of this curve. There are two types of growth curves:

(i) Sigmoid Curve

When a small number of organisms are introduced to an area, the population growth is
initially very slow (positive acceleration phase or lag phase), then it accelerates
quickly (logarithmic phase), and finally slows down (negative acceleration phase)
until an equilibrium is reached Lund where the population size varies depending on
environmental variability. The term "saturation level" or "carrying capacity" refers to
the point beyond which no significant increase is possible. There is no population
growth in the final phase since the number of new creatures is practically equal to the

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number of individuals who are dying. One obtains a sigmoid or 5-shaped growth
curve in this method. (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. S-shaped and J-shaped population growth curves

Source: https://www.jobilize.com/biology2/course/19-2-population-growth-and-
regulation-by-openstax?page=2

When resources are unlimited, populations exhibit (a) exponential growth, shown in a
J-shaped curve. When resources are limited, populations exhibit (b) logistic growth. In
logistic growth, population expansion decreases as resources become scarce, and it
levels off when the carrying capacity of the environment is reached. The logistic
growth curve is S-shaped.

(ii) J-Shaped Curve

J-shaped growth curves are the second variety. Because it takes some time for the
population to acclimate to the new environment, there isn't a rise in population size
during this initial period. The population starts growing quickly as soon as it settles
into the new surroundings. This population growth will continue until there is an
abundance of food in the habitat. After some time, as the population grows, the
habitat's food supply becomes scarce, which finally leads to a decline in the
population. Because of this, the growth curve will be J-shaped rather than S-shaped.
(Fig. 2). What is the consequence of type III survivorship growth curve?

Self-Assessment Exercises 2
1. Which organisms have a type I survivorship curve?

2. What creates populations exponential growth pattern?

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1.5. Age Distribution

Another crucial aspect of a population that affects natality and mortality is its age
distribution. The likelihood of dying increases with age since it is more likely to do so
in the early and late stages of life. Similar to this, natality is only possible in specific
age groups, such as the middle age groups in higher animals. A population's people
can be categorised into pre-reproductive, reproductive, and post-reproductive
categories, in accordance with Bodenheimer (1958). Pre-reproductive group members
are young, reproductive group members are mature, and post-reproductive group
members are elderly. Age distribution may be uniform or irregular. It is intimately
correlated with the population growth rate. Populations can be described as maturing,
constant, or declining depending on the ratio of the three age groups. In other words, a
population's reproductive status is determined by the distribution of different age
groups within it. A population that is rapidly growing has a high proportion of young
people, a population that is stable has an even distribution of people in the
reproductive age range, and a population that is declining has a high proportion of
older people.

1.5.1 Age-sex structure

How can we determine whether a population will increase or decrease using the birth
and death rates from a life table? We need a "snapshot" of the population as it is right
now in order to accomplish this successfully. Consider two populations of bears, one
made up primarily of females in their reproductive years and the other primarily of
male bears who have passed their reproductive years. These populations will probably
take different routes even if they have the same size and share the same life table—
that is, they have the same rates of reproduction and survival at a given age. The first
population is expected to expand because it contains a large number of bears that are
in an ideal environment for giving birth to cubs. Due to the large number of bears that
are nearing death and are no longer capable of reproducing, the second population is
expected to decline. Therefore, while considering future population increase, who is
already present in a population has a significant impact! A population pyramid is a
common way to represent data regarding the age-sex composition of a population.
Males are on the left axis and females are on the right, while the x-axis displays the
percentage of the population in each category. Age groups are displayed on the y-axis
from birth to old age.

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Figure 3. Population pyramid

Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/population-
ecology/a/life-tables-survivorship-age-sex-structure

It's common to see population pyramids used to represent human populations. In fact,
there are specific shapes of pyramids that tend to be associated with growing, stable,
and shrinking human populations, as shown below.

Figure 4. Age structure diagrams

Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/population-
ecology/a/life-tables-survivorship-age-sex-structure
Age structure diagrams in nations with high population increase have a sharp pyramid
shape. In other words, they have a sizable proportion of younger people, many of
whom are or soon will be of reproductive age. This pattern frequently occurs in
nations with less developed economies, when access to resources such as healthcare
and other resources has an impact on lifespan.

Slow-growing areas still feature pyramid-shaped age-sex systems, even more

economically developed nations like the United States. In contrast to countries with
high economic growth, the pyramid is not as acute, hence there are more elderly
individuals than young, reproductive-age people. Other industrialised nations, like
Italy, are experiencing little population increase. These populations' age distributions
resemble a dome or a silo, with a higher proportion of middle-aged and elderly people
than in the slow-growing example.

Finally, population sizes are actually declining in certain developed nations. For
Japan, this is the situation. These nations often have a population pyramid that

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narrows toward the base, reflecting the fact that young people make up a relatively
tiny portion of the population. These human examples' fundamental ideas apply to
several communities in nature. A population is more likely to expand if there are
significant proportions of young and fertile people. A population is expected to
decline if a significant portion of the population is past the reproductive age.

1.5.2 Population Fluctuations

The size and density of natural population show a changing pattern over a period of
time. This is called population fluctuation. There are three types of variations in the
pattern of population change:

(i) Non-fluctuating: When the population remains static over the years, it is said to
be non-fluctuating.
(ii) Cyclic: The cyclic variations may be (i) seasonal, and (ii) annual. Sometimes
seasonal changes occur in the population and there are additions to the
population at the time of maximum reproduction and losses under adverse
climatic conditions. Common examples of seasonal variations are met in
mosquitoes and houseflies which are abundant in particular season and so also
the weeds in the field during the rainy season. When the population of a species
shows regular ups and downs over the years, it is called annual cyclic variation.
It appears in the form of a sigmoid curve with regular drops in population after
peaks.
(iii) Irruptive: When the change in population density does not occur at regular
intervals or in response to any obvious environmental factor, it is said to be
irruptive fluctuation. In this there is a sudden exponential or logarithmic
increase in population density in short time followed by equally quick drop in
population density due to deaths, and final return to normal level or even below
that level. What is population fluctuations?
.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. What are the three types of variations in the pattern of population

change?
2. What do we need to use the birth and death rates from a life table to
predict if a population will grow or shrink?

1.6 Summary

Quantifying the number of people in each age group or stage, which reveals the
demographic makeup of the population, has been the main focus of this unit.
Population size, also known as population, and population density, which refers to
how closely those individuals are clustered together, are two factors that distinguish
populations in addition to demographic structure. The boundaries of a population's
geographic range are determined by the physical conditions that the population can

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withstand, such as temperature or aridity, as well as by the encroachment of

competing populations.

1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. and Fox, G.A. (2020). The Ecology of Plants, 3rd
Edition,

Matthew, R. Fisher (2018). Environmental Biology, Publisher: Open Oregon

Educational Resources

Miller, G. Tyler Jr. and Scott E. Spoolman (2009). Essentials of Ecology, 5e,
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098
USA, ISBN-13: 978-0- 495-55795-1, 383pp

https://canvas.park.edu/courses/48478/modules/items/4631901

https://www.safeopedia.com/definition/2730/logistic-growth

https://study.com/learn/lesson/logistic-growth-curve.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFpM5e_6rtM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqKg5rWLpEo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ziXAawvlOzo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rXlyYFXyfIM

1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. Crude population density is when the density is expressed with reference to

total area at a particular time, whilwe ecological density is expressed with
reference to total area of habitat available to the species.

2. Minimum or Specific or Potential Mortality represents the minimum of

theoretical loss of individuals under ideal or non-limiting condition.

Answers to SAE 2

1. Humans and most primates have a Type I survivorship curve

2. When resources are unlimited, populations exhibit (a) exponential growth,
shown as a J-shaped curve.

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

Answers to SAE 3

1. There are three types of variations in the pattern of population change:

(i) Non-fluctuating:
(ii) Cyclic:
(iii) Irruptive:

2. To do this effectively, we need a "snapshot" of the population in its present

state.

1. There are three types of variations in the pattern of population change:

(i) Non-fluctuating:
(ii) Cyclic:
(iii) Irruptive:

2. To do this effectively, we need a "snapshot" of the population in its present

state.

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BIO 304 MODULE 2

UNIT 2 POPULATION PATTERNS AND MEASUREMENTS

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
2.3 Population Biology
2.4 Species Distribution
2.5 Life Tables
2.6 Summary
2.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
2.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

2.1 Introduction

Population biology is a field of study that explores populations and how they interact
with their environment. Scientists observe all factors influencing a population within
an ecosystem when gathering data about specific populations of interest.

1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe how ecologists measure population size

• Describe three different patterns of population distribution

• Use life tables to calculate mortality rates
• Describe the three types of survivorship curves and relate them to specific
populations

2.3 Population Biology

Populations are living things. The environment's seasonal and yearly fluctuations,
natural catastrophes like forest fires and volcanic eruptions, and competition for
resources among and within species are only a few of the many factors that affect their
size and composition. Demography is the statistical study of populations; it uses a
variety of mathematical techniques to define populations and track their evolution.
Actually, many of these techniques were created to research human populations. For
instance, life insurance firms initially created life tables, which describe the average
life expectancy of people within a population, to determine insurance rates. In reality,
while the name "demographics" is occasionally taken to refer to the study of human
populations, same method can be used to examine all living groups.

Counting every person present is the most precise approach to estimate the population
number. However, this approach is typically not practical from a logistical or financial
standpoint, particularly when studying vast areas. As a result, when studying

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populations, scientists typically choose a representative sample from each habitat and
use it to draw conclusions about the population as a whole. Most often, the
characteristics of the organism being investigated are taken into account when
choosing the sampling techniques to utilise to gauge population size and density. A
quadrat can be used to measure the movement of small, slowly moving creatures or
static species like plants. A quadrat is a square made of wood, plastic, or metal that is
placed on the ground at random and used to count the number of people who are
present inside its borders. This method requires placing the square at random spots
across the habitat a sufficient number of times to generate an accurate assessment. The
population size and density can be estimated using this counting technique. The type
of organisms and the characteristics of their dispersion determine the quantity and size
of quadrat samples. Mark and recapture is a common strategy for smaller mobile
species like mammals. With this technique, a sample of caught animals is marked in
some way before being released to rejoin the rest of the population. A new sample is
then taken, and scientists count how many of the marked animals are present. Since
they will have mixed with more unmarked individuals, this strategy believes that the
greater the population, the lower the percentage of marked organisms that will be
recovered. The population size (N) can be calculated using the following equation, for
instance, if 80 field mice are caught, marked, and released into the forest, followed by
a second trapping in which 100 field mice are caught and 20 of them are marked:

number marked first catch × total number second catch

number marked second catch= N
number marked first catch × total number second catch
number marked second catch = N
Using our example, the population size would be 400.

80 × 100 20 = 400 80 × 100 20 = 400

These results give us an estimate of 400 total individuals in the original population.
The true number usually will be a bit different from this because of chance errors and
possible bias caused by the sampling methods.

What is the most accurate way to determine population size?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1
1. What is mark and recapture technique for the study of mobile organisms?

2. What is demography in population studies?

2.4 Species Distribution

In addition to counting the number of individuals in a population, you may learn more
about it by examining how they are distributed across its range. The distribution of
individuals within a habitat at a specific moment is referred to as a species distribution

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pattern; broad kinds of patterns are used to characterise them. Within a population,
individuals may be randomly distributed, grouped, or similarly spaced apart (more or
less). These are referred to, respectively, as random, clumped, and uniform
distribution patterns. Different distributions represent crucial facets of the species'
biology and have an impact on the mathematical techniques used to calculate
population estimates.

Dandelion and other plants that have wind-dispersed seeds that grow wherever they
chance to fall in favourable circumstances are an example of random distribution. A
clumped distribution can be seen in plants that drop their seeds directly to the ground,
such oak trees, as well as in socially grouping animals (schools of fish or herds of
elephants). Plants that emit compounds that stop neighbouring persons from growing
show uniform dispersion (such as the release of toxic chemicals by sage plants). It can
also be observed in animal species that are territorial, like penguins, which maintain a
specific region for nesting. Each individual's territorial defence mechanisms result in a
predictable pattern of distribution of similar-sized territories and the inhabitants
therein. Consequently, the distribution of individuals within a population offers more
insight into how they interact with one another than does a straightforward assessment
of density.

When compared to social species that congregate in groups, solitary species with a
random distribution may experience comparable difficulties in locating mates as lower
density species do.

IN-TEXT QUESTION (ITQ)

What is the significance of species distribution pattern?

Different distributions reflect important aspects of the biology of the species and also
affect the mathematical methods required to estimate thier population sizes.

Figure 1. Species may have a random, clumped, or uniform distribution. Plants such
as (a) dandelions with wind-dispersed seeds tend to be randomly distributed. Animals
such as (b) elephants that travel in groups exhibit a clumped distribution. Territorial
birds such as (c) penguins tend to have a uniform distribution.

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What is species distribution pattern?

2. What are the three types of species distribution?

2.5 Life Tables

Life tables include crucial details about an organism's life cycle and the average
lifespan of people at various ages. They are based on actuarial data that the insurance
sector uses to calculate the average lifespan of people. The likelihood of each age
group dying before their next birthday, the percentage of survivors dying at each age
interval (mortality rate), and life expectancy at each interval are all possible inclusions
in life tables. An example of a life table is shown in Table 1 from a study of Dall
mountain sheep, a species native to northwestern North America. Notice that the
population is divided into age intervals (column A). The mortality rate (per 1000)
shown in column D is based on the number of individuals dying during the age
interval (column B), divided by the number of individuals surviving at the beginning
of the interval (Column C) multiplied by 1000.
mortality rate = number of individuals dying number of individuals surviving × 1000
mortality rate = number of individuals dying number of individuals surviving × 1000

For example, between ages three and four, 12 individuals die out of the 776 that were
remaining from the original 1000 sheep. This number is then multiplied by 1000 to
give the mortality rate per thousand.

mortality rate = 12 776 × 1000 ≈ 15.5 mortality rate = 12 776 × 1000 ≈ 15.5

As can be seen from the mortality rate data (column D), a high death rate occurred
when the sheep
were between six months and a year old, and then increased even more from 8 to 12
years old, after which there were few survivors. The data indicate that if a sheep in
this population were to survive to age one, it could be expected to live another 7.7
years on average, as shown by the life-expectancy numbers in column E.

The amount of people who survive from one age group to the next is determined by
life tables. Cohort life tables track a single cohort—a collection of people who were
all born at the same time—until they pass away. Key presumptions for this
demographic evaluation method include:
Each age group's population sample reflects its share in the overall population.

Since age-specific mortality rates were unchanged over that time, succeeding cohorts
would have a similar birth and death pattern. Here’s the best bit and the reason we
bother to gather all the age-specific survivorship and fecundity information: if the
assumptions (1 and 2 above) are met, then the sum of the product of survivorship and
fecundity at each age gives a population growth parameter called R0 (pronounced R-

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nought), defined as the net reproductive rate. When R0 exceeds 1, the population is
producing more offspring than it is losing from deaths. In other words, the population
is growing. Is the population above growing, shrinking, or stable?

At what age is fecundity maximized? Survivorship? Because of life history trade-offs,

patterns of
age-specific survival are predictive of the general life history of a population. While a
life table shows the survivorship in a numerical form, assessing pattern from columns
of data is difficult. Instead, ecologists create survivorship curves by plotting lx versus
time.

Table 1. Life Table of Dall Mountain Sheep

A B C D E
Number dying Number surviving Mortality rate per Life expectancy or
Age
in age interval at beginning of age 1000 alive at mean lifetime
interval
out of 1000 interval out of 1000 beginning of age remaining to those
(years)
born born interval attaining age interval
0–0.5 54 1000 54.0 7.06
0.5–1 145 946 153.3 —
1–2 12 801 15.0 7.7
2–3 13 789 16.5 6.8
3–4 12 776 15.5 5.9
4–5 30 764 39.3 5.0
5–6 46 734 62.7 4.2
6–7 48 688 69.8 3.4
7–8 69 640 107.8 2.6
8–9 132 571 231.2 1.9
9–10 187 439 426.0 1.3
10–11 156 252 619.0 0.9
11–12 90 96 937.5 0.6
12–13 3 6 500.0 1.2
13–14 3 3 1000 0.7

This life table of Ovis dalli shows the number of deaths, number of survivors,
mortality rate, and life expectancy at each age interval for Dall mountain sheep.
Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/population-
ecology/a/life-tables-survivorship-age-sex-structure.

2.5.1 Life history traits and their evolution

A population's members go through the stages of birth, development, adulthood,

maturation, and decline into reproductive senescence. The way energy is distributed
among these various aspects of an organism's survival is referred to as its life history,

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and this energy distribution results in traits that have an impact on survival and
reproductive output, including size at birth, age at maturity, size at maturity, number
and size of offspring (fecundity), reproductive value, lifespan, and senescence, which
we will define as the decline in fecundity with age. Life history theory explains how
evolution optimises these reproductive and survival traits in various populations,
influencing factors like how big and quickly people grow up, when they reach sexual
maturity, how many children they have each time they conceive, how frequently they
conceive, and when they die.

Reproduction and survival are "optimised," not "maximised," as you may have
noticed. This is because, in most cases, while evolution improves one of these
features, such as parent survival, it also tends to reduce another element of
reproduction, such as the number of offspring produced annually. This optimization
results in a life-history trade-off, which is represented as a conflict between
reproduction and survival. (see figure below).

An organism's energy allocation split between survival and reproductive output is

likely what leads to a life-history trade-off, which is represented as a negative
relationship between survival and reproduction. Energy is viewed as the limiting
component in trade-offs between survival and reproduction since organisms have a
finite amount of energy and must use some of it to maintain their existence. Because
of this, certain creatures, like the short-lived Chinook salmon, only reproduce once,
whereas others, like Atlantic cod and humans, do so frequently. The rate of population
increase and the carrying capacity of the environment can be related to selection for
life history trade-offs between reproduction and survival. Recall that r is the intrinsic
rate of natural increase of a population, and K is the environmental carrying capacity:

Life history traits that maximize growth rate (live fast, die young) are said to be r-
selected, and include traits like having very large numbers of offspring, relatively

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small body size, early sexual maturity, broad dispersal of offspring, limited parental
care, and short life-span. Species with r-selected life history traits include insects,
bacteria, many types of plants, and some small mammals such as rodents. These
species tend to exploit ecological niches where they are not limited by carrying
capacity, in part because while they produce many many offspring, each individual
offspring has a low chance of survival. Their population sizes can change dramatically
over short periods of time.

K-selected life history traits include traits that are essentially the opposite of r-selected
traits: relatively few offspring, relatively large body size, late sexual maturity,
offspring that require a great deal of parental care, and longer life span. These traits
are selected for in organisms living at densities close to the environmental carrying
capacity. Large organisms including many large mammals, several species of reptiles,
and some species of birds are examples of species exhibiting K-selected life history
features. These species' populations tend to be steady and close to their carrying
capacity in the absence of a natural disaster, pandemic of a disease, or other
catastrophic event. Regardless of whether a species has more r-selected or K-selected
traits, individuals can have different likelihood of successful reproductive at different
stages of their lives.

What are the meaning of r and l selected traits?

Self-Assessment Exercise 3
1. What is net reproductive rate?
2. Cohort life tables follow one group of individuals born at the same time, called a cohort,
until the death of all individuals., what was the key assumptions of the technique?

2.6 Summary

You now know that the distribution, or dispersion, of the individuals that make up a
population can be used to define that population. Individuals may be dispersed
uniformly, randomly, or in clusters. You have also learned that in the life histories of
organisms, individuals in a population go through a cycle of maturation into
adulthood, decline into reproductive senescence, and birth, growth, and development.
Life tables are useful in understanding the life history of an organism and the average
lifespan of its members at various ages.

2.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. and Fox, G.A. (2020). The Ecology of Plants, 3rd
Edition,

Matthew, R. Fisher (2018). Environmental Biology, Publisher: Open Oregon

Educational Resources

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/introduction-to-population-
demographics-83032908/

https://study.com/learn/lesson/logistic-growth-curve.html

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/population-
ecology/v/organism-life-history-and-fecundity

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/population-
ecology/v/organism-life-history-and-
fecundityhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ziXAawvlOzo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rXlyYFXyfIM

2.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. The mark and recapture method involves marking a sample of captured

animals in some way and releasing them back into the environment to mix with
the rest of the population; then, a new sample is captured and scientists
determine how many of the marked animals are in the new sample.
2. Demography is the statistical study of populations where a set of mathematical
tools designed to describe populations and investigate how they change.

Answers to SAE 2

1. A species distribution pattern is the distribution of individuals within a habitat

at a particular point in time
2. Species may have a random, clumped, or uniform distribution.

Answers to SAE 3

1. the sum of the product of survivorship and fecundity at each age gives a
population growth parameter called R0 (pronounced R-nought), when the
following assumptions (The population sample of each age class is proportional
to its numbers in the populationAge-specific mortality rates remain constant
during the time period, meaning that subsequent cohorts will exhibit similar
pattern of birth and death.) are met.
2. There are two assumptions of the technique:

i). The population sample of each age class is proportional to its numbers in the
population
ii). Age-specific mortality rates remain constant during the time period, meaning
that subsequent cohorts will exhibit similar pattern of birth and death.

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BIO 304 MODULE 2

UNIT 3 POPULATION GROWTH

Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.3 Population Growth
3.4 Logistic Growth
3.5 Role of Intraspecific Competition
3.6 Summary
3.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
3.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1 Introduction

The most basic approach to population growth is to begin with the assumption that
every individual produces two offspring in its lifetime, then dies, which would double
the population size each generation. However, populations with unlimited natural
resources grow very rapidly, which represents an exponential growth, and then
population growth decreases as resources become depleted, indicating a logistic
growth.

3.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you shall be able to:

• Define population growth, exponential growth, logistic growth, and carrying

capacity.
• Compare and distinguish between exponential and logistic population growth
equations and interpret the resulting growth curves.
• Compare and contrast models of population growth in the presence and
absence of carrying capacity (K).
• Analyze graphs to determine if regulation is influenced by density.

3.3 Population Growth

The simplest method for analysing population growth is to start with the supposition
that each person has two children during their lifetime before passing away, which
would result in a population size that doubles every generation. If a bacteria had
limitless resources, it would reproduce in an optimal way by doubling its number
every generation. The two most basic models of population growth describe the rate of
change in population size over time using deterministic equations (equations that do
not take into account random events). Exponential growth, the first of these models,
describes hypothetical populations that grow in size without any upper bound. The
second model, logistic growth, places restrictions on the rate of reproduction that get
tighter as the population gets bigger. Both models can be compared, although no one

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

fully captures natural populations. Thomas Malthus, an English theologian, had a

significant influence on Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. In a book that
was released in 1798, Malthus claimed that people grow exponentially when given
unlimited access to natural resources, and logistically as those resources are used up.
Bacteria provide the best example of exponential development in living things.
Prokaryotes like bacteria mostly reproduce by binary fission. Many bacterial species
require roughly an hour to complete this division. After just one hour, 1000 bacteria
will have doubled to 2000 if they are placed in a big flask with a plentiful supply of
nutrients (so the nutrients won't fast decrease). Each of the 2000 germs will divide
after another hour, creating 4000 bacteria. There ought to be 8000 bacteria in the flask
after the third hour. The key idea behind exponential growth is that the population size
grows at an ever-increasing pace as a result of the growth rate, or the number of
organisms added with each reproductive generation. The population would have
grown from 1000 to more than 16 billion bacteria after 24 of these cycles. When the
population size, N, is plotted over time, a J-shaped growth curve is produced. The
bacteria-in-a-flask illustration does not accurately depict the actual world, where
resources are frequently scarce. However, a species may exhibit exponential growth
for a while when it is brought into a new habitat that it finds acceptable. Since there
will be some bacteria that die in the flask during the experiment and are unable to
reproduce, the growth rate is reduced from the maximum pace at which there is no
mortality. A population's growth rate is primarily calculated by deducting the birth
rate, B, from the death rate, D, (number of organisms that perish during a period)
(number organisms that are born during an interval). The growth rate can be expressed
in a simple equation that combines the birth and death rates into a single factor: r. This
is shown in the following formula:

Population growth = rNPopulation growth = rN

The value of r can be positive, meaning the population is increasing in size (the rate of
change is positive); or negative, meaning the population is decreasing in size; or zero,
in which case the population size is unchanging, a condition known as zero population
growth.

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BIO 304 MODULE 2

Figure 1. When resources are unlimited, populations exhibit exponential growth,

resulting in a J-shaped curve. Source:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/population-ecology/a/life-
tables-survivorship-age-sex-structure

The population growth rate in this graphic is constant since the number of births and
deaths at each time point remains constant across time. For this population of size N,
the intrinsic rate of natural increase, or constant known as r, is the product of the
population's birth rate (b) and death rate (d). The population size times the growth rate
yields the change in population size over time, and this formula for exponential
growth aids in our understanding of the growth pattern through time. Despite the fact
that the value of r remains constant over time, the population in this model doesn't
increase linearly since every person born in a given generation reproduces. As a result,
the population quickly multiplies. In the natural world, a population expanding at this
astronomical rate would swiftly deplete all habitat and resources. Natural populations
have size constraints imposed by the environment, contrary to the exponential growth
equation paradigm.

How can a growth rate of a population be determined?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. How would you express the growth rate in a simple equation that combines the birth and
death rates into a single factor: r.?
2. What does the two simplest models of population growth use to describe the rate of
change in the size of a population over time?
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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

3.4 Logistic Growth

Extended exponential growth is possible only when infinite natural resources are
available; this is not the case in the real world. In his depiction of the "fight for
existence," Charles Darwin acknowledged this fact, stating that individuals will
compete (with members of their own or other species) for scarce resources. The
successful ones have a higher chance of surviving and passing on their qualities to the
following generation at a faster pace (natural selection). The logistic growth model
was created by population ecologists to simulate the reality of scarce resources.

Carrying Capacity and the Logistic Model

In the actual world, when resources are scarce, exponential growth cannot last forever.
When there are few people and lots of resources available, exponential growth may
occur; however, as the population grows, the resources become scarce and the growth
rate slows. The growth rate will eventually level out or plateau (Figure 1a). The
carrying capacity, abbreviated K, refers to the population size that is determined by
the highest population density that a specific environment can support. In actual
populations, a growing population frequently exceeds its carrying capacity, and as a
result, the population size declines back to the carrying limit or lower as the death rate
rises beyond the birth rate. Instead of existing exactly at the carrying capacity, most
populations typically oscillate about it. The carrying capacity is included in the
method for calculating logistic growth as a moderating factor in the growth rate. The
number of people who can be added to a population at one time is denoted by the
expression "K - N," and the portion of the carrying capacity that is still available for
expansion is denoted by "K - N" divided by "K." This constraint prevents the
exponential growth model from producing the logistic growth equation:

Population growth = rN [K−NK]Population growth = rN [ K−NK ]

Notice that when N is almost zero the quantity in brackets is almost equal to 1
(or K/K) and growth is close to exponential. When the population size is equal to the
carrying capacity, or N = K, the quantity in brackets is equal to zero and growth is
equal to zero. A graph of this equation (logistic growth) yields the S-shaped
curve (Figure 1b). Compared to exponential growth, it is a more accurate
representation of population expansion. An S-shaped curve is divided into three
halves. In the beginning, growth is exponential due to the low population and
abundant resources. The growth rate then slows as resources start to become scarce.
When the environment's carrying capacity is reached, the growth rate levels off and
the population barely changes over time.

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BIO 304 MODULE 2

Figure 1. When resources are unlimited, populations exhibit (a) exponential growth,
shown in a J-shaped curve. When resources are limited, populations exhibit (b)
logistic growth. In logistic growth, population expansion decreases as resources
become scarce, and it levels off when the carrying capacity of the environment is
reached. The logistic growth curve is S-shaped.

Why is the formula used to calculate logistic growth adds the carrying capacity?

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. When is an extended exponential growth is possible?

2. What is the carrying capacity (or K) of a population referred to?

3.5 Role of Intraspecific Competition

According to the logistic model, each member of a population will have equal access
to resources and a similar probability of surviving. The key resources for plants are
water, sunlight, nutrients, and space to flourish; whereas for animals, the key
resources are food, water, shelter, nesting space, and mates. In the actual world,
phenotypic variation among populations results in certain members of the population
being more adapted to their surroundings than others. Intraspecific competition is the
word used to describe the resource competition that results among population
members of the same species. Since resources are abundant and everyone can get what
they need, populations that are far below their carrying capacity may not be affected
by intraspecific competition.

However, as population size increases, this competition intensifies. In addition, the

accumulation of waste products can reduce carrying capacity in an environment.
Examples of Logistic Growth:

Yeast, a microscopic fungus used to make bread and alcoholic beverages, exhibits the
classical S-shaped curve when grown in a test tube. Its growth levels off as the
population depletes the nutrients that are necessary for its growth. In the real world,
however, there are variations to this idealized curve. Examples in wild populations
include sheep and harbor seals. In both examples, the population size exceeds the

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BIO 304 GENERAL ECOLOGY

carrying capacity for short periods of time and then falls below the carrying capacity
afterwards. This fluctuation in population size continues to occur as the population
oscillates around its carrying capacity. Still, even with this oscillation, the logistic
model is confirmed. What is the resulting competition for resources among population
members of the same species called?

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. What can cause the deceleration of an exponential population growth?

2. What is the example of Logistic Growth in wild populations

3.6 Summary

Population growth is the term used to describe changes in population size over time,
which can be either positive or negative based on the ratio of births to deaths. The
population of the globe will increase very slowly or possibly stop growing if there are
numerous deaths. Depending on particular environmental factors, two different
patterns of population expansion may manifest: In a perfect, limitless environment, an
exponential growth pattern (J curve) manifests itself. When environmental pressures
slow the rate of growth, a logistic growth pattern (S curve) develops.

3.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Matthew, R. Fisher (2018). Environmental Biology, Publisher: Open Oregon

Educational Resources

Miller, G. Tyler Jr. and Scott E. Spoolman (2009). Essentials of Ecology, 5e,
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-
3098 USA, ISBN-13: 978-0- 495-55795-1, 383pp

https://canvas.park.edu/courses/48478/modules/items/4631901

https://www.safeopedia.com/definition/2730/logistic-growth

https://study.com/learn/lesson/logistic-growth-curve.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFpM5e_6rtM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqKg5rWLpEo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ziXAawvlOzo

3.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

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BIO 304 MODULE 2

Answers to SAE 1

1. This is shown in the following formula:

Population growth = rNPopulation growth = rN
Where the value of r can be positive, meaning the population is increasing in
size (the rate of change is positive); or negative, meaning the population is
decreasing in size; or zero, in which case the population size is unchanging, a
condition known as zero population growth.
2. The two simplest models of population growth use deterministic equations
(equations that do not account for random events) to describe the rate of change
in the size of a population over time.

Answers to SAE 2

1. Extended exponential growth is possible only when infinite natural resources

are available and this is not the case in the real world.
2. The carrying capacity, or K is the population size, which is determined by the
maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain,.

Answers to SAE 3

1. As exponential growth occur in environments where there are few individuals

and plentiful resources depletion of resources due to increased population
numbers will slow down growth rate
2. Examples in wild populations include in sheep where the population size
exceeds the carrying capacity for short periods of time and then falls below the
carrying capacity afterwards.

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UNIT 4 POPULATION REGULATION

Unit Structure

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
4.3 Regulation of Population Size
4.4 Density Dependent and Density independant Factors
4.4.1 Density-dependent Regulation
4.4.2 Density-independent Regulation and Interaction with Density-dependent
Factors
4.5 Demographic-Based Population Models
4.6 Summary
4.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
4.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

4.1 Introduction

These population characteristics are often displayed in a life table. Population

ecologists make use of a variety of methods to model population dynamics. An
accurate model should be able to describe the changes occurring in a population and
predict future changes.

4.2 Intended Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain how population size is regulated by factors that are dependent or

independent of population density
• Compare and contrast density-dependent growth regulation and density-
independent growth regulation giving examples
• Explain density-independent regulation and Interaction with density-dependent
factors
• Describe the demographic-based population models

4.3 Regulation of Population Size

Population size can vary depending on both biological and non-biological variables.
Interspecific interactions including predation, competition, parasitism, and mutualism
as well as disease are examples of biological variables. Environmental parameters
include temperature, precipitation, disturbance, pollution, salinity, and pH are
examples of non-biological influences. All of these factors have the ability to alter
population growth, but only biological factors—with the exception of mutualism—can
"regulate" a population by driving it to its carrying capacity, or equilibrium density.
Mutualisms do not control population size among biological factors since they
encourage population growth through advantageous interactions with other species.

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Different biological mechanisms that control population growth have an impact on

dense vs sparse populations, such as competition and predation. For instance,
communicable disease doesn’t spread quickly in a sparsely packed population, but in a
dense population, like humans living in a college residence hall, disease can spread
quickly through contact between individuals. Density plays a key role in population
regulation in the following ways:

Territoriality: Maintaining a territory will enable an individual to capture enough

food to reproduce, where space is a limiting resource.

Disease: Transmission rate often depends on population density

Predation: Predators may concentrate on the most abundant prey

Toxic Wastes: Metabolic by-products accumulate as populations grow

Identifying evidence of density regulation requires a field or lab experiment that

manipulates density and quantifies the response in population growth. Often an (easier
to measure) proxy of population growth, like survival or reproductive output, stands in
as a quick metric of the births and deaths that will impact population growth. The
characteristic negative correlation in the image below is evidence of density-
dependent population regulation: higher densities yield lower survival. What are non-
biological factors of the environment?

Figure 1. Manipulated salamander (Ambystoma laterale) larval density in the field

Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/19-introduction

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Mention any five biological factors that can influence population size.

2. What is the advantage of maintaining territoriality by organisms?

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4.4 Density Dependent and Density in-dependant Factors

Despite being useful and applicable in many natural populations, the logistic model of
population growth is a simplification of actual population dynamics. The model makes
the assumption that the environment's carrying capacity remains constant, which is
false. Every year, the carrying capacity changes. In many regions, the carrying
capacity during the winter is substantially lower than it is during the summer, for
instance, some summers are hot and dry while others are chilly and damp.

Natural occurrences like earthquakes, volcanoes, and fires can also change the
ecosystem and, as a result, the carrying capacity. Furthermore, groups typically do not
coexist in isolation. With other species, they coexist in the same environment and
compete for the same resources (interspecific competition). These elements are crucial
for comprehending how a certain population will expand. Numerous mechanisms
exist to control population growth. These are divided into two categories: density-
dependent factors, which impact growth rate and mortality depending on population
density, and density-independent factors, which affect mortality regardless of
population density. Understanding both categories is important for wildlife biologists
in particular since it allows them to manage populations and avoid extinction or
overpopulation.

4.4.1 Density-dependent Regulation

Predation, intra- and interspecific competition, and parasites are some biological
aspects of density-dependent variables. Typically, a population's death rate increases
with population density. For instance, the species' reproductive rates will often be
lower during intra- and interspecific competition, slowing the rate of population
expansion. Additionally, because the predator has a harder time locating its food
supply, low prey density raises the mortality rate of the prey.

Additionally, illness transmission rates increase with population density, which has an
impact on death rates. In a field study including populations of wild donkeys at two
locations in Australia, density-dependent regulation was investigated. A population
control programme lowered the population on one site, but had no effect on the
population at the other. In comparison to the low-density plot, the high-density plot
was twice as dense. While donkey density increased in the low-density plot from 1986
to 1987, it decreased in the high-density plot. Death rates, not birth rates, were the
main factor in the two populations' divergent growth rates. The number of children
each mother gave birth to was shown to be unaffected by density, according to the
researchers. The main reason for the disparity in growth rates between the two
populations was the high rate of infant mortality brought on by maternal malnutrition
in the dense population. Figure 2. shows the difference in age-specific mortalities in
the two populations.

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Figure 2. This graph shows the age-specific mortality rates for wild donkeys from
high- and low-density populations. The juvenile mortality is much higher in the high-
density population because of maternal malnutrition caused by a shortage of high-
quality food.

4.4.2 Density-Independent Regulation and Interaction with Density-dependent

Factors

Regardless of population density, a number of causes that are primarily physical in

nature cause death in a community. These elements include the climate, calamities
caused by nature, and pollution. No matter how many deer happen to be around, a
single deer will perish in a forest fire. Whether there is a large or low population
density, its odds of survival are the same. The chilly winter weather is no different.
Population control in the actual world is extremely complex, and independent and
dependent factors may interact. A dense population will be able to recover differently
than a sparse population if it experiences mortality due to a density-independent
cause. For instance, if there are more deer left after a particularly difficult winter, the
population of deer will recover more quickly. Why is it said that the logistic model of
population growth is a useful model, but is a simplification of real-world population
dynamics?

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. How can population growth be regulated?

2. List any three factors that are typically physical in nature cause mortality of a
population regardless of its density.

4.5 Demographic-Based Population Models

Population ecologists have proposed that some traits may evolve in species and result
in specific environmental adaptations. The type of population expansion that their
species experiences is influenced by these adaptations. Just like anatomy or behaviour,
life history traits like birth rates, age at first reproduction, number of children, and

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even death rates change with time, resulting in adaptations that have an impact on
population expansion. K-selected species are on one end of a continuum of life-history
"strategy," and r-selected species are on the other, according to population ecologists.
Species chosen by K are adapted to predictable, steady surroundings. K-selected
species' populations often coexist at or near their carrying capacity. These species
often produce fewer, but larger, offspring, and provide substantial resources to each
child. Population ecologists have proposed that some traits may evolve in species and
result in specific environmental adaptations. The type of population expansion that
their species experiences is influenced by these adaptations. Just like anatomy or
behaviour, life history traits like birth rates, age at first reproduction, number of
children, and even death rates change with time, resulting in adaptations that have an
impact on population expansion. K-selected species are on one end of a continuum of
life-history "strategy," and r-selected species are on the other, according to population
ecologists. Species chosen by K are adapted to predictable, steady surroundings. K-
selected species' populations often coexist at or near their carrying capacity. These
species often produce fewer, but larger, offspring, and provide substantial resources to
each child.

Population ecologists have proposed that some traits may evolve in species and result
in specific environmental adaptations. The type of population expansion that their
species experiences is influenced by these adaptations. Just like anatomy or behaviour,
life history traits like birth rates, age at first reproduction, number of children, and
even death rates change with time, resulting in adaptations that have an impact on
population expansion. K-selected species are on one end of a continuum of life-history
"strategy," and r-selected species are on the other, according to population ecologists.
Species chosen by K are adapted to predictable, steady surroundings. K-selected
species' populations often coexist at or near their carrying capacity. These species
often produce fewer, but larger, offspring, and provide substantial resources to each
child. The biosphere on Earth has undergone tremendous change as a result of human
technology, notably our use of the energy found in fossil fuels. Some ecosystems may
now be in danger of extinction. Human actions are to blame for a number of global
changes, such as ozone layer loss, desertification, topsoil loss, and climate change.
The number of people on Earth is currently increasing at an exponential rate (Figure
4.). Can the concepts of animal population dynamics be applied to human population
growth?

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Figure 4 Human population growth since 1000 AD is exponential.

The time it takes to add a certain number of persons to the population is getting
shorter as a result of exponential growth rate. Figure 4 demonstrates that while it took
123 years between 1804 and 1930 to add 1 billion people, it only took 24 years
between 1975 and 1999 to add 2 billion. In the ensuing decades, this growth rate's
acceleration is probably going to start to slow down. Despite this, the population will
continue to grow and the risk of overpopulation persists, in part because the harm
done to ecosystems and biodiversity is reducing the planet's ability to support human
population growth.

Figure 5. The time between the addition of each billion human beings to Earth
decreases over time. (credit: modification of

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. How has population ecologists described a continuum of life-history “strategies”?

2.What is the strategy of K-selected species?

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4.6 Summary

Populations are regulated by a variety of density-dependent and density-independent

factors. Species are divided into two categories based on a variety of features of their
life history patterns: r-selected species, which have large numbers of offspring, and K-
selected species, which have few offspring. The r– and K-selection theory has fallen
out of use; however, many of its key features are still used in newer, demographically-
based models of population dynamics.

4.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Matthew, R. Fisher (2018). Environmental Biology, Publisher: Open Oregon

Educational Resources

Miller, G. Tyler Jr. and Scott E. Spoolman (2009). Essentials of Ecology, 5e,
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098
USA, ISBN-13: 978-0- 495-55795-1, 383pp

https://canvas.park.edu/courses/48478/modules/items/4631901

https://study.com/learn/lesson/logistic-growth-curve.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqKg5rWLpEo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ziXAawvlOzo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rXlyYFXyfIM

4.8 Possible Answers to SAEs

Answers to SAE 1

1. Biological factors include interspecific interactions like predation, competition,

parasitism, and mutualism, as well as disease.
2. Maintaining a territory will enable an individual to capture enough food to
reproduce, where space is a limiting resource.

Answers to SAE 2

1 Population growth is regulated in a variety of ways: These are grouped

into density-dependent factors, in which the density of the population affects
growth rate and mortality, and density-independent factors, which cause
mortality in a population regardless of population density.

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2. Many factors that are typically physical in nature cause mortality of a

population regardless of its density. These factors include weather, natural
disasters, and pollution.

Answers to SAE 3

1. Population ecologists have described a continuum of life-history “strategies”

with K- selected species on one end and r-selected species on the other.
2. K-selected species are adapted to stable, predictable environments.

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UNIT 5 HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

Unit Structure

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
5.3 Overcoming Density-Dependent Regulation
5.4 Age Structure, Population Growth, and Economic Development
5.5 Long-Term Consequences of Exponential Human Population Growth
5.6 Summary
5.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
5.8 Possible Answers to SAEs

5.1 Introduction

Concepts of animal population dynamics can be applied to human population growth.

Humans are not unique in their ability to alter their environment. Humans, however,
have the ability to alter their environment to increase its carrying capacity sometimes
to the detriment of other species Earth’s human population is growing rapidly, to the
extent that some worry about the ability of the earth’s environment to sustain this
population, as long-term exponential growth carries the potential risks of famine,
disease, and large-scale death.

5.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain how to overcome density dependent regulation

• Relate population growth and age structure to the level of economic
development in different countries
• Explain how humans have expanded the carrying capacity of their habitat
• Describe the long-term consequences of exponential human population growth

5.3 Overcoming Density-Dependent Regulation

Humans are the only species that can change their surroundings in so many different
ways. Because it resets the carrying capacity and gets beyond density-dependent
growth regulation, this ability is what drives the increase in the human population.
This skill has a lot to do with communication, society, and human intelligence. To
expand their food supplies, humans have developed agriculture, tamed animals, and
built shelters to protect themselves from the weather. Language is also used by people
to pass on this technology to future generations, enabling them to build on earlier
achievements. Migration and public health are other elements in the increase of the
human population. The region that humans have colonised has grown since our
ancestors left Africa and spread to almost every continent with habitable terrain. In
affluent nations, the potential of infectious diseases to constrain human population

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growth has lessened thanks to public health, sanitation, and the use of medicines and
vaccinations. Between 30 and 60 percent of the inhabitants in Europe died from
diseases like the bubonic plague in the fourteenth century, which also caused a global
population decline of up to 100 million people. The increase of the human population
is still being impacted by infectious disease. For instance, life expectancy in sub-
Saharan Africa began to drop after 1985, primarily as a result of HIV/AIDS mortality,
after increasing from 1950 to 1990. According to estimates for 2005, HIV/AIDS
reduced life expectancy by 7 years.

Lower birth rates are a result of declining life expectancy, which is a sign of rising
mortality rates.
The reduction in mortality brought on by the development of industrial age
technologies, the urbanisation that supported those technologies, and especially the
exploitation of the energy in fossil fuels has been the fundamental reason for the
acceleration of the growth rate for humans over the past 200 years. Because of
agriculture's use of machinery, herbicides, and fertilisers, as well as the taking of wild
populations, fossil fuels have significantly increased the resources that can support the
growing human population. What is the key ideas of density-dependent regulation?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What factors regulates population growth?

2. How can humans overcome density-dependent factors?

5.4 Age Structure, Population Growth, and Economic Development

Population dynamics heavily depends on the age composition of a population. A

population's age distribution is referred to as its age structure. Age structure can be
incorporated into models to improve population growth forecasting and to link that
growth to a region's economic success. Age structure diagrams in nations with rapid
growth have a pyramidal shape, indicating a majority of younger people, many of
whom are of reproductive age (Figure 1). This tendency is most frequently seen in
developing nations with large birth rates and subpar living circumstances, where
people are less likely to live to old age. The age structure of regions with moderate
growth, including industrialised nations like the United States, still has a pyramidal
structure, but there are a lot fewer people who are young and of reproductive age and
a lot more people who are older. Other industrialised nations, like Italy, are
experiencing little population increase. These populations' age distribution is more
conical, with an even higher proportion of middle-aged and older people. Figure 2
depicts the real growth rates in various nations, with the largest rates typically
occurring in the less economically developed nations of Asia and Africa.

How can the age structure of population affect economic development?

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Figure 1. Typical age structure diagrams are shown.

Source:
https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/2192/Figure_45_05_03.png?revision=1

The rapid growth diagram constricts to a point, showing that the population shrinks
quickly as people get older. According to the slow growth model, the population gets
smaller as people get older. The top of stable population graphs is rounded, indicating
that the proportion of people in each age group steadily declines and then rises as the
population ages.Age structure diagrams for rapidly growing, slow growing and stable
populations are shown in stages 1 through 3. What type of population change do you
think stage 4 represents?

Figure 2. The percent growth rate of population in different countries is shown. Notice
that the highest growth is occurring in less economically developed countries in Africa
and Asia.
Source:
https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/2192/Figure_45_05_03.png?revision=1

Self-Assessment Exercise 2
1.How do population growth and age structure relate to the level of economic development in
different countries?
2. What do age structures have to do with population growth?

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5.5 Long-Term Consequences of Exponential Human Population Growth

Numerous ominous forecasts regarding the world's population growth and the ensuing
"population explosion" have been made. The battle to feed the whole human race has
been won, according to biologist Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich's 1968 book The Population
Bomb. Despite whatever crash programmes implemented today, hundreds of millions
of people would starve to death in the 1970s.

Nothing can currently stop a significant rise in the global death rate. Although many
sceptics think this claim is overstated, unfettered human population increase cannot go
on forever because of the laws of exponential population growth. Numerous ominous
forecasts regarding the world's population growth and the ensuing "population
explosion" have been made. The battle to feed the whole human race has been won,
according to biologist Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich's 1968 book The Population Bomb. Despite
whatever crash programmes implemented today, hundreds of millions of people
would starve to death in the 1970s. Nothing can currently stop a significant rise in the
global death rate. Although many sceptics think this claim is overstated, unfettered
human population increase cannot go on forever because of the laws of exponential
population growth.

Inequalities in access to food and other resources will keep growing as more food
must be produced to support our growing population. By the year 2100, the world
population, according to the UN, might be anywhere between 6 billion (a drop) and 16
billion. It is impossible to predict if the rate of population growth will slow down to
the degree where a potential crisis may be avoided. The alteration and degradation of
the natural environment are additional effects of population increase.

Many nations have made an effort to minimise greenhouse gas emissions in an effort
to lessen the effects of human activity on climate change. A global climate change
treaty is still difficult, though, and many developing nations attempting to better their
economic standing may be less reluctant to consent to such conditions if doing so will
slow down their own economic progress. Furthermore, in certain industrialised
nations, particularly the United States, the contribution of human activity to climate
change has emerged as a contentious sociopolitical issue. In order to preserve the
carrying capacity for the human species, we must be able to control the rate of
population growth and safeguard the environment. What are some consequences of
the increases in human population growth?

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. What are the consequences of exponential population growth of any population?

2. What is the biggest problem with exponential population growth?

5.6 Summary

he world’s human population is growing at an exponential rate. Humans have

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increased the world’s carrying capacity through migration, agriculture, medical

advances, and communication. The age structure of a population allows us to predict
population growth. Unchecked human population growth could have dire long-term
effects on our environment.

5.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. and Fox, G.A. (2020). The Ecology of Plants, 3rd
Edition,

Matthew, R. Fisher (2018). Environmental Biology, Publisher: Open Oregon

Educational Resources

https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/2192/Figure_45_05_03.png?revision=1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fvgit57mpZw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p36GdBgObdg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8dkWQVFAoA

5.8 Possible Answers to SAEs

Answers to SAE 1

1. Population growth rate is affected by birth rates, death rates, immigration, and
emigration. If a population is given unlimited amounts of food, moisture, and
oxygen, and other environmental factors, it will show exponential growth.
2. Overcoming Density-Dependent Regulation, Humans can construct shelter to
protect them from the elements and have developed agriculture and
domesticated animals to increase their food supplies.

Answers to SAE 2

1. Age structure data allow the rate of growth (or decline) to be associated with a
population's level of economic development. For example, the population of a
country with rapid growth has a triangle-shaped age structure with a greater
proportion of younger individuals who are at or close to reproductive age.9 Jun
2022
2. Countries with lower median age tend to have higher population growth rates.
Lower-income countries tend to have a lower median age. This is because they
have a 'younger' population overall: high fertility rates across these countries
mean they have larger populations of young children and adolescents.

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BIO 304 MODULE 2

Answers to SAE 3

1. A consequence of exponential human population growth is the time that it takes

to add a particular number of humans to the Earth is becoming shorter. Figure 2
shows that 123 years were necessary to add 1 billion humans in 1930, but it
only took 24 years to add two billion people between 1975 and 1999.

2. Exponential growth in a finite world is at the crux of many environmental

issues including: climate change, biodiversity loss, and deforestation. Human
population growth is an excellent example of how exponential growth can
negatively affect our environmental systems.

Glossary

age structure: Proportion of population members at specific age ranges

age-specific: The age of the individual is important for statistical purposes.
clutch size: The number of offspring one female produces in one reproductive cycle.
cohort: Group of all individuals sharing a statistical factor (such as age or
developmental stage)

density-dependent factors: Depending on the local density of the population

density-independent factors: Not linked to the local density of the population
discrete developmental stages: Non-overlapping and structurally distinct growth
stages.

ecosystem: A natural system including the interaction of all living and non-living
elements.
extinction: No longer existing.

extrapolating: Estimating an unknown value by assuming that a known value can

translate (without distortion) to the scale of the unknown value.

growth rate: The rate of change of population size over time.

inbreeding: Breeding of closely related individuals, often with negative genetic
consequences.
incubated: Provided with a heat source during embryonic development.
life tables: Specific format of statistical summary of demographic parameters.
migration: Populations moving from one geographic location to another.
objectively: To study without bias and by measurable and repeatable metrics.
offspring: The individual produced from the reproduction of its parents.

one-child policy: China’s policy to limit population growth by limiting urban

couples to have only one child or face the penalty of a fine
parameter: A value in an equation that does not vary. These values can
change between different equations of similar form.

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predator-prey relationships: How populations of predators are interacting with

populations of prey.
predation: The act of killing another living organism for food.
physiological: The parts and functions of living organisms.
reproductive organs: Specialized collection of cells used to exchange
gametes between sexually reproducing
organisms.
rates: A mathematical term for the number of things or events happening in a
given amount of time.
rearing: To invest energy in the growth and development of offspring after they
are born.
subjectively designated geographic range: A parcel of land, the size of which is
chosen without using standardized
criteria. Picked at the discretion of the
researcher.
sustainable: System able to be maintained itself indefinitely without
supplement.
sexual maturation: An individual reaching a stage of development where it is able to
sexually reproduce.
stress hormone: Chemical compounds synthesized in the body to chemically
communicate a stress reaction to various systems within that
organism.
statistic: A number acting as a description for more numbers.
theoretical: A rational, rather than practical, description of natural
phenomena. Often using mathematical, conceptual, or mechanical
models to study the underlying functional framework of nature.

End of Module Questions

What are examples of population demographics?

What are the three main areas of population demography?
What is population demography in ecology?
What are the types of population regulation?
Why is population regulation important?
What is the main factor of population regulation?
What factors regulates population growth?
Why is population dynamics important?
What are the major components of population dynamics?
What are the three main factors affecting population dynamics?

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BIO 304 MODULE 3

MODULE 3

In this module we will discuss about the biological communities and

interactions with the following units:

Unit 1 Ecological Communities

Unit 2 Community Organization and Functioning
Unit 3 Biogeography
Unit 4 World Biomes
Unit 5 Marine and Freshwater Biomes

Unit 1 Ecological Communities

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
1.3 Community Ecology
1.3.1 Community vs. Ecosystem
1.3.2 Properties of Community
1.4 Types and Importance of Communities
1.5 Characteristics of Community
1.6 Summary
1.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
1.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

1.1 Introduction

In this unit, you learn about community ecology, also known as

synecology, which examines interactions between species in groups
over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales, including distribution,
population dynamics, structure, abundance, and demography.

1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Define a Community Ecology

• Differentiate between community vs. ecosystem
• Describe the properties of a community
• Explain the types and importance of communities
• Describe the characteristics of communities

1.3 Community Ecology

Synecology, another name for community ecology, is the study of how

species interact with one another throughout a wide variety of temporal

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and spatial scales, including distribution, population dynamics,

structure, abundance, and demography. In biology, the term
"community" describes the collection of coexisting, interacting
organisms, whether they are of the same species or not. Members of a
community tend to influence each other's abundance, distribution,
adaption, and existence as a result of their interactions. Community
function and community structure are two of its key characteristics.
Community function is related to energy flow, community resilience,
and community resistance while community structure is related to biotic
composition. Communities share similar traits aside from these qualities.
These include ecological successions, ecotone-edge effect, spatial
organisation, species interactions, and periodicity. A community can be
as little as an assemblage found in a pond or a tree or as large as a
biome, which is an enormous regional or worldwide biotic association.
The word "community" has long been used to refer to a collection of
people who may or may not live in the same place. A community in this
sense would be one whose members, regardless of where they are
located, share similar hobbies, languages, customs, manners, laws, or
cultures. A modern community, for instance, is one that is constructed
on a holistic, healthier, and eco-friendly design with the aim of
coexisting peacefully with environment and other living forms. A
community in biology is a collection of interacting organisms,
regardless of whether they belong to the same species or not. Through
symbiotic relationships, such as mutualism, parasitism, commensalism,
or competitiveness, they interact with one another. The affiliation of a
group (or groups) of species that co-habit a geographic area for a
specific period of time is referred to as a community in ecology. To be
precise, an ecological community refers to the assemblage of living
organisms having symbiotic relationships among themselves, and thus
functioning, at least to some degree, as an ecological unit.

1.3.1 Community vs. Ecosystem

Ecosystem and ecological community are two distinct but related ideas.
While a community refers to a collection of species interacting and
coexisting in a certain area, an ecosystem is a more comprehensive idea.
An ecosystem is made up of both living beings and the surrounding
physical environment, which together performs as a single entity.
Therefore, an ecosystem would consist of both biotic and abiotic
elements that are interconnected, particularly in terms of energy and
biogeochemical cycling. The abiotic elements may not be included in
the definition of an ecological community, but they nevertheless have an
impact on the community's structure, pattern, abundance, and stability.
In light of everything, numerous communities would make up an
ecosystem in a specific environment. For a more detailed comparison
between community and ecosystem, see the table below.

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Table 1: Difference Between Community and Ecosystem

Community Ecosystem

Comprised of biotic factors interacting and Comprised of biotic

living together in a habitat factors (living
things) and abiotic
factors (non-living
things) in a
particular
environment

Basic biotic components Basic biotic

are producers (e.g. plants), consumers (e.g. ani components are
mals), and decomposers (e.g. bacteria) producers,
consumers, and
decomposers
whereas abiotic
components
are climatic
factors (e.g. sunligh
t,
humidity, temperatu
re, atmosphere,
etc.), edaphic
factors (soil type,
the geology of the
land, etc.),
and social
factors (e.g. land
use, water
resources, etc.)

Community examples: Ecosystem

Grassland communities examples:
Bird communities Forest ecosystem,
Deciduous forest communities comprised of
various ecological
communities co-
inhabiting and
interacting with one
another as well as
with their

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environment
Taiga ecosystem
Stillwater
ecosystem

1.3.2 Properties of Community

Identifying a biological community can be challenging since

assemblages of organisms may occasionally overlap. However, they
have unique qualities, such as community structure and function. The
biotic composition of the community has to do with community
structure. It includes the variety and quantity of species as well as the
trophic interactions that were developed by a community's inhabitants.
Additionally, resistance, resilience, and energy flow all contribute to
community function. The movement of energy across different trophic
levels in a food chain is an example of how energy flows in a
community. Resistance and resilience are two crucial qualities. Because
both biotic and abiotic changes can affect assemblages of organisms,
stability requires that these changes be resisted. A stable community is
one that can withstand these changes or at the very least bounce back
from them. Resilience is the ability to recover from a perturbation or
disturbance, whereas resistance is the act of ignoring the effects of the
perturbation or disturbance. However, determining or measuring the
equilibrium state might be challenging. Finding the point of stability can
occasionally require years of study. What is a stable community in
ecology?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What are the major properties of a community?

2. What is the meaning of Community structure?

1.4 Types and Importance of Communities

The size of communities can vary and overlap. Communities might be

categorised as major or minor in this way. Larger geographic areas are
covered by major communities, which appear to be independent of
nearby settlements. Minor communities tend to be more or less reliant
on nearby assemblages and are comparatively smaller. As a result, a
significant community may be made up of smaller villages.
Additionally, a community can be categorised as either open or closed.
An open community is one where the creatures, especially the plants,
are dispersed and new invasions are therefore feasible. The creatures are
grouped together in a tight community. As a result, the area is no longer

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open to any new habitation by any organism. Communities are crucial

because they enable interaction between species. For a variety of
reasons, including nourishment, species interact with one another within
a community. Animals, for example, are unable to produce their own
food and must thus rely on plants and other living things for sustenance.
On the other hand, plants can create their own through photosynthesis.
However, one of the main sources of carbon dioxide for them comes
from animals. As a waste product of mammalian metabolism, this gas is
produced. It is required by plants as a chemical reactant during
photosynthesis. They give off oxygen in exchange, which the animals
breathe in to meet their metabolic needs. In addition to food, community
members might also offer a safe haven. A tree, for instance, can be a
habitat for various organisms, such as epiphytes, lichens, insects, and
arachnids. What is the most important reason for species interaction in a
community?

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. What is the striking difference between an open and closed community?

2. Why is it that some communities are considered as major in the ecosystem?

1.5 Characteristics of Community

Apart from the distinctive properties, communities share common

features that can be useful for their identification. Some of the major
characteristics of a community are as follows:

i) Species diversity,
ii) Species interactions
iii) Spatial structure,
iv) Periodicity,
v) Ecotone and the edge effect, and
vi) Ecological successions.

i). Species diversity

For a variety of reasons, including nourishment, species interact with

one another within a community. Animals, for example, are unable to
produce their own food and must thus rely on plants and other living
things for sustenance. On the other hand, plants can create their own
through photosynthesis. However, one of the main sources of carbon
dioxide for them comes from animals.

As a waste product of mammalian metabolism, this gas is produced. It is

required by plants as a chemical reactant during photosynthesis. They

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give off oxygen in exchange, which the animals breathe in to meet their
metabolic needs. In addition to food, community members might also
offer a safe haven. The principal producers in a community are
frequently the foundation species. Due to their ability to transform light
energy into chemical energy, they supply the majority of the
community's energy. They can store energy in biological substances like
carbohydrates. They may act as a food source for other creatures, such
as the consumers, as a result of this ability. As decomposers break down
decaying or dead organic materials, consumers (and producers) provide
nutrients for them. There is often a dominating population in a
community that exerts more influence than the others. Ecological
dominants are the name given to this dominant species. In a community,
plants are frequently the dominating ecological species. As a result, they
are frequently utilised as the foundation for community names, such as
oak forest community, grass community, etc. Keystone species are yet
another unique category of species. Because its eradication could cause
the colony to disintegrate, this species is regarded as a key. Maintaining
biodiversity and preserving the community's structure depend on
keystone species. The banded tetra fish, which in nature contributes a
significant amount of phosphorus to the population, is an illustration of a
keystone species. As a result, eliminating this fish species could result in
the extinction of its community.

ii). Species interactions

As a result, they are frequently utilised as the foundation for community

names, such as oak forest community, grass community, etc. Keystone
species are yet another unique category of species. Because its
eradication could cause the colony to disintegrate, this species is
regarded as a key. Maintaining biodiversity and preserving the
community's structure depend on keystone species. The banded tetra
fish, which in nature contributes a significant amount of phosphorus to
the population, is an illustration of a keystone species. As a result,
eliminating this fish species could result in the extinction of its
community.

iii). Spatial structure

As a result, they are frequently utilised as the foundation for community

names, such as oak forest community, grass community, etc. Keystone
species are yet another unique category of species. Because its
eradication could cause the colony to disintegrate, this species is
regarded as a key. Maintaining biodiversity and preserving the
community's structure depend on keystone species. The banded tetra
fish, which in nature contributes a significant amount of phosphorus to
the population, is an illustration of a keystone species. As a result,

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eliminating this fish species could result in the extinction of its

community.

iv). Ecotone

An ecotone can be used to identify adjacent settlements. The dividing

line between two communities is an ecotone. Because it is frequently in
a state of transition, it is more likely to be denser and wealthier than the
two surrounding municipalities. Edge species are those that are
constrained near the ecotone. Streams that cross through meadows and
estuaries where rivers meet the sea are two examples of ecotones.

v). Periodicity

Periodicity can be used to forecast biological activity in a population

because they are frequently rhythmic. As an illustration, some creatures
(diurnal) are active during the day whereas others are active at night
(nocturnal). Circadian rhythms have an impact on a wide variety of
living things in a community.

vi). Community dynamics

Communities may be impacted by a disturbance (such as a volcanic

eruption, fire, earthquake, etc.). For instance, a community that was
formerly stable might not be able to return to balance following a shock.
The original community might be replaced by a new one when this
occurs. The term for this is ecological succession.

vii). Ecological succession

Ecological succession is the long-term, directional change that occurs in

a region's communities. Primary succession and secondary succession
are the two forms. A community colonises a newly developed land in
primary succession. After the disruption, a new community succeeds the
original one in secondary succession. The pioneer plants, such grasses
and perennials, are frequently where the pattern begins. After some
time, taller plant species (such pines and shrubs) begin to grow. The
term "intermediary species" is used to describe them. Eventually, more
developed plant species develop (e.g. oak and hickory). The assembly is
referred to as the peak community after stability is attained (again). We
maintain equilibrium until the next perturbation. What are the two types
of ecological succession?

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. List the major characteristics of a community

2. What is an ecological succession?

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1.6 Summary

Community ecology is the study of how communities, which are

assemblages of interacting populations of the species residing in a
specific area or habitat, are organised and function. Identifying a
biological community can be challenging since assemblages of
organisms may occasionally overlap. However, they possess unique
qualities, i.e. community structure and community function. This was
the basis of unit 1 of this module.

1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Mader, S. (2017). Essentials of Biology. Published by McGraw-Hill

Education. ISBN 10: 1259660265 ISBN 13: 9781259660269

https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/community-biology

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/community-ecology-
13228209/

https://sciencing.com/community-ecology-definition-structure-theory-
examples-13719217.html

https://www.springer.com/journal/42974

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GxE1SSqbSn4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFGufjjfoC8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7xbyNSxxrI&vl=en

1.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. The two of its major properties are community

structure and community function.
2. Community structure pertains to the biotic composition of the
community.

Answers to SAE 2

1. An open community is a community wherein the organisms,

particularly plants, are distantly placed and therefore new
invasion is possible. A closed community is one in which the

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organisms are closely placed. Thus, it is closed for any organism

to further inhabit the area
2. Major communities span larger geographic areas and apparently
independent over neighboring communities.

Answers to SAE 3

1. The major characteristics of a community are as follows: i)

Species diversity, ii). Species interactions iii). Spatial structure,
iv). Periodicity, v). Ecotone and the edge effect, and vi).
Ecological successions.
2. Ecological succession refers to the directional and progressive
change of communities in a given area over time.

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UNIT 2 COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AND

FUNCTIONING

Unit structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
2.3 Community Organization
2.4 The Pyramid Structure of Communities
2.5 Keystone species
2.5.1 Guilds and Interaction Webs
2.5.2 Types of Communities
2.6 Summary
2.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
2.8 Possible Answers to Self Assessment Exercises

2.1 Introduction

Communities are populations of many species of organisms living

together in the same habitat or environment. The habitats vary from
terrestrial to aquatic and so, influence the types of communities living in
them. We shall learn in this unit what make up communities, the types
and how they are structured.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should able to;

• Explain the meaning of community organization

• Understand the influence of co-evolution on communities
• Describe the pyramid structure of communities
• Explain the role played by biotic and abiotic factors
oncommunities.
• Determine what influence the species richness of a community.
• Describe community keystone species and types

2.3 Community Organization

Community ecology is the study of how communities, which are

assemblages of interacting populations of the species residing in a
specific area or habitat, are organised and function. Species populations
come together to form biological communities as a result of their
interactions. These communities provide as excellent examples of what
is meant by the word "biodiversity" due to the large number of
interacting species and the complexity of their relationships.
Communities develop structures as a result of species interaction,

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leading to the development of food chains, food webs, guilds, and other
interacting webs. These connections alter over the course of evolution as
species coevolve together and adapt to one another. Below are
descriptions of the general organisation of biological communities, the
structure of interspecific interactions, and the impacts that the
coevolutionary process has on the biological community.

Community ecologists investigate how structures and organisms

interact. Ecological niche features, species richness, and species
composition are described by structure. Species engage in a variety of
interactions with one another and their surroundings, such as battling
for limited resources or cooperating to catch game. Communities
heavily rely on population dynamics.
The food chain's constituent species can be seen producing and
transferring energy using the energy pyramid. The broad base of the
pyramid is made up of heterotrophic providers of sunlight-derived
useable food energy.

Community ecologists investigate how structures and organisms

interact. Ecological niche features, species richness, and species
composition are described by structure. Species engage in a variety of
interactions with one another and their surroundings, such as battling
for limited resources or cooperating to catch game. Communities
heavily rely on population dynamics.
The food chain's constituent species can be seen producing and
transferring energy using the energy pyramid. The broad base of the
pyramid is made up of heterotrophic providers of sunlight-derived
useable food energy.

A trophic pyramid is a basic interactional structure shared by all

biological populations. Food energy is transferred from one trophic level
to the next along the food chain, which is represented by the trophic
pyramid (see below Food chains and food webs). Autotrophic species,
or the primary producers of the environment, make up the pyramid's
base. They don't get their nourishment and energy from eating other
living things. Instead, they use photosynthesis (photoautotrophs) or, less
frequently, oxidation (chemoautotrophs) to convert inorganic materials
into organic ones. All other organisms in the ecosystem are consumers
known as heterotrophs, and they all rely on the producers of food and
energy, either directly or indirectly. As organisms use energy for
metabolic operations like keeping warm and digesting food, energy at
each trophic level within all biological communities is lost as heat (by as
much as 80 to 90 percent). The amount of energy available to an
organism decreases with its position on the trophic pyramid; plants have
more energy available than herbivores and detritivores (primary
consumers), which have less energy than carnivores that feed on them

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(secondary consumers) and those that eat other carnivores (tertiary

consumers).

The coevolutionary process is defined as the interaction and evolution of

species in reaction to one another. One of the main mechanisms by
which biological communities are organised is through coevolutionary
processes, which refer to these reciprocal evolutionary changes in
interacting species. Local populations of interacting species adapt to one
another through coevolution, occasionally even creating new species in
the process. Researchers must distinguish between features that have
coevolved and those that were previously present in ancestors before the
interspecific interaction started in order to comprehend how coevolution
influences interactions within communities. Hummingbirds, for
instance, use their wings and beak to access the nectar found inside
flowers. A hummingbird with a long bill may have coevolved with a
particular species of flower, but coevolution did not give rise to the
hummingbird's wings. Birds had wings before hummingbirds appeared
on the scene. Therefore, it is important to investigate both the
evolutionary ecology and the history (phylogeny) of the interacting
species. The tree shows when each species within a lineage first
appeared as well as when each novel characteristic first appeared. The
ecological studies can then demonstrate how each of those
characteristics has been used and shaped by various ecological contexts.
What does a community structure describe?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What is the relationship between energy and position of species on

the trophic level?
2. What is the coevolutionary process?

2.4 The Pyramid Structure of Communities

A hummingbird with a long bill may have coevolved with a particular

species of flower, but coevolution did not give rise to the hummingbird's
wings. Birds had wings before hummingbirds appeared on the scene.
Therefore, it is important to investigate both the evolutionary ecology
and the history (phylogeny) of the interacting species. The tree shows
when each species within a lineage first appeared as well as when each
novel characteristic first appeared. The ecological studies can then
demonstrate how each of those characteristics has been used and shaped
by various ecological contexts. The biological communities that
surround hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor are the most bizarre of
all. These vents are the result of both volcanic activity and continental
plate movement, which causes seabed cracks. Hydrogen sulphide

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accumulates in the water that seeps into the fractures, which then rises
back to the ocean floor after being cooked by magma deep in the Earth's
mantle. The heated, sulfur-rich water surrounding these fractures
supports a thriving community of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria
(chemoautotrophs). Reduced sulphur serves as the bacteria's energy
source when fixing carbon dioxide. These deep-sea ecosystems, unlike
any other known biological communities on Earth, rely on geothermal
energy instead of solar energy since the energy they use to function is
derived from chemosynthesis rather than photosynthesis. While some of
the nearby species eat the sulphur bacteria, other species have developed
long-lasting, mutually beneficial interactions (mutualistic symbioses)
with sulphur bacteria. These organisms ingest the chemoautotrophic
bacteria and receive all of their sustenance from them. Since the 1980s,
when biological research of these vents began, about 200 new species
have been described, and there are many more that remain
undescribed—that is, not formally described and given scientific names.
This is because the biological communities surrounding these vents are
so different from those in the rest of the ocean. There are at least 75 new
genera, 15 new families, one new order, one new class, and even one
new phylum among the described species.

Each trophic pyramid is made up of a number of interconnected feeding

interactions known as food chains because all species have specialised
diets. The majority of food chains have three or four trophic levels.
Plant, herbivore, carnivore, and top predator are examples of usual
sequences. Another sequence is plant, herbivore, parasite of the
herbivore, and parasite of the parasite. However, many herbivores,
detritivores, carnivores, and parasites consume more than one species,
and many animal species consume various diets at various times
throughout their lives. Many species also consume both plants and
animals, feeding at many trophic levels. As a result, food chains merge
to form incredibly intricate food webs. Even a simplified food web can
show a complicated network of trophic relationships.

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. Are the organisms that make up the base level of the pyramid in
terrestrial and freshwater the same ?
2. What are the most unusual biological communities in the ecosystem?

2.5 Keystone Species

However, even a fully developed food web can only offer a cursory and
static glimpse of the organisation of biological communities. Not all
interspecies connections are equally crucial to population dynamics,
evolutionary change, and community structure. Strong and weak

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relationships between species occur in food webs, and the strength of

these interactions affects how communities are structured. Some species,
known as keystone species, have an unreasonably significant impact on
the communities in which they are found. By regulating populations of
species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing
essential resources for a variety of species, they aid in maintaining local
diversity within a community. A crucial species in the rocky marine
intertidal communities off the northwest coast of North America is the
starfish Pisaster ochraceus. This starfish predator, which feeds on the
California mussel Mytilus californianus, is in large part responsible for
preserving the local biodiversity of species in some populations. When
the starfish were experimentally removed, the mussel populations
quickly grew and completely covered the rocky intertidal shoreline,
making it impossible for other species to establish themselves. As a
result, the interaction between Pisaster and Mytilus promotes the
communities' structure and species diversity. However, the starfish has
little overall impact on the community's organisation in other Pisaster-
affected areas. As a result, a species may not be a keystone species in all
communities. Figs and a few other plants play a keystone species role in
some tropical American forest communities, although they do it
significantly differently from the starfish Pisaster. Many birds and
mammals rely extensively on this small collection of plant species
during the seasons of the year when other food resources are sparse
since figs yield fruit all year long in some of these forest communities.
Many species would vanish from the community without figs.

2.5.1 Guilds and Interaction Webs

The majority of communities are made up of guilds, which are

collections of species that use the same resources in similar ways. The
word "guild" underlines how similar these organisations are to guilds of
craftsmen who use comparable methods to practise their trade. Different
insect species that gather nectar in similar ways might form guilds, as
can different bird species that use equivalent insect-foraging strategies
or different plant species that have developed similar floral designs that
draw in the same pollinators.

Guilds frequently consist of collections of closely related species that

shared an ancestor. Due to their common ancestry, they use resources in
comparable ways. As a result, a guild within a community may consist
of numerous species belonging to the same genus. Unrelated species
making up a guild is a less frequent but not unheard-of event.

It is not surprising that guild members frequently compete for the

resources they share because they participate in similar activities,
especially when those resources are limited. The rivalry between the

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guilds serves as a reminder that other forms of contact than food webs
are essential to the community's structure. In addition to competing for
resources, species interact with one another in a variety of ways.
Numerous animals work together to get food or fend off predators.
These and other nontrophic relationships between species are as
important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of
biological communities.

2.5.2 Types of Communities

Biological communities are named according to their locations onland

or water. Three major communities can therefore be identified as
follows.

i. Terrestrial communities

The main terrestrial communities of creatures are mostly shaped

by the climate, especially the temperature and rainfall, which are
in turn determined by the planet's geography. Terrestrial
communities are referred to as biomes, and they can be identified
by their distinctive climates and general look. Every biome,
which is distinguished from other types of biomes primarily by
the general characteristics of the flora, has a similar structure and
appearance throughout the world. There are other ways to
categorise biomes, one of which will be used later in this lesson.

ii. Ocean communities

The oceans cover around three-quarters (3/4) of the earth's

surface. The world's oceans are extremely rich in nutrients and
biomass, especially in warm coastal areas and the planktonic
layer of the surface zone. Oceanic photosynthetic productivity is
thought to account for about 40% of the global total. Although
marine environments are home to members of nearly every
phylum, an estimated 90% of all extant species are terrestrial.
Habitats in brackish water typically lie between freshwater and
marine environments.

iii. Freshwater communities

Only a small portion of the water on Earth is preserved as

freshwater in ponds, rivers, and lakes. Although they are smaller
in scope than marine or terrestrial ecosystems, freshwater habitats
are distinct from both. Running water makes up around 0.3% of
the earth's surface, whereas inland lakes cover about 1.8%.
Swamps and marshes serve as transitional habitats and connect

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all freshwater habitats to terrestrial ones. There are three zones

where organisms can be found in lakes and ponds. The shallow
shoreline area is known as the littoral zone. Plankton and other
organisms that live in open water are found in the limnetic zone,
which is the well-lit surface water that is located far from the
shore. The region below the maximum effective light penetration
is known as the profundal zone. Some communities however take
their names from physical features for example, rock pools, lakes
and sand dunes. Specialized communities do also occur e.g. the
mammalian gut communities. Where do we find Brackish water
habitat?

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. What are the three major types of biological communities?

2.What are the nontrophic relationships between species are as important as

food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological
communities?
2.6 Summary

In this unit we have learnt that;

• A community is a grouping of populations of many species that

livein the same place, an environment or habitat.
• Many different organisms interact to determine the structure of
the community.
• Interactions between organisms within a community have
arisenout of their evolutionary history under what is termed co-
evolution.
• The major types of communities are terrestrial, ocean or
marineand freshwater. Specialized communities can also
occuregmammalian gut communities.
• Community structures are determined by biotic and abiotc
factors.

2.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Raven, P.H. and Johnson, G.B. (1996). Biological Communities (585 –

609): In: BIOLOGY WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston

Chapman, J.L. and Reiss M.J. (1995). Communities (167-184) In:

ECOLOGY, principles and applications. Cambridge University
Press UK.
https://sciencing.com/community-ecology-definition-structure-theory-
examples-13719217.html

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https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/ecosystem/components-of-
ecosystem/

https://study.com/academy/lesson/abiotic-factors-of-an-ecosystem-
definition-examples-quiz.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pdd9JU6Dhrk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k31fo32G2rA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4uebk646SKw

2.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. The higher the organism is on the trophic pyramid, the less

energy is available to it
2. It is the reciprocal evolutionary changes that evolve when pairs or
group of species in interact with one another

Answers to SAEs 2

1. They are not the same. They vary from community to

community, in terrestrial communities, multicellular plants
generally form the base of the pyramid, whereas
in freshwater lakes a combination of multicellular plants and
single-celled algae constitute the first trophic level.
2. The most unusual biological communities of all are those
surrounding hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. These vents
result from volcanic activity and the movement of continental
plates that create cracks in the seafloor.

Answers to SAEs 3

1. The three major types of biological communities are:

i. Terrestrial communities
ii. Ocean communities
iii. Freshwater communities
2. Species cooperative interaction to search for food
or avoid predators

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UNIT 3 BIOGEOGRAPHY

Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.3 Introduction to Biogeography
3.3.1 Types of Biogeography
3.3.2 Biogeography and Evolution
3.4 Energy Sources in the Atmosphere
3.4.1 Temperature
3.4.2 Water
3.5 Inorganic Nutrients, Soil and other factors
3.6 Summary
3.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
3.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1 Introduction

You will learn about biogeography, as the study of the geographic

distribution of living things and the abiotic factors that affect their
distribution. The abiotic factors that affect the global distribution of
plant and animal species, those that can impact aquatic and terrestrial
environments will be highlighted.

3.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you will be to:

• Define biogeography?
• Give examples of abiotic factors that affect the global distribution
of plant and animal species?
• Explain how abiotic factors can impact aquatic and terrestrial
environments?
• Describe the effects of abiotic factors on net primary productivity

3.3 Introduction to Biogeography

The study of biogeography examines how living entities are distributed

geographically and how abiotic causes may have an impact on that
distribution. Latitude and elevation play a major role in the variation of
abiotic elements like temperature and rainfall. The make-up of plant and
animal communities changes as these abiotic elements do. For instance,
you would see progressive changes in plant communities if you started
your tour in the equator and walked north. You would observe broad-
leaved evergreen trees in tropical wet forests at the start of your journey,

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which are typical of plant communities found close to the equator. These
broad-leaved evergreens would eventually give place to seasonally dry
woodlands with scattered trees as you travelled north. Additionally, you
would start to notice fluctuations in humidity and temperature. These
forests would transition into deserts, which are characterised by little
precipitation, around roughly 30 degrees north. As you travel further
north, you will see that deserts give way to grasslands or prairies.
Grasslands eventually give way to deciduous temperate woods. The
subarctic, or the region south of the Arctic Circle, is where these
deciduous forests give place to the boreal forests.

At the greatest northern latitudes, you would eventually arrive at the

Arctic tundra. This journey north highlights the types of creatures that
have adapted to environmental conditions linked with habitats found at
various latitudes, as well as slow changes in climate. However, abiotic
elements like jet streams, the Gulf Stream, and ocean currents contribute
to the existence of various ecologies at the same latitude. The changes in
the vegetation you would witness if you climbed a mountain would be
similar to those you would experience as you moved to higher latitudes.
Biogeographic ecologists look at patterns of species distribution. No
species can be found everywhere; the Venus flytrap, for instance, is
confined to a narrow region in North and South Carolina. A species that
is endemic is one that can only be found naturally in a small, defined
area of land. Others are generalists, inhabiting a wide range of habitats;
the raccoon, for instance, is indigenous to most of North and Central
America. Early studies of biogeography were closely related to the
development of evolutionary thinking in the seventeenth century
because species distribution patterns are based on biotic and abiotic
elements and their influences over the extremely long periods of time
required for species evolution. In areas that have been physically
separated from one another by geographic barriers for millions of years,
some of the most distinctive assemblages of plants and animals can be
found. Australia, for instance, is thought to have between 600,000 and
700,000 plant and animal species, according to biologists. The majority
of species of live plants and mammals are indigenous to Australia and
cannot be found anywhere else.

3.3.1 Types of Biogeography

There are three main fields of biogeography: 1) historical, 2) ecological,

and 3) conservation biogeography. Each addresses the distribution of
species from a different perspective. The main focus of historical
biogeography is the evolutionary distribution of animals. Phylogenic
distributions across time are examined in studies of historical
biogeography. The study of the variables influencing the global
distribution of plant and animal species is referred to as ecological

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biogeography. Climate, habitat, and primary productivity are some

examples of ecological parameters that are frequently investigated (the
rate at which the plants in a particular ecosystem produce the net
chemical energy). Additionally, ecological biogeography is distinct from
historical biogeography in that it focuses on the transient distribution of
different organisms rather than their long-term changes during
evolutionary epochs. By presenting policymakers with data on
prospective conservation biology concerns, conservation biogeography
aims to manage the current amount of biodiversity globally.

3.3.2 Biogeography and Evolution

By comparing similar species that have modest changes that resulted

from adaptations to their separate environments, biogeography shows
that evolution has occurred. The continents of the Earth have drifted
away, collided, and separated over time, leading in the emergence of
new climates and habitats. Members of the same species that had been
geographically separated diverge as they acclimated to these conditions,
eventually leading to the development of different species.
Understanding how adaptations happened in the past in response to
shifting surroundings is crucial because it allows us to apply that
knowledge to the present and the future. How does biogeography
support evolution?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What are the 3 main field of biogeography?

2. What is the concern of a biogeography study?

3.4 Energy Sources in the Atmosphere

Green plants, algae, cyanobacteria, and photosynthetic protists all

absorb solar energy. These microbes transform solar energy into the
chemical energy that all living things require to function. Light
availability has the potential to have a significant impact on how
photosynthesizers evolve adaptations. For instance, when the trees in the
canopy above them in the late spring entirely leaf out, the plants in the
understory of a temperate forest are shadowed. It should come as no
surprise that understory plants have evolved to effectively collect
available light. One example of this adaptation is the spring ephemeral
plants' quick growth, like the spring beauty. Early in the season, before
the trees in the canopy begin to develop leaves, these spring blooms
complete a large portion of their growth and complete their life cycle
(reproduce). Because sunlight is absorbed by water, plants, suspended
particles, and resident microbes, it may not be as abundant in aquatic

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ecosystems. There is a region at the bottom of a lake, pond, or ocean

where light cannot penetrate. Since photosynthesis cannot occur there, a
variety of adaptations have developed that allow living creatures to exist
in the absence of light. For instance, think of the broad, floating leaves
of a water lily; water lilies cannot thrive without light. Aquatic plants
also have photosynthetic tissue close to the water's surface. Because
there isn't enough light for photosynthesis in places like hydrothermal
vents, certain bacteria get energy from inorganic compounds. Another
crucial element of energy or photosynthesis in aquatic settings is the
availability of nutrients. When an organism dies in the open ocean,
many of them fall to the bottom; if there is no ocean upwelling, the
energy contained in that living organism is then trapped for some time.
When prevailing winds blow along surface waters close to a shoreline,
ocean upwelling—the rise of deep ocean waters—occurs. Water from
the ocean's bottom rises to replace ocean waters that are pushed offshore
by the wind. As a result, the nutrients that once existed in dead species
are now accessible to other living things.

Changes in air temperature trigger the recycling of nutrients in

freshwater systems. In the spring and fall turnovers, the nutrients at the
bottom of lakes are recycled twice a year. A periodic process called the
spring and fall turnover recycles nutrients and oxygen from a freshwater
ecosystem's bottom to the surface of a body of water. The development
of a thermocline—a layer of water with a temperature significantly
different from the layers around it—is what leads to these turnovers. In
many northern places, lakes have frozen surfaces in the winter. The
water near the lake's bottom, at 4 to 5 °C (39.2 to 41 °F), is even warmer
than the water just beneath the ice. Since water becomes more thick at 4
°C, the deepest water is also the densest. The oxygen content of the
deepest water is low because the oxygen that is used up by the
decomposition of organic material at the lake's bottom cannot be
supplied by oxygen diffusion into the water because of the surface ice
cover.

3.4.1 Temperature

The density and state of water, as well as the physiology of living

creatures, are all impacted by temperature. Due to metabolic limitations,
only a small number of living things can survive at temperatures below
0 °C (32 °F). As a result, temperature has a significant impact on living
things. Additionally, it is uncommon for living things to endure
temperatures higher than 45 °C (113 °F); this is a result of their
evolutionary adaptation to normal temperatures. Enzyme efficiency is
limited to a small, precise temperature range; at higher temperatures,
enzyme breakdown can take place. As a result, organisms either need to
keep their internal temperature constant or live in environments that

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allow them to maintain a body temperature that supports metabolism.

Some species have evolved to allow their bodies to withstand large
temperature swings, as shown in reptilian torpor or hibernation. Similar
to this, some bacteria are able to survive in hot environments like
geysers. These bacteria are an example of an extremophile, an organism
that can survive under harsh conditions. The dispersal of living
organisms can be restricted by temperature. Animals may respond to
temperature changes by adapting, such as migrating, in order to survive.
Those creatures have adapted to moving from one place to another,
including many that live in climates with seasonal cold. Finding food, a
mate, and temperature issues are all resolved by migration. The Arctic
Tern (Sterna paradisaea), for example, travels 40,000 km (24,000 mi)
round trip annually between its feeding grounds in the southern
hemisphere and its nesting grounds in the Arctic Ocean. Danaus
plexippus, or the monarch butterfly, spends the warmer months of the
year in the eastern United States and the winters in Mexico and the
southern United States. There are some animal species that migrate. To
find food, reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) travel roughly 5,000 kilometres
(3,100 mi) annually. Because they are unable to migrate, the distribution
of amphibians and reptiles is more constrained. Not all creatures that
have the ability to migrate do so because it is dangerous and requires a
lot of energy. To survive in harsh climates, certain creatures estivate or
hibernate.

Animals may endure cold climates by hibernating, and they can endure
the harsh circumstances of a hot, dry climate by estivating. When an
animal estivates or hibernates, they reach a state of torpor, in which their
metabolic rate is dramatically slowed. The animal can then postpone till
its environment is more conducive to its survival. A substance akin to
antifreeze is present in the cells of several amphibians, including the
wood frog (Rana sylvatica), which maintains the integrity of the cells
and prevents them from bursting.

3.4.2 Water

All living organisms need water since it is essential for cellular

functions. Terrestrial species have developed several adaptations to
retain water since they lose water to the environment by simple
diffusion.

• Freshwater species are surrounded by water and are always at

risk of having water rush into their cells due to osmosis.
• Plants have a number of fascinating structures on their leaves,
such as leaf hairs and a waxy cuticle, that serve to minimise the
rate of water loss by transpiration. Organisms that live in
freshwater habitats have developed a variety of adaptations to

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keep the concentration of solutes in their bodies within

acceptable ranges. The discharge of diluted urine is one example
of an adaptation.
• Marine organisms are at risk of losing water to the environment
due to osmosis because the water around them has a higher solute
content than the organism. For these creatures to hold onto water
and release solutes into the environment, morphological and
physiological changes are necessary. For instance,
Amblyrhynchus cristatus marine iguanas sneeze up salty water
vapour to keep solute concentrations within safe limits while they
swim in the ocean and consume marine vegetation. What is the
form of energy required by all living things to build their tissue?

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. In environments such as hydrothermal vents, where there is no light for

photosynthesis how does bacteria obtain energy?

2. What is the adaptation of Marine organisms are surrounded by water with

a higher solute concentration than the organism that are in danger of losing
water to the environment because of osmosis

3.5 Inorganic Nutrients, Soil and other Factors

Nitrogen and phosphorus are two examples of inorganic nutrients that

are crucial to the distribution and quantity of living beings. When water
enters a plant through its roots, it pulls these inorganic nutrients from the
soil. Soil structure (the size of the soil's particles), soil pH, and soil
nutrient concentration all have a big impact on where plants grow.
Animals eat food that contains inorganic nutrients. As a result, the
distribution of the food that animals eat is tied to it. Animals may follow
the source of their food as it moves across the environment.
Other Aquatic Factors

A few abiotic elements, like oxygen, play a role in both terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems. Animals living on land get their oxygen from the air
they breathe. However, as there are fewer oxygen molecules in the air at
very high altitudes, oxygen supply can be a problem for creatures living
there. The amount of dissolved oxygen in aquatic systems depends on
the temperature and flow rate of the water. Compared to warmer water,
colder water has more dissolved oxygen. Abiotic elements that can have
a significant impact on aquatic environments include salinity, current,
and tide.

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Other Terrestrial Factors

The rate of evaporation and transpiration are both influenced by wind,

which makes it a significant abiotic component. Because soil, water, or
other abiotic elements can all be moved by wind in addition to the
organisms that make up an ecosystem, wind's physical force is equally
significant. Another terrestrial element that has the potential to
significantly affect terrestrial ecosystems is fire. Some creatures are
adapted to fire, and as a result, a stage of their life cycle necessitates the
intense heat produced by fire. One coniferous tree that needs heat from
fire for its seed cones to open is the jack pine. Fire minimises
competition by reducing undergrowth and fertilising the soil by
releasing nitrogen into it through the burning of pine needles.

Abiotic Factors Influencing Plant Growth

Temperature and moisture have a significant impact on the amount of

organic matter that is available for use as food and plant production
(primary productivity) (net primary productivity). The amount of
organic matter that is accessible as food is estimated by net primary
productivity, which is determined as the total amount of carbon fixed
annually less the amount that is oxidised during cellular respiration. In
terrestrial ecosystems, the aboveground biomass per unit area, which is
the total mass of living plants, excluding roots, is used to assess net
primary productivity. This indicates that a significant portion of plant
biomass that is underground is excluded from this measurement. Net
primary productivity is a crucial factor to take into account when
comparing biomes. High aboveground biomass is seen in biomes that
are very productive.

The abiotic elements of the environment are directly related to annual

biomass output. The conditions for photosynthesis, plant development,
and the resulting net primary productivity are optimal in environments
with the greatest amounts of biomass. These regions have a warm,
humid environment. The highest quantity of carbon dioxide (CO2) may
enter the plant, resulting in high biomass production, when
photosynthesis can occur at a high rate, enzymes can function most
effectively, and stomata can remain open without the risk of excessive
transpiration. The above-ground biomass creates a variety of crucial
resources for other living creatures, such as food and habitat.
Conversely, dry and cold environments have lower photosynthetic rates
and therefore less biomass. The animal communities living there will
also be affected by the decrease in available food. What is the
relationship between annual biomass production and the abiotic
components of the environment?

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Self-Assessment Exercise 3
1. What are the three soil components that play important role in the
distribution of plants?

2. What is the significance of the statement that animals obtaining

inorganic nutrients from the food they consume?

3.6 Summary

Biogeography, the study of the geographic distribution of plants,

animals, and other forms of life. It is concerned not only with
habitation patterns but also with the factors responsible for variations in
distribution. The different types of biogeography, namely historical,
ecological and conservation, and the various abiotic factors affecting
biogeography were explained.

3.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Beerling, D. The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History.

Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Biro, P. A., Beckmann, C. et al. Small within-day increases in

temperature affects boldness and alters personality in coral reef
fish. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences 277, 71-77 (2010).

://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-
sciences/biogeography#:~:text=Biogeography%20is%20the%20s
tudy%20of,et%20al.%2C%202006).

https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-
012-0421-2

https://biologydictionary.net/biogeography/

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biolog
y/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/44%3A_Ecology_an
d_the_Biosphere/44.02%3A_Biogeography/44.2A%3A_Biogeog
raphy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2UQC5ts6hUs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mvZFHEM4cqI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A_QDPqtsyc8

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3.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. There are three main fields of biogeography: 1) historical, 2)

ecological, and 3) conservation biogeography. Each addresses
the distribution of species from a different perspective.
2. Biogeography is concerned with the causes of geographical
distribution of species and biological entities at high
hierarchical levels, and with their dynamics through
evolutionary time

Answers to SAEs 2

1. In environments such as hydrothermal vents, some bacteria

extract energy from inorganic chemicals because there is no light
for photosynthesis.
2. These organisms have morphological and physiological
adaptations to retain water and release solutes into the
environment.

Answers to SAEs 3

1. The three soil components that play important role in the

distribution of
plants are:
i). soil structure (particle size of soil components),
ii). soil pH, and
iii). oil nutrient content.
2. Because animal distributions are related to the distribution of
what they eat.

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UNIT 4 WORLD BIOMES

Unit Structure

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
4.3 The Meaning of a Biome
4.4 Types of Biomes
4.5 Abiotic Factors Influencing Aquatic Biomes
4.6 Summary
4.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
4.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

4.1 Introduction

Numerous ecologists have attempted to categorise the primary terrestrial

plant types that exist around the planet. The term "biome" currently
refers to these various vegetation kinds across the planet. There are other
acknowledged aquatic biomes. Additionally, as we previously learned,
creatures interact with their environs and one another to move matter
and energy. Examples of these interactions abound in biomes. A primary
form of terrestrial (or aquatic) community referred to as a biome is
dispersed in accordance with the climate, which defines the dominating
flora. The vegetation in turn affects the kinds of animals that can live
there. There are many different sorts of biomes, and this unit and
subsequent ones will explore them all.

4.2 Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Define accurately what biomes are?

• Determine the major factors that influence the distribution of
terrestrial biomes
• Determine the major factors that influence the distribution of
aquatic biomes
• Have knowledge of the characteristics of the terrestrial and
aquatic biomes

4.3 The Meaning of a Biome

Climate- and geography-defined regions called "biomes" have

ecologically similar communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms.
Temperature and precipitation, two abiotic elements, served as the basis
for R. H. Whittaker's classification of biomes. Whittaker's classification
schemes call for the understanding of the following key terminologies:

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Physiognomy: The external qualities, apparent traits, and appearance of

a species; The primary population of the plant normally present in a
certain habitat serves as the basis for formation; Biome-Type: Based on
physiognomy, biome-type is the collection of various convergent
biomes and the development of various continents; Formation Type: A
cluster of several convergent formations defines a formation type.
Whittaker used the term "formation" to describe solely plant species,
whereas the term "biome" include both plants and animals. Intertidal
levels, climatic moisture gradient, temperature gradient defined by
latitude, and temperature gradient defined by altitude are the parameters
utilised by Whittaker for his classification.

There are many different kinds of biomes; the precise number of biomes
in the world is yet unknown and is constantly changing. The biomes
cover a wide range of habitats, such as deserts, various forest kinds,
polar regions, national parks, bird sanctuaries, zoos, aquatic life, and
much more. The biomes are divided into major groupings based on the
predominate flora and are distinguished by organism adaptations. This
classification is based on some commonalities and is intended to be
more straightforward. What is Physiognomy?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1.What are biomes?

2. What is Whittaker's classification of biomes based on the major population

of the plant typically found in a given environment referred?

4.4 Types of Biomes

1. Tropical Wet ForestTropic rainforests are another name for

tropical wet woods. The equatorial regions are home to this
biome. Plants with large leaves that shed throughout the year
define the vegetation. The forests in this biome are "evergreen"
all year round, unlike deciduous forests, which experience
seasonal leaf loss due to changes in temperature and sunlight.
Compared to other terrestrial biomes, the temperature and
sunshine profiles of tropical wet forests are highly constant, with
temperatures ranging from 20 °C to 34 °C (68 °F to 93 °F). The
absence of seasonal temperature change in the tropical wet forest
is evident when comparing the annual temperature variance of
tropical wet forests with that of other forest biomes. Instead of
the seasonal (spring, summer, and fall) growth seen in other
biomes, this absence of seasonality results in year-round plant
growth. Tropical ecosystems do not experience long and short
days throughout the year like other ecosystems do. Instead, a

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consistent amount of sunlight (11–12 hours each day) produces

more solar radiation and extends the time during which plants can
grow. With some monthly variance, the annual rainfall in tropical
wet woods ranges from 125 to 660 cm (50-200 in). The amount
of sunlight and the temperature are rather constant, but the
amount of rain each year varies greatly. Tropical wet forests
experience both wet months with up to 30 cm (11–12 in) of
precipitation and dry months with less than 10 cm (3.5 in) of
precipitation. A tropical wet forest's driest month, meanwhile,
still exceeds the yearly rainfall of certain other biomes, such
deserts. Because the yearly temperatures and precipitation
amounts in these regions are favourable for plant growth, tropical
wet forests have high net primary production. As a result, the
tropical wet forest's abundant biomass creates plant communities
with extremely high species diversities. More tree species are
found in tropical wet forests than in any other biome; in South
America, a single hectare (2.5 acres) of these forests is home to
between 100 and 300 different species of trees. Comparing the
distinct horizontal layers found in the tropical wet forest biome
can help visualise this. On the forest \sfloor is a sparse layer of
plants and decaying plant matter. Above that is an understory of
short shrubby foliage. Above this understory, a layer of trees
grows, and on top of them is a closed upper canopy, which is the
topmost layer of branches and leaves in the sky. Through its
dense upper canopy, a few more trees appear. Within the tropical
wet forests, these layers offer a diversity of plants, fungus,
animals, and other species complex and diverse ecosystems. For
instance, plants known as epiphytes grow on other plants without
often doing any harm to them. All biomes of tropical wet forests
contain epiphytes. The variety of flora and intricate structure of
the tropical wet forests provide food and shelter for many
different species of animals. Some organisms have evolved to
lead an arboreal lifestyle, living several metres above the earth.
2. Savannas
Africa, South America, and northern Australia are all home to
savannas, which are grasslands with sporadic trees. Savannas are
hot, tropical regions with average temperatures of 24 to 29 °C (75
to 84 °F) and 10 to 40 cm of yearly rainfall (3.9–15.7 in).
Because of the lengthy dry season in savannas, forest trees there
do not develop as well as they do in tropical wet forests (or other
forest biomes). As a result, there aren't many trees in the grasses
and forbs (herbaceous flowering plants) that make up the
savanna. Plants have evolved highly developed root systems that
enable them to quickly re-sprout because fire is a significant
source of disturbance in this biome.
3. Subtropical

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Deserts Between 15 and 30 degrees north and south latitude,

subtropical deserts can be found, and they are centred on the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. In some years, evaporation in
this biome exceeds precipitation due to its extreme aridity.
Subtropical hot deserts can reach nightly lows of 0 °C (32 °F) and
midday soil surface temperatures above 60 °C (140 °F). Cold
deserts can experience highs of up to 25 °C and lows of -30 °C (-
22 °F). Low annual precipitation of less than 30 cm (12 in),
limited monthly variation, and unpredictable rainfall are
characteristics of subtropical deserts. In some subtropical deserts
in central Australia, the annual rainfall might be as low as 2 cm
(0.8 in). (“the Outback”) and northern Africa. This biome's low
and erratic precipitation is directly tied to its flora and poor
animal diversity. In contrast to perennial plants that survive from
year to year, annual plants commonly grow swiftly and multiply
when water does occur before dying in very arid deserts.
Numerous other plants in these regions exhibit a variety of water-
saving adaptations, including deep roots, less leaves, and stems
that may store water. Desert seed plants can generate seeds that
can remain dormant for a long time in between rainfall. Animals
living in the desert have evolved to burrow and act nocturnally.
4. Chaparral
California, the Mediterranean Sea, and the southern Australian
coast are all home to the chaparral, often known as scrub
woodland. This biome experiences an average annual rainfall of
65 to 75 cm (25.6-29.5 in), with the most of it falling during the
winter. The summers are extremely dry, and many chaparral
vegetation become dormant. Figure 35.16 depicts the chaparral
vegetation, which is dominated by shrubs and adapted to
recurrent fires. Some plants even produce seeds that only sprout
following a high fire. After a fire, the ashes that remain are full of
nitrogen-rich nutrients that feed the soil and encourage plant
regrowth.
5. Temperate Grasslands Temperate grasslands are also known as
steppes in Eurasia and are spread to central North America where
they are also known as prairies. Warm summers and chilly
winters characterise the annual temperature variations in
temperate grasslands. For plants, the annual temperature variance
results in distinct growing seasons. When temperatures are warm
enough to support plant growth and there is plenty of water
available, which happens in the spring, summer, and fall, plant
growth is conceivable. Low temperatures and ice storage
throughout the winter prevent plants from having access to water,
which is necessary for their growth.

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Precipitation every year varies from 25 cm to 75 cm (9.8–29.5

in). In temperate grasslands, there aren't many trees outside those
that grow alongside rivers or streams due to the area's relatively
lower annual precipitation levels. While certain prairies support
colonies of grazing animals, grasses often make up the majority
of the vegetation. Because of the abundance of these grasses'
roots and rhizomes (underground stems), the soils are fertile and
the flora is highly dense. When plants die and decompose, their
roots and rhizomes work as anchors in the earth and replace the
organic matter (humus) in the soil.

In temperate grasslands, fires—which are primarily sparked by

lightning—are a common natural disturbance. In temperate
grasslands, flora gradually changes to scrub and dense forests
when fire is inhibited. Often, the restoration or management of
temperate grasslands requires the use of controlled burns to
suppress the growth of trees and maintain the grasses.
6. Temperate ForestsThe most prevalent biome in eastern North
America, Western Europe, Eastern Asia, Chile, and New Zealand
is temperate woods. Nearly everything in the mid-latitudes is this
biome. Every year, the temperature falls below freezing and
ranges from -30 °C to 30 °C (-22 °F to 86 °F). These
temperatures indicate that the spring, summer, and early fall are
the specific growing seasons for temperate woods. Throughout
the year, precipitation is generally consistent and ranges from 75
cm to 150 cm (29.5–59 in). Deciduous trees predominate as the
primary plant in this biome due to the moderate yearly rainfall
and temperatures. Every fall, deciduous trees shed their leaves,
and they are bare in the winter. Thus, during the dormant winter
season, there is no photosynthesis in deciduous trees. Each
spring, when the temperature rises, fresh leaves begin to emerge.
The net primary production of temperate forests is lower than that
of tropical wet forests as a result of the dormant period.
Additionally, compared to tropical wet forest biomes, temperate
forests have a lower species variety of trees. The trees in
temperate forests leaf out and shade a large portion of the ground,
yet this biome is less densely forested than tropical wet forests
since the trees in temperate forests don't get as tall. The organic
and inorganic nutrients are abundant in the soils of temperate
woods. This is because the forest floors have a heavy covering of
leaf litter. As this leaf litter decays, nutrients are returned to the
soil. The leaf litter also protects soil from erosion, insulates the
ground, and provides habitats for invertebrates (such as the pill
bug or roly-poly, Armadillidium vulgare) and their predators,
such as the red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus).

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7. Boreal Forests The majority of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and

northern Europe are covered in the boreal forest, sometimes
referred to as taiga or coniferous forest, which is located south of
the Arctic Circle. The seasons in this biome are short, cool, and
rainy with cold, dry winters. The yearly precipitation ranges from
15.7 to 100 cm (40 to 40 inches), and it typically falls as snow.
Because of the frigid temperatures, there is less evaporation. In
the boreal forest, cold-tolerant cone-bearing plants predominate
due to the lengthy and harsh winters. These are coniferous trees
that are evergreen and have needle-shaped leaves all year long,
such as pine, spruce, and fir. Because a needle-like leaf requires
less energy from the sun to warm than a broad leaf does,
evergreen trees can photosynthesize earlier in the spring than
deciduous trees. This helps evergreen trees, which in the boreal
forest grow more quickly than deciduous ones. Additionally, the
soils in areas with boreal forests are frequently acidic and have
little nitrogen availability. Deciduous trees must generate a fresh
crop of leaves, which are nitrogen-rich structures, every year. As
a result, retaining nitrogen-rich needles on coniferous trees may
give them a competitive edge over broad-leafed deciduous trees.
Boreal forests' net primary productivity is lower than that of
temperate and tropical wet forests. Because these slow-growing
tree species live long lives and amass standing biomass over
time, boreal forests have substantial aboveground biomass. The
diversity of plant species is lower than it is in temperate and
tropical wet forests. The distinct components of the layered forest
structure found in tropical wet forests are absent from boreal
forests. A boreal forest typically only has two layers: the tree
layer and the ground layer. Fewer nutrients are given to the soil
to support plant growth when pine needles are lost because they
disintegrate more slowly than wide leaves.

8. Arctic Tundra

All over the Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere, the Arctic
tundra is found to the north of the subarctic boreal forest. The
average summer temperature ranges from 3 °C to 12 °C (37 °F-
52 °F), and the average winter temperature is -34 °C (-34 °F).
The growing season for plants in the arctic tundra is just 10 to 12
weeks long. However, there are nearly 24 hours of daylight
during this period, and plant development is quick. The Arctic
tundra has very little yearly fluctuation in precipitation and very
little annual precipitation. Additionally, due to the freezing
temperatures, there is not as much evaporation as in boreal
forests. In the Arctic tundra, plants typically grow close to the
ground. There is limited aboveground biomass, little net primary

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productivity, and negligible species diversity. Permafrost, a state

of perpetually frozen earth, may persist in the Arctic tundra.
Permafrost prevents roots from growing deeply into the soil and
slows organic matter breakdown, which prevents the release of
nutrients from organic matter. The Arctic tundra's ground might
become entirely covered with lichens or plants throughout the
growth season.
Where is the Arctic tundra located? hemisphere.

Self-Assessment Exercise 2
1. Where is Tropical Wet Forest located?

2. What is the structure of a boreal forest?

4.5 Abiotic Factors Influencing Aquatic Biomes

Aquatic biomes are influenced by a number of abiotic elements, much

like terrestrial biomes are. Water, the aquatic medium, differs from air in
terms of its physical and chemical characteristics. Water absorbs light
on its own even if the water in a pond or other body of water is
completely clean (there are no suspended particles). There will
ultimately come a depth into a deep body of water where the sun cannot
shine. While some abiotic and biotic elements (such as fog, dust, or
insect swarms) in a terrestrial ecosystem may block light, they are often
transient elements of the environment. The groups of organisms present
in freshwater and marine habitats both depend heavily on light in
aquatic biomes. The most important abiotic element in freshwater
systems is stratification caused by changes in density, which is
connected to the energy characteristics of light. In addition to having a
substantial impact on local climate and weather patterns, the thermal
properties of water (rates of heating and cooling) are important for the
operation of marine systems. Large-scale physical water movements like
currents, which are less significant in most freshwater lakes, have an
impact on marine systems as well.

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Figure 1. The ocean is divided into different zones based on water depth
and distance from the shoreline.
Source: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/envirobiology/chapter/3-4-
aquatic-biomes/

There are various zones and locations that make up the ocean. The
pelagic domain refers to all of the ocean's open water (or zone). From
the seashore to the deepest portions of the ocean floor, the benthic realm
(or zone) covers the whole surface of the water. The photic zone, or area
of the water where light can enter, is located within the pelagic realm
(approximately 200 m or 650 ft). The aphotic zone is the region below
200 metres in depth where light cannot reach. Since most of the ocean is
aphotic, photosynthesis cannot occur there. The Mariana Trench, in the
western Pacific Ocean, contains the deepest portion of the ocean, known
as the Challenger Deep, which is 11,000 metres (approximately 6.8
miles) deep. The average depth of the ocean is 4267 metres (14,000
feet), which gives some perspective on how deep this trench is.
Freshwater lakes also fall under the purview of these regions and zones.
Is the thermal properties of water (rates of heating and cooling) of any
significance to the function of marine systems?

Self-Assessment Exercise 3
1. What is the most critical abiotic factor in freshwater systems?

2. What is the pelagic realm in the ocean?

4.6 Summary

You have learned about the biome as an area classified according to

the species that live in that location. Temperature range, soil type, and

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the amount of light and water are unique to a particular place and form
the niches for specific species allowing scientists to define the biome.

4.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

https://www.factmonster.com/math-science/earth-environment/major-
biomes-of-the-world

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iF4TAWmnK2c

https://byjus.com/biology/biomes-of-the-world/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hIy0ZlyPPDg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QrBpvELdbSo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hIy0ZlyPPDg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iF4TAWmnK2c

4.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Biomes are climatically and geographically defined areas of

ecologically similar appearance in characteristic of communities
of plants, animals and soil organisms.
2. Formations

Answers to SAEs 2

1. This biome is found in equatorial regions.

2. The structure of a boreal forest is often only a tree layer and a
ground layer

Answers to SAEs 3

1. In freshwater systems, stratification due to differences in density

is perhaps the most critical abiotic factor and is related to the
energy aspects of light.
2. All of the ocean’s open water is referred to the Pelagic realm

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UNIT 5 MARINE AND FRESHWATER BIOMES

Unit Structure

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
5.3 Marine Biomes
5.3.1 Coral Reefs
5.3.2 Estuaries: Where the Ocean Meets Fresh Water
5.4 Freshwater Biomes
5.4.1 Lakes and Ponds
5.4.2 Rivers and Streams
5.4.3 Wetlands
5.5 Continental Shelf
5.6 Summary
5.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
5.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

5.1 Introduction

Marine and Freshwater Biology is the study of the organisms including

microbes, plants and animals in aquatic ecosystems, as well as the
chemical and physical processes in the sediments of these systems and
the relationships between them. Aquatic biomes are distinguished by
the availability of sunlight and the concentration of dissolved oxygen
and nutrients in the water. The photic zone extends to a maximum
depth of 200 meters, while the aphotic zone is deeper than 200 meters.
Aquatic biomes in the ocean are called marine biomes.

5.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Know the meaning of marine, freshwater environments

• Outline the key aspects/characteristics of aquatic environments
• Describe the various types of aquatic biomes: lakes and ponds,
rivers and seas, oceans, estuaries, coral reefs, wetlands,
mangroves, and intertidal zones.
• Demonstrate the various elements of five different aquatic
ecosystems
• Compare and contrast the characteristics of the ocean zones

5.3 Marine Biomes

The largest marine biome is the ocean. It is a continuous body of salt

water with a rather homogeneous chemical make-up; it contains

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decomposed living materials and a weak solution of mineral salts.

Another type of marine biome is coral reefs, which are found in the
ocean. Estuaries, which are coastal regions where fresh and salt water
mingle, make up a third distinct marine biome. Plants, animals, and
other species are significantly influenced by the physical diversity of the
ocean. Depending on how deep the light penetrates the ocean, it is
divided into various zones. The ocean is divided into five distinct zones:
the epipelagic (dawn zone), mesopelagic (twilight zone), bathypelagic
(midnight zone), abyssopelagic (abyssal zone), and hadal zone
(trenches). There is a unique collection of species in each zone that have
adjusted to the biotic and abiotic conditions unique to that zone. The
part of the ocean nearest to land is called the intertidal zone, which is the
area between high and low tide. The majority of people typically picture
this area of the ocean as a sandy beach. Although the intertidal zone
occasionally resembles a sandy beach, it can also be rocky or muddy.
Because of tides, the intertidal zone has a very changeable environment.
At low tide, organisms are exposed to the air and sunshine; yet, they
spend the most of their time underwater, especially at high tide. As a
result, organisms that flourish in the intertidal zone have evolved to
tolerate prolonged periods of dryness. The species found in the intertidal
zone are evolved to endure damage from the pounding force of the
waves since the beach there is frequently battered by waves as well.
Shoreline crustaceans have hard exoskeletons that shield them from
desiccation and wave damage. One example is the shore crab, Carcinus
maenas. Few algae and plants manage to establish themselves in the
continually shifting rocks, sand, or mud, which is another effect of the
pounding waves. At the edge of the continental shelf, the neritic zone
stretches from the intertidal zone to depths of around 200 m (or 650
feet). The neritic zone can support photosynthesis since light can reach
this depth. The water is well-oxygenated, low in pressure, and constant
in temperature. It also contains silt. Some of the marine life present in
the neritic zone is supported by phytoplankton and floating Sargassum, a
type of free-floating marine seaweed. The neritic zone is home to
zooplankton, protists, small fish, and shrimp, which provide the
foundation of the food chain for the majority of global fisheries. The
oceanic zone is the expanse of open water located beyond the neritic
zone. Thermal stratification occurs when warm and cold waters within
the oceanic zone mix as a result of ocean currents. The foundation of the
food chain for larger creatures like whales and dolphins is abundant
plankton. This region of the marine biome is significantly less
productive due to the scarcity of nutrients. In contrast to freshwater
lakes, the open ocean lacks a mechanism for getting the organic
nutrients back up to the top when photosynthetic organisms and the
protists and animals that feed on them perish. Their carcasses fall to the
bottom of the ocean, where they remain. Sea cucumbers (phylum
Echinodermata) and other species that survive on the nutrients found in

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the dead bodies of animals in the photic zone make up the majority of
the organisms in the aphotic zone. The benthic realm, which is the
deepwater area beyond the continental shelf, lies beneath the pelagic
zone. Sand, silt, and dead organisms make up the benthic realm's
substratum. As water depth rises, temperature drops but stays above
freezing. Because of the dead organisms that wash down from the
ocean's upper layers, this area of the water is nutrient-rich. A variety of
mushrooms, sponges, sea anemones, marine worms, sea stars, fish, and
bacteria exist as a result of the high nutritional content. The abyssal
zone, which is located at depths of at least 4000 m, is the deepest area of
the ocean. The abyssal zone is extremely cold, under great pressure, has
a high oxygen content, and has little in the way of nutrients. This zone is
home to a wide range of invertebrates and fish, however due to the lack
of light, there are no plants in the abyssal zone. The abyssal zone is
where you may mostly find hydrothermal vents; chemosynthetic
bacteria utilize the hydrogen sulfide and other minerals emitted from the
vents. These chemosynthetic bacteria use the hydrogen sulfide as an
energy source and serve as the base of the food chain found in the
abyssal zone.

5.3.1 Coral Reefs

Marine invertebrates that live in warm, shallow waters in the ocean's

photic zone build coral reefs, which are ridges of the ocean. They might
be located 30 degrees north or south of the equator. A well-known reef
system called the Great Barrier Reef is a few miles off Australia's
northeastern coast. Other coral reef systems include atolls, which are
elongated reef systems around a once-underwater landmass, and fringe
islands, which are close to the surface of the ocean. Colonies of
saltwater polyps make up the coral creatures (phylum Cnidaria), which
secrete a calcium carbonate skeleton. The underwater reef is created by
the gradual accumulation of these calcium-rich skeletons. A mutualistic
interaction exists between corals and photosynthetic unicellular algae in
shallower waters (at a depth of roughly 200 feet or 60 metres). Corals
get most of the nutrients and energy they need from this interaction.
Without this mutualism, huge corals would not be able to develop in the
nutrient-poor environments where these corals reside. Some corals that
live in deeper, colder waters don't have a mutualistic interaction with
algae; instead, they catch animals with stinging cells on their tentacles to
obtain energy and nutrients. Coral reefs are thought to be home to more
than 4,000 different species of fish. These fish are able to eat coral and
cryptofauna (invertebrates found within the calcium carbonate substrate
of the coral reefs), or the seaweed and algae that are associated with the
coral. Additionally, several fish species—including predators,
herbivores, and planktivores—live within a coral reef's confines.

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Predators are carnivorous, or "flesh eaters," animal species that hunt.

Planktivores eat plankton, whereas herbivores consume plant matter.

5.3.2 Estuaries: Where the Ocean Meets Fresh Water

Estuaries are types of biomes that exist where freshwater sources like
rivers and the ocean converge. As a result, both fresh and salt water can
be found nearby; combining them together produces diluted (brackish)
saltwater. Many of the young offspring of crustaceans, mollusks, and
fish begin their lives in estuaries, which are protected regions. Salinity
has a significant impact on the creatures found in estuaries as well as
their adaptations. Estuaries' salinity fluctuates and depends on how
quickly their freshwater sources are flowing. High tides pour salt water
into the estuary once or twice daily. The salt water movement is
reversed when low tides occur on a regular basis. For the plants and
animals that live in estuaries, the short-term and fast changes in salinity
caused by the mixing of fresh water and salt water present a significant
physiological challenge. Many kinds of estuary plants are halophytes, or
salt-tolerant plants. Halophytic plants have developed to deal with
salinity brought on by sea spray or saltwater on their roots. Some
halophytes include filters in their roots that take the salt out of the water
they receive. Other plants have the ability to supply their roots with
oxygen. Animals with behavioural adaptations that require a lot of
energy to function in this rapidly changing environment include mussels
and clams (phylum Mollusca). Low salinity causes these species to stop
feeding, seal their shells, and transition from gill-based aerobic
respiration to gill-based anaerobic respiration (a process that does not
require oxygen). These creatures emerge from their shells, start feeding,
and resume aerobic respiration when high tide returns to the estuary
because the water's salinity and oxygen level have increased. What are
estuaries?

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What are Halophytic plants?

2. What are the five zones of the ocean water

5.4 Freshwater Biomes

Lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams are examples of freshwater biomes, as

are other bodies of standing water (flowing water). In addition, they
contain wetlands, which will be covered later. Freshwater biomes supply
the aquatic resources needed by humans for industry, sanitation,
agriculture irrigation, and drinking water. The term "ecosystem
services" refers to these numerous functions and advantages for humans.

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Due to their presence in terrestrial landscapes, lakes and ponds are

associated with both biotic and abiotic variables affecting these
terrestrial biomes.

5.4.1 Lakes and Ponds

From a few square metres to thousands of square kilometres, lakes and

ponds can vary in size. An key abiotic factor influencing the living
creatures in lakes and ponds is temperature. Thermal stratification of
lakes and ponds happens in the summer when the sun warms the top
layer of water without mixing it with deeper, colder water. Within the
lake or pond's photic zone, light can enter. The foundation of the food
web of lakes and ponds is made up of phytoplankton, which includes
algae and cyanobacteria. These phytoplankton are eaten by zooplankton,
such as rotifers and tiny crustaceans. Dead species that settle to the
bottom of lakes and ponds are decomposed by bacteria in the aphotic
zone. Important limiting nutrients in lakes and ponds are nitrogen and
phosphorus. As a result, they play a role in determining the rate of
phytoplankton development in ponds and lakes. A massive buildup of
algae known as an algal bloom occurs when there is a significant inflow
of nitrogen and phosphorus (from sewage and runoff from fertilised
lawns and farms, for example). Algal blooms can grow to be so large
that they block more light from entering the water. As a result, the lake
or pond turns aphotic and cannot support photosynthesis by plants. The
water loses a significant amount of oxygen when the algae decay and
die. Dead zones that emerge from this are present all over the world and
increase the likelihood that fish and other species that need oxygen will
perish. Significant environmental issues are posed by phosphorus
control and storm water runoff in freshwater and marine environments
including Lake Erie and the Gulf of Mexico.

5.4.2 Rivers and Streams

Large volumes of water are continuously transported by rivers and

streams from the headwaters, or source, to lakes and the ocean. The Nile
River in Africa, the Amazon River in South America, and the
Mississippi River in North America are among the greatest rivers.

The abiotic characteristics of rivers and streams change during their

whole length. A location known as the source water is where streams
start. The supply water is typically clean, nutrient-free, and cold. The
channel, or river or stream's breadth, is narrower here than it is
everywhere else throughout its length. As a result, the current here
frequently moves more quickly than at any other location along the river
or stream. The water is clean because the swiftly flowing water causes
little silt to accumulate at the river's or stream's bottom. Because of the

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rapid current, phytoplankton cannot develop here, thus algae that are
growing on rocks are mostly responsible for photosynthesis. Leaves and
other organic matter that fall into rivers and streams from trees and other
plants near the water can provide an extra source of energy. The organic
matter and nutrients in the leaves are returned to the water when they
disintegrate. Animals and plants have adjusted to this swift water. For
instance, leeches (phylum Annelida) have elongated bodies and suckers
on both ends. These suckers attach to the substrate, keeping the leech
anchored in place. Freshwater trout species (phylum Chordata) are an
important predator in these fast-moving rivers and streams.

The width of the channel gradually increases and the current slows as
the river or stream moves away from its source. More sedimentation is
present in this slowly moving water as a result of the gradient's decline
and the volume's increase as streams join together. Additionally,
phytoplankton can float in still water. As a result, the water won't be as
crystal clear as it is close to the source.

Moreover, the water is warmer. Burrowing into the muck are worms
(phylum Annelida) and insects (phylum Arthropoda). Waterfowl, frogs,
and fish are higher order predator vertebrates (phylum Chordata). Unlike
the trout in the waters at the source, these predators may not be able to
use vision as their primary sense to find food in these slow-moving,
occasionally muddy waters. In contrast, they are more likely to employ
chemical or gustatory clues to locate prey.

5.4.3 Wetlands

Wetlands are places where the soil is occasionally or continuously

soaked with water. Because wetlands are shallow bodies of water and
lakes have a range of depths, wetlands differ from lakes in this regard.
Wetland plants with parts of their leaves, stalks, and flowers protruding
above the water's surface are considered emergent vegetation. There are
many different kinds of wetlands, including salt marshes, mudflats,
bogs, and marshes. These three traits—hydrology (the substrate is
saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some point during
the growing season of each year), hydrophytic vegetation (the land at
least occasionally supports primarily hydrophytes), and hydric soils—
are what define these types as wetlands (the substrate is predominantly
undrained). Water flows slowly and steadily in freshwater marshes and
wetlands. Bogs grow in arid areas where there is little to no water flow.
Bogs typically develop in places with a clay bottom and weak
percolation. Water moves through soil or rock pores through a process
known as percolation. Due to the lack of oxygen replacement during the
decomposition of organic materials, the water in bogs is stagnant and
oxygen-depleted. Decomposition slows down as the water's oxygen

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content decreases. As a result, organic acids and other acids accumulate

and cause the pH of the water to decrease. Nitrogen becomes
inaccessible to plants with a lower pH. As a key limiting resource,
nitrogen presents a problem for plants as a result. Sundews, pitcher
plants, and Venus flytraps are examples of swamp plants that catch
insects and use the nitrogen from their bodies as food. Because the water
in bogs contains little nitrogen and oxygen, bogs have low net primary
production.

What are rivers?

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. What is the difference between a wetland and a lake?

2. What are the 3 key defining characteristics of a wetland?

5.5 Continental Shelf

A continental shelf is the edge of a continental landmass and is a large,

generally shallow undersea terrace of continental crust. Most continental
shelves feature a topography known as ridge and swale, which is a
gently rolling terrain. The geology of continental shelves is frequently
comparable to that of the neighbouring exposed area of the continent.
The normal depth of a continental shelf is between 100 and 200 metres
(330–660 feet). It has a slight seaward slope, with an average slope of
roughly 0.1°. It always comes to an abrupt end at its seaward edge,
known as the shelf break. At a depth of around 4,000 to 5,000 metres,
the continental slope, a much steeper zone, combines with a region of
the ocean floor known as the continental rise (13,000 to 16,500 feet).
Some continental margins, including those at Porcupine Bank, off the
western coast of Ireland, and those off the Mediterranean coast of
France, preserve a generally convex form to the seafloor rather than a
strongly marked break in slope.

Continental shelves typically measure 65 kilometres wide (40 miles).

The shelves are essentially a continuation of the continental landmass
beneath the ocean's edges almost everywhere. As a result, they are broad
and relatively flat offshore from plains yet narrow, rocky, and steep off
mountainous shores. The shelf encircling the eastern coast of the United
States is more than 120 km (75 miles) wide, but the shelf along the
country's rocky west coast is only approximately 32 km (20 miles) wide.
Off the coasts of northern Australia and Argentina, there are unusually
extensive shelves. The largest continental shelf in the world stretches
into the Arctic Ocean for a distance of 1,500 km (about 930 miles).
Sand, silt, and silty mud are typically present as a layer on continental

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shelves. Their surfaces have some relief, with a mix of shallow

depressions, valley-like troughs, and minor hills, ridges, and hills. In a
few instances, undersea canyons with steep walls cut deeply through the
shelf and the slope below.

About 8% of the earth's surface is made up of continental shelves. Since

several of the continents' extensive continental shelves are located 130
metres or more below sea level on average, benthic algae and plants can
photosynthesise in their shallower parts. Laminaria and other huge
brown algae are seen in these spectacular kelp forests. Kelps are
frequently found in locations with abundant nutrient supplies because of
ocean currents and wave movement. Despite their great output, few
animals feed on them, thus they enter the food chain as debris.
Numerous animals from several phyla are supported in vast numbers by
the continental shelf benthos. These animals include polychaete worms,
nemertine worms, mollusks, sea squirts, sponges, sea spiders
crustaceans and echinoderms along with a number of fish. What is the
relative percentage of the continental shelf compared to that of the
ocean?

Self-Assessment Exercise 3
1. What is the continental shelf?

2. What are the 3 main sections of the continental shelf?

5.6 Summary

You have learned about the aquatic biome as the largest of all the
biomes, covering about 75 percent of Earth's surface. This biome is
usually divided into two categories: freshwater and marine. Typically,
freshwater habitats are less than 1 percent salt.

5.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Matthew, R. Fisher (2018). Environmental Biology, Publisher: Open

Oregon Educational Resources

Miller, G. Tyler Jr. and Scott E. Spoolman (2009). Essentials of

Ecology, 5e, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 10 Davis Drive Belmont,
CA 94002-3098 USA, ISBN-13: 978-0- 495-55795-1, 383pp

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/envirobiology/chapter/3-4-aquatic-
biomes/

https://www.thoughtco.com/overview-of-the-aquatic-biome-130165

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https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/aquatic-biomes-of-the-
world
1522842491-1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QrBpvELdbSo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_vAOarzqZhg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gT5pGA2H-x8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUankVhg6TU

5.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

1. Halophytic plants are adapted to deal with the salinity resulting

from saltwater on their roots or from sea spray
2. The ocean water column is made up of five zones: the sunlight
zone (epipelagic), the twilight zone (mesopelagic), the midnight
zone (bathypelagic), the abyssal zone (abyssopelagic) and the
hadal zone (trenches).
Answers to SAEs 2

1. Wetlands are different from lakes because wetlands are shallow

bodies of water whereas lakes vary in depth.
2. Wetlands must have one or more of the following three attributes:
1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly
hydrophytes; 2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric
soil; and 3) the substrate is saturated with water or covered by
shallow water at some time during the growing season of each
year.

Answers to SAEs 3

1. The continental shelf is a broad, relatively shallow submarine

terrace of continental crust forming the edge of a continental
landmass.
2. The continental rise, continental slope, and continental
shelf are the three basic components that actually make the entire
structure of continental margins. The continental slopes and the
continental shelves are structural constituents of continents even
though they are below the surface of sea.

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Glossary

Background Extinction: Normal extinction of species that occurs as a

result of changes in local environmental conditions. Also see mass
extinction.

Backshore: Area behind the shore. This coastal feature is located

between the beach berm and the backshore slope.

Backshore slope: Sloping bank landward of the shore. This coastal

feature is composed of relatively non-mobile sediments.

Bacteria: Simple single celled prokaryotic organisms.

Base Level: The subterranean elevation below which a stream cannot

vertically erode sediment. For many streams this hypothetical elevation
is sea-level.

Basement Rock: Very old granite and metamorphic rocks found

in continental crust. These rocks make up the continental shield.

Basic: Substance having a pH greater than 7.

Basic Solution: Any water solution that is basic (pH greater than 7) or
has less hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxide ions (OH-). Also see acidic
solution and neutral solution.

Basin: A topographic rock structure whose shape is concave

downwards.

Batholith: A large mass of subsurface intrusive igneous rock that has

its origins from mantle magma.
Bay: A body of sheltered water found in a crescent shaped coastal
configuration of land.

Bedrock: Rock at or near (beneath soil and regolith) the Earth's surface
that is solid and relatively unweathered.
Benthos: The plant and animal organisms that live on the sea floor.
Often divided into two

categories: deep-sea benthos, below 200 meters and the littoral benthos,
from 200 meters to the high-water spring tide level.

High pressure: system that develops over the western subtropical

North Atlantic. Also called Azores High.

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Beta Particle: Electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive

isotope. Also see alpha particle and gamma rays.

B Horizon: Soil horizon normally found below the A horizon and

above the C horizon.

Biennial Plant: Plant species that completes its life in two growing
seasons.

Big Bang: Theory that suggests that about 15 billion years ago all of the
matter and energy in the Universe was concentrated into an area smaller
than a atom.

Biodiversity: The diversity of different species (species diversity),

genetic variability among individuals within each species (genetic
diversity), and variety of ecosystems (ecosystem diversity).
Abbreviation of biological diversity.

Biogeochemical Cycling: Cycling of a single element, compound or

chemicals by various abiotic and biotic processes through the various
stores found in the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere,
and atmosphere.

Biogeography: Field of physical geography that studies the spatial

pattern of living organisms.

Biological Amplification: Increase in concentration of toxic fat-soluble

chemicals in organisms at successively higher trophic levels of
a grazing food chain or food web because of the consumption of
organisms at lower trophic levels.

Biological Weathering: The disintegration of rock and mineral due to

the chemical and/or physical agents of an organism.

Biomass: The weight of living tissues usually measured per unit area
over a particular time interval. Can include the dead parts of organisms
like bark, hair, and nails.

Biome: Largest recognizable assemblage of animals and plants on the

Earth. The distribution of the biomes is controlled mainly by climate.

Bioregion: A unique region on the Earth that has distinct soils,

landforms, watersheds, climates, native plants, and animals, and/or
other particular natural characteristics.

Biosphere: Part of the Earth where life is found. The biosphere consists

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of all living things, plant and animal. This sphere is characterized by life
in profusion, diversity, and clever complexity.

Cycling of matter in this biosphere involves not only metabolic reactions

in organisms, but also many abiotic chemical reactions. Also
called ecosphere.

Biotic: (1) Referring to life. & (2) Influences caused by

living organisms.

Biotic Potential: Maximum rate that a population of a

given species can increase in size (number of individuals) when there
are no limits on growth rate.

Biotite: Rock forming mineral of the mica group.

Bird: Group of warm blooded vertebrate animals whose body is

covered with feathers.

Boreal Forest: High to mid-latitude biome dominated

by coniferous forest. Predominant vegetation of this biome is various
species of spruce, fir, pine, and cedars. Also called Taiga.

Bottomset Bed: Horizontal deltaic deposit

of alluvial sediment composed of fine silt and clay.

Brackish: Environment that is influenced by seawater with

a salinity less than 35 parts per thousand (usually caused by the
presence of an inflow of fresh water).
End of Module Questions

1 What are the 3 main field of biogeography?

2 What is biogeography PDF?
3 What is biogeography easy words?
4 What are the components of biogeography?
5 What is the difference between terrestrial and aquatic?
6 What are the 7 aquatic biomes?
7 How are aquatic and terrestrial biomes similar?
8 What are the importance of terrestrial and aquatic biomes?

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MODULE 4
In this module we will discuss about the link between man and the
environment with the following units:

Unit 1 Relationship between Man and the Environment

Unit 2 Pollution, Types, Sources and Characteristics
Unit 3 Effects of Pollution on the Environment
Unit 4 Pollution: Effects, Prevention and Control
Unit 5 Humans, Environmental and Health

UNIT 1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAN AND THE

ENVIRONMENT

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
1.3 Relationships Between Human Activity and the Environment
1.4 Use of Natural Resources
1.4.1 Deforestation
1.4.2 Energy resources
1.4.3 Water resources
1.5 Production of waste and pollutants
1.5.1 Technology and the Environment
1.5.2 Agriculture and environment
1.5.3 How we can protect and restore our environment
1.6 Summary
1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.1 Introduction

The relationships between human activity, values and use of natural

resources will be highlighted. You will learn the processes of
deforestation, energy resources and production of waste and pollutants
in the environment. You will also study the impact of technology on the
environment, and impact of agriculture on the environment. You will
learn how we can protect and restore our environment

1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of the unit, you shall be able to:

• Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold.

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• Describe the relationships between human activities and the

environment and explain the importance of creating a better
environment.
• Describe the ways in which humans use natural resources and
give examples of problems caused by over-exploitation.
• Give examples of positive and negative ways in which
technology affects the environment.

1.3 Relationships Between Human Activity and the Environment

Our physical surroundings and the features of the neighbourhood where

we reside make up our environment. It also refers to the larger natural
world, including the land, the ocean, and the atmosphere. Since the
beginning of time, humans have interacted with their environment. For
instance, humans have impacted the ecosystem for centuries by clearing
forests to make way for agricultural land. On the other hand, the
environment also has a variety of effects on us. The way we alter our
attire in reaction to cold or hot weather is a straightforward example. In
this section, we'll discuss some of the ways that people affect their
environment and the ways that our surroundings affect us—both
favourably and unfavourably. People can survive and prosper when
there are favourable physical conditions, such as a favourable climate,
clean water that is readily available, fertile soil, etc. However, adverse
situations that make it more difficult for people to exist include a very
hot climate, a lack of water, and infertile soil. Major natural calamities
like earthquakes, floods, and droughts that cause damage to homes,
property, and agriculture also have an impact on us. These have the
potential to displace residents, cause harm, fatalities, and the ruin of
livelihoods. They can also harm water sources and pipes, contaminating
the water supply and escalating the spread of diseases transmitted by
water. You will learn more about the effects of floods and droughts in
subsequent units.

Industrialization, which started in the UK in the 18th century and

quickly extended to the rest of Europe and North America before
reaching every corner of the globe, altered our connection with the
environment. Because the technologies at the time could not
significantly alter the environment, human activity had little impact
before industrialization. People back then lived in agrarian cultures with
hand tools and basic technologies that had little effect on the
environment. Resource exploitation has increased as a result of
industrialization. For instance, we now employ strong chainsaws to cut
down trees and chemical fertilisers and insecticides made in factories to
grow crops. The impact of humans on the environment has significantly
increased as a result of these developments. Utilization of natural

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resources such as land, water, food, soils, minerals, plants, and animals
is one of the key activities that has a direct impact on the environment.

creation of wastes from a variety of activities, including as mining,

industry, and agriculture, as well as wastes from our own bodies. When
does industrialisation began in the UK?

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. What bring about the change in the relationship between man with the
environment?
2. Why is it that prior to industrialisation the impacts of human activity on the
environment were not very significant?

1.4 Use of Natural Resources

Natural resources come in numerous forms, and we use them all on a

regular basis. For our survival, we need food, water, and energy for a
variety of activities, such as domestic cooking and large-scale industrial
processes. The creation of all the things we use, including our clothing,
vehicles, structures, tools, and other stuff, requires a variety of materials.
Take a straightforward illustration. As you study this section, consider
the resources that were utilised to create a notebook similar to the one
you might be using right now. Wood, water, and energy were required
as raw resources for the creation of the paper. To grow, the trees that
provided the wood needed soil, water, and a place to be planted. Your
notebook might contain ink, metal staples, or other parts created from
different kinds of resources. We have a significant and expanding need
for resources as a result of rising population and per-person
consumption due to socioeconomic development. Particularly for non-
renewable resources, the depletion of natural resources by extraction and
exploitation is of concern. We use resources that are either renewable or
non-renewable. The primary distinction between the two is the rate at
which they may be restored to a useful state in comparison to the rate at
which humans use them. Resources that are not renewable cannot be
replenished naturally at the same pace as their consumption. They
consist of minerals and fossil fuels made from decomposing plants and
animals that have been around for millions of years, such as oil, coal,
and gas.

Natural processes can regenerate renewable resources over brief periods

of time or make them continuously available. Solar energy is one
example of a renewable resource that is not altered or depleted by
people. Some resources, like water, are affected when humans use them
and can be overused or degraded to the point where they are no longer

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useful. Can you suggest some other renewable resources that are
replenished naturally but need to be managed properly and not over-
exploited? Wood, animals and plants. For example, trees are cut down to
provide wood and they will regrow but they need time to regenerate.

Figure 1. global material resource use in tonnes

Source: https://twitter.com/jasonhickel/status/1112285422091227137

Population growth and resource depletion both accelerated globally.

Figure 1 displays the global tonnage of material resources used.
Ecologists consider the red line to represent a generally sustainable level
of consumption. About 20 years ago, we crossed that threshold, and
since then, resource use has only increased. The diagram depicts the
extraction of four different kinds of natural resources: metals, minerals,
biomass, and fossil fuels. The term "biomass" refers to biological
material made from living things like plants, animals, fish, timber, etc.
From vehicles to computers, metals are employed in the production of a

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diverse range of products. Our homes, highways, and other structures

are built using minerals via industrial processes. Both metals and
minerals are extracted from mined rocks and put through numerous
processing steps to get the precious resource. By enabling people to
access new resources and to exploit more resources per person,
technological advancements have enhanced the exploitation of natural
resources (per person). For instance, the quantity of fish that can be
caught by fisherman using traditional technology, such as tiny boats, is
constrained. Large ships are used by modern industrial fishing fleets to
traverse vast ocean areas at greater depths and catch a higher number of
fish. Overfishing is the act of catching fish more quickly than they can
reproduce, which can result from this.

1.4.1 Deforestation

Deforestation, which happens when forest areas are removed and the
trees are not restored or given the chance to regenerate, is one issue
specifically brought on by the overexploitation of natural resources. In
Nigeria, the demand for fuel and building supplies has led to a gradual
loss of forest area as land has been cleared for cultivation to support the
country's rising population's food needs. The destruction of forests has a
number of unfavourable effects. In addition to many various kinds of
trees and other plants, forests are also home to a vast variety of species,
from insects to birds and mammals. The biodiversity, or variety of living
things, that results from the conversion of forests to agriculture is
significantly reduced (all life forms). Humans depend on other living
things to provide us with a number of need, making biodiversity
important:

Food: We eat both plants and animals, including fish, goats, wheat, rice,
and maize.

Medicines: New medicines are developed from various traditional

medicines, which are made from plants and animals.

Ecological services: Living things, particularly plants and

microorganisms, are crucial to the processes that preserve our way of
life and the environment. These processes include the production of
oxygen, the purification of water, the removal of trash, and the
regulation of erosion.

Soil erosion is significantly exacerbated by deforestation. The

underlying earth becomes visible once the trees and vegetation have
been cleared away. The soil is more prone to be washed away by rain
when there is no vegetation or tree roots to intercept the water and hold
the soil together. Water availability is significantly impacted by the loss

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of forests. Deep-rooted trees break up the soil's particles and enhance

soil permeability, which makes it easier for rains to seep in and
replenish groundwater. (Permeability is the term used to describe how
easily water may pass through rock or soil.)

Figure 2. Deforestation in Nigeria 1981-2020

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation_in_Nigeria

Desertification, ecosystem loss, loss of biodiversity, land degradation,

and soil erosion are only a few of the negative effects of deforestation
on the environment. The environment's ability to sustain itself, the
economy, and the safety of the populace are all threatened by
deforestation. Education of society about sustainable resource usage,
forest management, advanced technology, and alternate energy sources
is one potential answer to deforestation. Leading sources of forest
removal in the West African nation are listed as logging, agriculture,
and the gathering of wood for fuel.

1.4.2 Energy Resources

When thinking about energy resources, the usage of renewable or non-

renewable resources is crucial. The primary energy source for global
industrialization has been fossil fuels, but since they are not renewable,
their supply is ultimately limited and their use is not long-term
sustainable. Furthermore, the primary contributor to climate change is
the use of fossil fuels. (Full discussion of climate change is covered in
following study sessions.) To replace fossil fuels, there are a number of
renewable options. Although wood can be used as fuel again since trees
grow, there are also drawbacks, such deforestation, as you have seen.
Wind farms are utilising wind energy to produce electricity in many
developing nations, but water is the most significant source of
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renewable energy. Numerous hydroelectric plants already exist in

African nations, and more are planned. Hydroelectric power is
renewable because it harnesses the power of moving water without
consuming any water. Solar energy, which uses photovoltaic cells to
transform the sun's energy into electricity, is another renewable energy
source.

1.4.3 Water resources

Numerous hydroelectric plants already exist in African nations, and

more are planned. Hydroelectric power is renewable because it
harnesses the power of moving water without consuming any water.
Solar energy, which uses photovoltaic cells to transform the sun's energy
into electricity, is another renewable energy source. (FAO, 2012).

Figure 3. Global water withdrawal by sector. (Adapted from FAO,

2012)

In addition to being directly used by humans, water is crucial for the

environment and to preserve biodiversity. Wildlife needs rivers, lakes,
and wetlands as crucial habitats, and they always need a minimum level
of water. When there is a shortage of water compared to the demand,
this becomes an issue. Water is not a renewable resource indefinitely.
Water demand is often much higher than the water supply can maintain
in many regions of the world. Sustainable water supply refers to having
sufficient quantities and quality of water to meet present and future
demands on both the environment and human population. Water stress
or scarcity are already widespread issues in many nations. These terms
refer to the volume of water available relative to the use and demand for
it, which is linked to the population served.

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Figure 4. shows the availability of freshwater across the world.

Water-stressed nations are those with fewer than 1700 m3 of water per
person per year for all uses (United Nations, 2014). Countries that have
less than 1000 m3 of water per person annually are considered to be
water scarce. However, these exact estimates should be used with
caution because they obscure the root reasons of water scarcity and fail
to account for differences between nations. Unsustainable usage of
water resources results from rising water demand. Water supply is
replenished by the water cycle. However, extracting too much water
from rivers and groundwater for home, industrial, and agricultural use
reduces the quantity of water that is available for both current and future
use. Water withdrawals have tripled globally during the past 50 years as
a result of population growth and rising per-person demand. While
many regions with ample resources can support this use, in some nations
future water shortages may occur unless demand is controlled. If the
trend for increased consumption continues, what could be the result for
African countries?

Self-Assessment Exercises 2
• 1. Is fish a renewable or non-renewable
resource?

• 2. How are natural resources used globally?

1.5 Production of waste and pollutants

Production of waste indicates the consumption of materials and energy

as well as the depletion of both renewable and non-renewable resources
on Earth. Wastes will inevitably be produced as a result of our usage of
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natural resources. Our own bodily wastes rank as the most significant of
these. Open defecation and poor sanitation have serious negative effects
on both the general environment and human health. Pathogens (disease-
causing agents) in water and food that have been polluted by diseased
people's wastes are what cause waterborne diseases. It is extremely
important to avoid this link between consumption of contaminated water
and human waste. Wastes from industry, agriculture, and energy
production can contaminate the air, water, and soil. Pollution is the act
of introducing pollutants into the environment that could harm people
and other living things. For instance, the tanning process in the leather
sector results in significant amounts of liquid wastes. These wastes
include dangerous (toxic) compounds, such as some human carcinogens,
and organic elements like fat from the hides (cancer-causing agents).
Another illustration is the emission of so-called greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide that contribute to climate
change caused by human activity.

Figure 5.Summarises the interactions between ‘human activities’ and

‘the environment’. The green arrow indicates the waste generated as a
product of this interaction. The red arrows indicate the negative effect
on both the environment and humans if the waste is not properly
managed.

1.5.1 Technology and the Environment

Technologies have reshaped transportation, business, communications,

and our personal and professional life. For those who can afford them,
gadgets like mobile phones, laptops, televisions, microwave ovens, and
refrigerators have raised living standards. Technology can also make our
environment better. As an illustration, energy can be produced from
renewable resources like wind and solar energy, which lessens our
dependency on non-renewable energy sources like fossil fuels and also
contributes to reducing the discharge of toxic gases into the atmosphere.

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The utilisation of cutting-edge environmentally friendly wastewater

treatment facilities that can recover nutrients and waste water from
waste, notably brewery waste that would otherwise be dumped into the
environment, is another illustration of the advantages of technology.
Technology of this kind can lessen the issue of water scarcity, stop
surface water contamination, and save the environment. Although
technology provides many benefits for both humans and the
environment, it also has drawbacks, such as the creation of toxic waste
from technical processes and the disposal of electronic devices once
their useful life are over.

1.5.2 Agriculture and Environment

A significant portion of Nigeria's GDP, or roughly 24 percent in 2021,

will come from agriculture as a source of revenue and a supply of vital
food crops. Crop production had the biggest contribution, accounting for
roughly 21% of the GDP. The second most important industry in
Nigeria's economy after oil is agriculture, which accounts for a sizeable
share of GDP. The agricultural industry in Nigeria employs over 70% of
the labour force, making it essential to the bulk of people's livelihoods.
But agriculture also significantly harms our ecosystem in other ways,
such as through soil erosion, pollution, climate change, and the need of a
lot of water for irrigation. Poor agricultural techniques, particularly on
land with a steep slope, are a major contributor to soil erosion in Nigeria
because rainfall washes soil particles away downhill. In the next 20
years, the effects of soil degradation may cause a 40% decrease in world
food supply unless immediate precautionary actions are taken. To lessen
the impact, a paradigm change away from conventional farming
production and toward technology-driven practise is still a viable option.
In addition to being an issue for agriculture, this lost soil clogs up rivers
and lakes with silt. A decrease in soil fertility due to soil erosion and
biodiversity loss lowers agricultural output. The loss of soil down slopes
can also be prevented by using good agricultural practises, such as the
use of terraces and diversion ditches. Because it releases greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere, agriculture also contributes to climate
change. For instance, the addition of fertilisers to the soil releases
nitrous oxide, while the production of livestock releases methane from
the digestion of cattle and the breakdown of manure. Carbon dioxide is
produced when burning trees to clear agricultural land and using fossil
fuels to power agricultural machinery. You will study more about
climate change and how greenhouse gases affect it in the next units to
come.

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1.5.3 Protecting and Restoring the Environment

The World Health Organization estimates that air pollution causes about
7 million deaths annually. This equates to around one death per eight
worldwide. The world's biggest environmental health danger is air
pollution. It's critical to comprehend the various environmental
protection measures in order to lessen this risk. Reducing energy use is
one method of environmental protection. We must thus consider what is
happening in our planet and what we can do to alter it in order to
protect, conserve, and restore our ecosystem. We need to consider how
our actions affect the environment and how we might make modest
changes in our lives that will have a large impact. We also need to look
at the way we produce and consume energy, and find new ways to
reduce our dependence on fossil fuels.

This lesson ends on a positive note. Humans can both negatively and
favourably contribute to maintaining the environment. Among the
methods is to lessen our ecological footprint. Lessening our ecological
impact means putting less pressure on the environment. By making the
best use of the "waste hierarchy," this can be accomplished. The
hierarchy of measures to be performed to lessen waste production and
enhance overall waste management processes and programmes is known
as the waste hierarchy. The three R's of the trash hierarchy are: Reduce,
Reuse, and Recycle. What problems do you think are caused by using
large amounts of water for agriculture?

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. What is production of waste?

2. What is Waste Hierarchy?

1.6 Summary

Since the beginning of human history, humans and the environment

have interacted, as you have studied in this lesson. Both favourably and
badly, humans influence their surroundings, and the environment has a
variety of effects on how people live. The utilisation of resources and
the creation of trash are the two fundamental interactions between
people and their environment. The Earth's natural resources are being
extracted by humans in greater and greater quantities, which is leading
to over-exploitation issues, such as overfishing and deforestation.
Human activity generates a wide variety of garbage that might harm the
environment.

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1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Beerling, D. The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History.

Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. and Fox, G.A. (2020). The Ecology of
Plants, 3rd Edition,
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862397/
https://www.undp.org/policy-centre/singapore/blog/five-ways-tech-can-
help-us-protect-natural-resources

https://bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-0500-3-
69

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sSavLYLLNsQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5KmGK_azHS4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vsXv3anIBSU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uANAyo_1GsM
1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1
1. Industrialisation
2. Because the technologies used then were not capable of
modifying the environment on a large scale.

Answers to SAE 2
1. Fish are a renewable resource. However, if fishing is not
managed properly and more fish are taken from the water than
can be replaced naturally, the fishery will fail.
2. Natural resources are used to make food, fuel and raw
materials for the production of goods. All of the food that
people eat comes from plants or animals. Natural resources such
as coal, natural gas and oil provide heat, light and power.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Waste production implies the use of material and energy and
the depletion of the Earth's renewable and non-renewable
resources
2. Waste Hierarchy is the order of priority of actions to be taken to
reduce the amount of waste generated and to improve overall
waste management processes and programs. The waste hierarchy
consists of 3 R’s as follows: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.

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UNIT 2 POLLUTION, TYPES, SOURCES AND

CHARACTERISTICS

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
2.3 Pollution, Types, Sources and Characteristics
2.3.1 Types of Pollutants
2.3.2 Physical nature of the pollutant
2.4 Sources of pollution
2.4.1 Domestic sources
2.4.2 Industry
2.4.3 Agriculture
2.4.4 Transport
2.5 Pathways of pollution
2.5.1 Sector of the environment affected by pollution
2.6 Summary
2.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
2.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1 Introduction

The interactions between humans and their physical surroundings have

been extensively studied, as multiple human activities influence the
environment. The environment is a coupling of the biotic (living
organisms and microorganisms) and the abiotic (hydrosphere,
lithosphere, and atmosphere).

2.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:

• Explain the meaning of Pollution and use it correctly.

• Describe the main types of pollution.
• Explain the sources of pollution and the way pollutants reach the
environment.
• Describe the main characteristics of water, air and soil pollution.

2.3 Pollution, Types, Sources and Characteristics

How can you know if water is contaminated if you hold up a glass in

front of you? You would anticipate drinking water to be transparent,
flavourless, and colourless (not turbid with suspended particulates). If

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none of these items were present, it might be contaminated. If you were

gazing at river water, it probably wouldn't be as clear as drinking water
in a glass, but if you saw that the water didn't appear dirty or smell
terrible, you could infer that it wasn't polluted. Fish were swimming in
the water, and animals were able to consume it without suffering any
negative consequences. However, you may assume that pollution was
the issue if the water was discoloured, had an awful odour, or you could
see dead fish floating on the surface. The addition of any substance
(solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or
radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed,
diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form is
therefore known as pollution, also known as environmental pollution.
The three main types of pollution are air pollution, water pollution, and
land pollution, which are often categorised by environment. Particular
pollutant kinds, like plastic, light, and noise pollution, are also of
concern to contemporary civilization. Pollution of all kinds frequently
has an adverse effect on the health and wellbeing of people as well as
the environment and wildlife.

Although natural occurrences like forest fires and active volcanoes can
result in environmental pollution, the word pollution typically suggests
that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source—that is, a source
produced by human activity. Ever since the first time that large groups
of people gathered and stayed for a long time in one location, pollution
has been a part of humankind. Indeed, the remains of ancient human
communities, such as shell mounds and rubble piles, are often used to
identify them. As long as there was enough room for each person or
group, pollution was not a major issue. However, with the
establishment of permanent settlements by great numbers of people,
pollution became a problem, and it has remained one ever since.

Let's think about the potential human activity that led to the pollution.
Consider a river that cuts across a piece of land near a town. The
community uses the water for vegetable farming as well as drinking and
other domestic purposes. Many locals utilise this water to irrigate tiny
plots of land where they grow vegetables. To increase output, many
farmers also use pesticides and fertilisers. Chemicals like nitrogen,
potassium, and phosphorus, which are crucial plant nutrients, are used to
make fertilisers. Pesticides are substances that kill pests but may be
dangerous to other life forms, including people.

2.3.1 Types of Pollutants

The classification of pollutants is done from different points of view:

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(i) Depending upon their existence in nature pollutants are of two

types, namely quantitative and qualitative pollutants.
(a) Quantitative Pollutants: These are the compounds that naturally
occur in the environment and become pollutants when human
careless behaviour causes their concentration to rise. For
instance, carbon dioxide is categorised as a quantitative pollutant
if it is present in the atmosphere at a quantity that is higher than
normal as a result of automobiles and industries and has
observable consequences on people, animals, plants, or property.
(b) Qualitative Pollutant: These are those substances which do not
normally occur in nature but are added by man, for example,
insecticides.
(ii) Depending upon the form in which they persist after being
released into the environment, the pollutants are categorized into
two types, namely primary and secondary pollutants.
(a) Primary Pollutants: These are those which are emitted directly
from the source and persist in the form in which they were added
to the environment. Typical examples of pollutants included
under this category are ash, smoke, fumes, dust, nitric oxide,
sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons etc.
(b) Secondary Pollutants: These are the pollutants that are created
from primary pollutants through chemical reactions with
atmospheric constituents. Examples include ozone, nitrogen
dioxide, aldehydes, ketones, and sulphur trioxide. In the presence
of sunlight, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, two primary
pollutants emitted by cars, combine to produce ozone and
peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), secondary pollutants that are much
more hazardous than the original primary pollutants. Synergism
is the term used to describe the phenomena of increased toxicity
caused by chemical interactions between contaminants.
(iii) From the ecosystem point of view, i.e., according to their natural
disposal, pollutants are of two types:
(a) Bio-degradable Pollutants: These are the contaminants that
naturally disintegrate quickly. Domestic sewage and heat
pollution are included in this category because they can quickly
disintegrate through natural processes or through constructed
systems like municipal treatment plants and other such systems.
(b) Non-degradable Pollutants: These are the compounds that, in the
natural environment, either do not disintegrate or degrade very
slowly. These include aluminium cans, DDT, long-chain phenolic
compounds, mercury salts, and others. Such non-biodegradable
contaminants migrate through the biogeochemical cycle and
along food chains in the ecosystem, where they accumulate and
are biologically amplified. For instance, DDT is absorbed by
phytoplankton, which is consumed by fish, when it is washed
from the ground and into streams. As a result, the initial amount

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of DDT, which was innocuous to phytoplankton, becomes

extremely toxic to fish as it accumulates over time. As a result,
enormous populations of fish die or become sterile, and the same
is true for birds that eat these fish. This phenomenon is known as
bio-magnification or biological magnification.

2.3.2 Physical nature of the pollutant

The four main types of pollutants are gas, liquid, solid, and energy.
Liquid waste is typically where liquid pollutants originate. Human
excreta (including faeces and urine), industrial wastewaters, and other
types of waste from water-using activities are all considered liquid
waste. Liquid waste is produced in factories by activities like washing
products during production, cleaning things, and chemical mixing.
Human waste from water-flushed toilets and other wastewater from
homes and businesses are combined to form sewage. Pollution is
frequently caused by sewage and human waste from overflowing septic
tanks and latrines. Another form of liquid waste that might pollute is
urban runoff. Many different kinds of garbage are washed from the land
surface into lakes and rivers by rainwater. Quite a bit of organic stuff
can be found in urban runoff. This could result from improper treatment
of organic waste generated by homes and businesses or from open
defecation. Anything made from living things, such as animal and
human waste, decomposing plants, and food scraps, is considered to be
organic matter.

Pollutants can also be solid. One of the most prevalent types of solid
trash are plastic bags. Any solid material that is deemed to be unusable
and discarded is referred to as solid waste. Different types of solid
waste, such as paper, plastic, metal, chemicals in solid form, pieces of
cloth or food, and animal remains, are produced by factories,
enterprises, and families. Faecal matter often gets thrown out with solid
trash, which makes things worse. The fourth type of pollution is
widespread in urban areas. Noise pollution is energy in this sense.
Unacceptable noise levels include those found in residential,
commercial, and recreational settings. Noise annoys and bothers us,
makes it difficult to have a conversation, and over time, can harm our
hearing. Loud music coming from bars and music stores in an urban
area is a well-known form of noise nuisance. While some people may
enjoy the noise, many others find it to be upsetting since it keeps them
from talking during the day and from resting at night. What is organic
matter?

Self-Assessment Exercises 1
1. What are Bio-degradable Pollutants?

2. What is biomagnification?
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2.4 Sources of Pollution

The area of human activity that generates the pollution can also be used
to categorise it. There is an essential difference to be made regarding
pollution sources before we look at the various industries. Pollution
sources can be classified as point sources or non-point sources. Point
sources are easily found, recognisable points or locations. A diesel truck
that emits audible, dark exhaust gases from its tailpipe serves as an
illustration. Another illustration is the discharge of liquid sewage into a
river through a conduit. It is challenging to pinpoint the precise source
of pollution from a non-point source, commonly referred to as "diffuse
pollution." A good example is floodwater, which sweeps various kinds
of waste from the land into a river, possibly including faeces. In this
case, it is impossible to pinpoint a specific person, family, or place of
business as the source of the water pollution.

2.4.1 Domestic sources

Toilets, latrines, and wastewater from kitchens and bathrooms are all
examples of domestic sources of pollution. These wastes won't cause
pollution if they are properly contained and kept from entering the
environment. However, this is not always the case. Human excrement is
obviously released into the environment through open defecation, where
it can then wash into rivers and other surface waters. What types of
organic waste are produced by a typical household?

2.4.2 Industry

The pollution brought on by industry is referred to as industrial

pollution. The development of more industries and technology that
accompanied the industrial revolution led to significant contamination of
our planet's air, land, and water. This type of pollution is among the
worst since the smoke that industry releases into the air plays a
significant role in ozone depletion, animal and human health issues, and
global warming. Additionally, the trash from these enterprises is
dumped on land and in water, which has a negative impact on both the
health of animals and plants. Many dangerous and unnatural compounds
are released into the soil and water as a result of these industrial
pollution, which ultimately cause the extinction of some plant and

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animal species. " We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity

belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong,
we may begin to use it with love and respect." ~ Aldo Leopold. Industrial
pollution is any type of pollution that has its direct origins in industrial
processes. Industries of some form are to blame for the majority of
global pollution.

In reality, organisations working to combat environmental deterioration

now place a high priority on the issue of industrial pollution. Countries
that are experiencing the sudden and quick rise of these industries see it
as a severe issue that has to be swiftly brought under control. Industrial
pollution has many different guises. It degrades the quality of soil all
across the world, contaminates several sources of drinking water, and
releases undesired pollutants into the atmosphere.

2.4.3 Agriculture

In Nigeria, agricultural activities are growing and changing just like the
industrial sector. More insecticides and fertilisers are being used in
Nigerian agriculture. Pesticides have the potential to pollute lawn, water,
and other vegetation. Pesticides can be poisonous to a variety of
different organisms in addition to insects and weeds, such as birds, fish,
helpful insects, and non-target plants. Phosphate and nitrate are
components of fertiliser, and if they get into water bodies, they can
promote excessive plant growth. Along with solid pollutants like crop
residues, packing materials, and other wastes similar to those produced
domestically, agriculture is also to blame for gaseous pollutants like
methane produced by cattle. Animal excrement contributes to the
creation of waste and potential contaminants.

2.4.4 Transport

Do you reside in a city or have you ever travelled to one nearby? If so,
you are undoubtedly aware of the range of automobiles that travel on
our highways. Some are light motor trucks, while others are compact
cars. These cars vary not just in size but also in the types of fuel they
use, including gasoline, diesel, and blended fuel (10% ethanol and
gasoline). You can notice the black exhaust gas created by diesel
engines if you look at the tailpipe of the car. Poorly maintained cars
have more intense black paint, which can occasionally make the air hazy
or smoky, irritate the eyes, and trigger coughing fits. Transport has a big
impact on the environment since it consumes a lot of energy and burns
the majority of the world's petroleum. This contributes significantly to
global warming by emitting carbon dioxide and causing air pollution,
which includes nitrous oxides and particles. The issue is exacerbated by
the lack of a policy to remove outdated automobiles from the road.

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Self-Assessment Exercises 2
1.Can you think of examples of point and non-point source pollution from
earlier in this study session?
2. Why is it that the environmental effects of transport are significant?

2.5 Pathways of Pollution

As we previously stated, there is always a source and a beneficiary of

pollution. The pollutant's passage from its source to the environment, the
human body, or some other recipient is known as the pathway of
pollution. Depending on the type of pollutant, the pathway between
source and recipient might take on a variety of distinct shapes. Water,
air, and soil are the main areas that are impacted by pollution. Humans
typically come into contact with pollutants through the ingestion of
tainted and polluted food and water, as well as through breathing dirty
air. Many pollutants' severe side effects are lessened after they are
discharged into the environment by one or more of the following
procedures:

i). Dispersion – smoke disperses into the air and is no longer

noticeable away from the source.
ii). Dilution – soluble pollutants are diluted in the water of a river or
lake.
iii). Deposition – some suspended solids carried in a river settle (are
deposited) on the river bed.
iv). Degradation – some substances break down (degrade) by natural
processes into different, simpler substances that are not polluting.

In each case the effect is to reduce the concentration of the

pollutant. Concentration is a measure of the amount of the substance in a
known volume of water or air. The units used for water pollutants are
usually milligrams per litre (mg/l, also written as mg l-1), although
sometimes you may see ppm which stands for ‘parts per million’. These
processes do not apply to all pollutants. There are some persistent
pollutants which remain intact when released into the environment
because they do not break down by natural processes.

2.5.1 Sector of the Environment Affected by Pollution

Classifying pollution by the sector of the environment affected – water,

air, soil and land – is probably the most commonly used method.

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1 Water pollution
Surface water like rivers and lakes, soil moisture, groundwater in
aquifers, and the oceans can all be impacted by water pollution.
The activities of the water cycle connect all these many water
reservoirs, as you are aware from Study Session 4. An example of
how a polluted river could harm the marine ecosystem is when it
empties into the ocean. The ocean's large amount of water can,
however, spread and dilute the pollutant, limiting its harshest
impacts to areas close to river mouths. Excess physical, chemical,
or biological pollutants that alter the characteristics of the water
and have the potential to harm living things constitute water
pollution. Natural or unpolluted water is colourless, odourless,
and transparent, as we just mentioned. One could say that hazy,
bad-tasting, or odorous water are signs of water pollution. Some
water pollutants, such as some chemicals, such as pesticides, and
the majority of the microorganisms that cause waterborne
infections, however, cannot be seen or tasted. Water
contamination, then, affects more than simply how the water
looks. Water that has been contaminated should not be utilised
for irrigation, washing, bathing, or drinking. Depending on the
type and concentration of the pollutant, drinking polluted water
can have a variety of negative effects on the body. In Nigeria,
most rivers and streams have large amounts of suspended
particles that are transported by the current and give the water a
brown appearance, especially during the rainy season. The
majority of the solids are small soil particles that rain from the
surrounding area has washed into the river, frequently after
construction or agriculture. Large amounts of solids in the water
can diminish light refraction, which can have an impact on plant
growth.

Microorganisms that are detrimental to humans and other life

forms are known as biological water pollutants. They are to
blame for a wide range of waterborne illnesses. People or animals
that have already been exposed to the microorganisms in question
are the initial sources of these contaminants. Pollutants can enter
surface and groundwater if human waste from diseased people is
not properly controlled and treated. Bacteria, viruses, protozoa,
and helminths are the main categories of biological contaminants
(worms).

Depending on their source, chemical water contaminants can take

on a wide variety of shapes. They include fertilisers known as
plant nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen compounds) that, as you
read earlier, can wash from fields into rivers. These nutrients are

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typical surface water contaminants that are also created by the

decomposition of human and animal waste.

Heavy metals, insecticides, and other persistent pollutants are

also chemical pollutants. A class of hazardous chemical
pollutants known as heavy metals is made up of compounds of
persistent metals like mercury, cadmium, lead, and chromium. If
absorbed through drinking or eating, heavy metals present in
water at levels over what is considered safe can sicken and kill
both animals and people.

POPs, or persistent organic pollutants, are poisonous to both

people and animals. They include a variety of synthetic organic
chemicals produced for use as industrial solvents and as
pesticides, such as DDT, aldrin, and PCBs (polychlorinated
biphenyls). In other nations, several of these persistent substances
have been outlawed.

2 Air pollution
Both gases and solid particles can contribute to air pollution,
which can occur at all spatial and temporal scales. It can have an
impact on you at home, in your town, or in your city, and it can
also effect the atmosphere globally. The burning of wood,
charcoal, and other biomass fuel by homes, small enterprises like
bakeries, manufacturing industries, and vehicles is one of the
main causes of air pollution in Ethiopia's urban centres. The
presence of excessive levels of chemical elements that can harm
living things is referred to as air pollution. Nitrogen makes up
78% of the volume of clean air, followed by oxygen (21%), and
trace gases (< 1%). Particulate materials (like black soot) and a
variety of gaseous compounds, including carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, ozone, nitrates,
sulphates, organic hydrocarbons, and many others, may be
present in contaminated air. Many of these are also found in clean
air as trace gases, but if they are present in excessive amounts,
they turn into pollutants.

Black smoke emissions are a sign of severe pollution.

Nevertheless, not all air pollution is audible or visible. Gases like
carbon dioxide and monoxide are odourless and invisible. The
dangers of carbon monoxide to people are great. It can be created
when fuel is burned inefficiently (for instance, using a charcoal
burner in a house with insufficient air supply), and if breathed in
excessive amounts, it can be fatal. An major contaminant that
contributes to climate change is carbon dioxide.

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3 Soil and land pollution

Soil pollution, also called land contamination are linked to water
pollution. Surface-level liquid wastes containing harmful
substances or pathogenic microorganisms have the potential to
slowly seep into the soil and contaminate groundwater, which
could have an impact on nearby spring or well users. Open
defecation, pit latrines, and leaky waste and chemical storage
containers are a few potential causes. Soil pollution can be caused
by solid waste. Solid waste that is gathered in one area or that is
dispersed around is ugly and may smell unpleasant to you as you
pass by. Food waste that will eventually decompose normally
makes up the majority of household garbage. This emits an
unpleasant odour and draws rats and insects, both of which help
spread disease. A substance called leachate is created as the
garbage breaks down and seeps into the soil. Leachate is a liquid
pollutant that is extremely concentrated and may contain
pathogenic microorganisms, hazardous chemicals, and high
amounts of organic compounds. The issue is exacerbated by
rainwater that falls on solid waste and washes through it. What is
a leachete?

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. What are the three main sources of

pollution?

2. Describe the pollution pathways

2.6 Summary

This lesson has taught you that environmental pollution is a byproduct

of human development and activity and happens when physical,
biological, and chemical agents are released into the environment in
large enough numbers to have a negative impact on human health as
well as the ecosystem. According to its physical characteristics, its
source, its recipient, the sector it affects, or its effects, pollution can be
categorised. An energy source, a liquid, a solid, or a gas can all be forms
of pollution.
Pollution may arise from point sources, which are easily recognised, or
from non-point sources, which are diffuse and difficult to identify.
Household activities, manufacturing, agriculture, and transportation are
the main causes of pollution. Once they have been released into the
environment, the concentration of some pollutants is reduced by
dispersion, dilution, deposition or degradation.

2.7 Reference/Further Readings/Web Sources

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Beerling, D. The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History.

Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. and Fox, G.A. (2020). The Ecology of
Plants, 3rd Edition,
https://academic.oup.com/bmb/article/68/1/1/421204

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2984095/#:~:text=Pesti
cides%20can%20contaminate%20soil%2C%20water,%2C%20an
d%20non%2Dtarget%20plants.

https://www.longdom.org/open-access/a-short-note-on-industrial-
pollution-68320.html https://www.earthreminder.com/industrial-
pollution-causes-effects-prevention/
https://eartheclipse.com/environment/pollution/primary-causes-
of-industrial-pollution.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qkaz8ChelI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqHp03RRTDs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqHp03RRTDs

https://www.pexels.com/search/videos/pollution/

2.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. Bio-degradable Pollutants are the pollutants that are quickly

degraded by natural means
2. Biomagnification refers to the condition where the chemical
concentration in an organism exceeds the concentration of its
food when the major exposure route occurs from the
organism's diet.

Answers to SAE 2

1. The farmer washing his sack is an example of a point source

because you could identify where he washed his sack. However,
the pesticide washing from the field is an example of a non-point
source. The pollutant would wash into the river at several
places, and could possibly also have come from other fields. This
is an example of how difficult it can sometimes be to accurately
identify the source.

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2. The environmental effects of transport are significant because

transport is a major user of energy, and burns most of the world's
petroleum causing air pollution, including nitrous oxides and
particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming
through emission of carbon dioxide.

Answers to SAE 3

1. The three major types of pollution are air pollution, water

pollution, and land pollution.

2. The pathway of pollution is the way the pollutant moves from the
source, enters into the environment, and finally how it reaches the
human body or other recipient. The pathway between source and
recipient can take several different forms depending on the type
of pollutant. Primary recipients for pollution are water, air, and
soil. Pollutants usually reach humans through the consumption of
contaminated and polluted water and food, and breathing polluted
air.

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UNIT 3 EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON THE

ENVIRONMENT

Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.3 Effects of organic pollution
3.3.1 Effects of Excess Nutrients on the Environment
3.3.2 Effects of Persistent Pollutants
3.3.3 Effects of air Pollution on the Environment
3.4 Effects of Pollution on Human Health
3.4.1 Waterborne diseases
3.4.2 Human Exposure to Pollution
3.5 Climate and Pollution
3.6 Summary
3.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
3.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1 Introduction

This unit begins by describing the effect of water pollution on surface

water ecosystems, such as lakes, rivers and streams. Pollution from
human activities enters surface waters, either directly when wastes are
dumped into lakes and rivers, or indirectly when wastes released on land
or into the air are washed into surface waters. An ecosystem was defined
in unit 1 as ‘all living organisms and their physical environment and the
interactions between them’. Pollution can disturb and unbalance those
interactions in a number of ways. This is what we shall be looking here.

3.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Explain the Effects of organic pollution

• Describe the effects of water pollution on aquatic ecosystems.
• Describe the effects of air pollution on the environment and on
human health.
• Describe the effects of water pollution on human health.
• Describe some key principles that support pollution prevention
and control.

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3.3 Effects of organic pollution

Remember that organic matter is any substance derived from living

organisms from the previous unit. Any contamination of water by
organic matter is referred to as organic pollution. Where do organic
contaminants come from? Domestic sewage, whether it is raw or treated,
urban runoff, industrial (trade) effluents, and farm wastes are the sources
of organic pollutants. The majority of organic compounds discharged
into freshwaters come from sewage effluents. Examples include urban
run-off and human and animal waste. For their survival, many aquatic
(water-living) creatures rely on oxygen that has been dissolved in the
water. Fish, amphibians (such as frogs and toads), and several
invertebrate species, such as insect larvae, snails, and worms, are
examples of aquatic animals. They are able to sustain their supply of
oxygen in the water thanks to atmospheric oxygen in the air above them
and oxygen produced by green aquatic plants during photosynthesis.
Water that is moving quickly and turbulently will aerate (gain oxygen)
faster than water that is motionless because the air-water interface is
more active. Bacteria will consume organic pollutants like human and
animal waste if they are released into a body of water. Proteins, lipids,
and carbohydrates are complex organic compounds that bacteria break
down into simpler chemicals, which are then further oxidised to form
nitrates, sulphates, and carbonates. This process, known as
biodegradation, utilises dissolved oxygen from the water and gives the
bacteria energy. If there is little organic waste present and there is a lot
of dissolved oxygen, the pollution will be eliminated by this natural
breakdown process very fast. High quantities of organic pollution, on
the other hand, can raise the bacterial population to the point where the
water's oxygen content is completely depleted. It is known as
deoxygenation. Complete deoxygenation can occur in lakes or slow-
moving channels, but it is rare to occur in a river where the water is
moving. Conditions that are anaerobic (oxygen-free) are ugly and smell
bad. If they are unable to travel, fish and other aquatic species that
depend on oxygen for survival may eventually perish. The reduction in
fish populations and other aquatic animals not only disrupts the
ecosystem but also results in a loss of food for local people and loss of
jobs for local fishermen.

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Figure 1. Dying fish due to oxygen starvation.

Source:
https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=799
64&printable=1

3.3.1 Effects of Excess Nutrients on the Environment

Common pollutants produced by residential areas and agricultural run-

off include phosphorus and nitrogen. They frequently come up while
discussing fertiliser, human and animal waste, or both. Plants require the
nutrients phosphorus and nitrogen in order to grow. If there are a lot of
nutrients present, the water may get overgrown with plants. Algal
blooms, which are characterised by a sharp rise in the number of tiny
algae, can result from this. A water body is said to as eutrophic or
eutrophicating if it has excessive levels of nutrients. The condition of
eutrophication is widespread in Nigerian water bodies. The density of
microscopic green algae prevents sunlight from accessing the water,
killing and decomposing larger plants below the surface. The primary
issue with eutrophication is that rapid algal blooms can disappear just as
abruptly. Deoxygenation of the water might result from bacterial
decomposition of the algae. Nitrate-rich water is unpleasant to drink and
can be harmful to both people and animals. Additionally, some
cyanobacteria species—also referred to as blue-green algae—that thrive
in these environments create toxins that harm both humans and animals'
livers, nerves, and skin. Larger plants like the invasive floating water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), which can cover huge portions of
lakes, develop more quickly as a result of eutrophication. When these
plants die, they add to the problems of deoxygenation caused by
decaying organic material.

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3.3.2 Effects of Persistent Pollutants

Even though persistent pollutants like heavy metals and persistent

organic pollutants are present in water at extremely low quantities, they
eventually accumulate in organisms' tissues through a process known as
bioaccumulation. There is no known biological function for these
compounds in animals, nor is there a way to remove them from the
body. The chemicals stay in the body and gradually build up if they are
ingested or otherwise absorbed from the environment. Fish and shellfish
in particular face difficulties since they obtain their food by filtering
plankton from huge amounts of water. Fish will become polluted if the
plankton are contaminated. Pollutant concentrations can rise to
dangerous levels as they get more and more concentrated.

Figure 2. shows how levels of heavy metals, in this case mercury,

increase through a food chain. A food chain is the sequence of who eats
whom, or what.
Source:
https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=799
64&printable=1

As seen in Figure 2 above, the quantity of mercury in the water is very

low, but it rises in the bodies of phytoplankton (small aquatic plants),

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zooplankton (small aquatic creatures), fish that consume zooplankton,

and lastly fish-eating birds. Additionally, the toxins can be transferred to
eggs, harming avian reproduction. This progressive rise in
concentrations along the food chain is referred to as biomagnification, a
type of bioaccumulation. Humans and other terrestrial (land-dwelling)
creatures are included in the aquatic food chain. A contaminant like
mercury can accumulate to a point where it is hazardous enough to be
harmful if swallowed. Pollutants will continue to bioaccumulate in
plants and animals as long as the pollution continues.

3.3.3 Effects of air Pollution on the Environment

When there are enough toxins in the air to harm people, animals, and
plants' health, it is considered air pollution. When gases into the
atmosphere are released, such as nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulphides,
and sulphur oxides, they can dissolve in cloud water vapour and fall as
rain. These contaminants produce acid rain by making the water more
acidic (Figure 3). Acid rain, which often has a pH of less than 5, is very
corrosive and harmful, especially to trees and structures (pH is a
measure of acidity and alkalinity on a scale from 0 to 14. pH 7 is
neutral; less than 7 is acid; more than 7 is alkaline). Why are persistent
pollutants a major environmental problem?

Figure 4. Acid rain formation .

Source:
https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=799
64&printable=1

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Figure 5. Acid rain due to air pollution kills trees and destroys forests.
Source:
https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=799
64&printable=1

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. What are the origins of organic pollutants?

2. How does nutrient pollution affect the
environment?
1.

3.4 Effects of Pollution on Human Health

This section will mostly discuss the impacts of water pollution, but we
also need to consider the effects of air pollution. Particulate matter in the
form of dust and soot, as well as gases like carbon monoxide, sulphur
dioxides, and nitrogen oxides, have detrimental effects on human health.
Reduced lung function and illnesses of the respiratory system like
asthma and bronchitis are brought on by severe air pollution. These
days, acute respiratory infections are one of the most common reasons
people visit outpatient clinics in hospitals and health centres. Although it
is difficult to establish a direct causal connection, air pollution from
household fires and car emissions is probably a contributing cause. The
severe effects of water contamination on health are what we will discuss
next.

3.4.1 Waterborne diseases

More than 2 billion people live in areas without access to drinkable

water. The issue is particularly severe in underdeveloped rural areas,
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where a lack of infrastructure forces residents to rely on contaminated

shallow wells and open springs. More than 1.2 million people die every
year as a result of contaminated water. It is the most frequent cause of
diarrhoea, a major risk factor for infectious diseases, and it makes
malnutrition worse. In turn, diarrhoea is the second-leading cause of
child death in the globe, killing an estimated 525,000 children under the
age of five each year. Before the age of five, every child in Nigeria
experiences diarrhoea on average five times. What might be the root of
these paediatric illnesses? What more elements might have contributed
to the spread of these diseases? Diarrhea is brought on by eating and
drinking tainted food and water. Another important component in its
transmission is poor hand hygiene. Numerous infections that are
waterborne might manifest as diarrhoea (regular loose stools). They are
brought on by biological contamination from diseased people's bodily
wastes. Pathogenic organisms that cause waterborne illnesses, primarily
diarrheal illnesses and parasitic worm infections, are present in faeces.
Table 1 lists some instances of diarrheal and other watery illnesses along
with their underlying causes.

Table 1. Examples of waterborne diseases.

_____________________________________________________
Group Disease Causative agent
________________________________________ _____________
Bacteria typhoid fever Salmonella
cholera Vibrio cholerae
Viruses viral gastroenteritis rotavirus and others
poliomyelitis polio virus
viral hepatitis hepatitis A and E virus
Protozoa cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium
giardiasis Giardia
Parasitic
worms ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides
schistosomiasis Schistosoma
_______________________________________________________

With one exception, every disease listed in Table 1 is brought on by

either inadequate hand hygiene or swallowing microorganisms through
contaminated food or drink. This type of infection is called faecal-oral
transmission and occurs when bacteria from faeces enter a person's body
through the mouth. The one exception is schistosomiasis, which is
brought on by worms entering the skin when bathing or swimming in
water tainted by an infected person's excrement.

3.4.2 Human Exposure to Pollution

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Being exposed means not having any protection. In order for a pollutant
or contamination to reach the human body, a number of conditions must
be met. The collection of circumstances used to characterise exposure
includes the existence of pollution, the medium in which the pollutant is
present, and the human subject or host that will be harmed by the
pollutant. The three major ways that pollutants enter the body are by
eating, inhalation, and skin absorption. The term "dose" is frequently
used to describe how much of a certain pollutant is consumed. The time
and level of exposure will determine the dose. Organ dose explicitly
refers to the quantity that enters the human organ where the pertinent
effects may manifest, such as the lung.

Exposure can frequently happen simultaneously from numerous sources

and via numerous paths. For instance, air pollution from vehicles and
industry, drinking water, food, tobacco use, dusts, paints, and other
products of industrial production as well as soil are all potential sources
of lead exposure. Therefore, thorough understanding of the geographic
distribution of the problematic pollutants, the temporal fluctuations in
pollution levels, and the exposure processes is often required for valid
exposure assessment. People are frequently exposed to several
contaminants at once. These may be exposed to at various times and
different places, such as the workplace and/or home. There are a lot of
potential elements that could need to be looked at in their entirety. It
may include a wide range of environmental pollutants, such as
radioactive materials, dangerous chemicals, dusts, and particulates. It
may also come from a variety of sources, such as the usage of
pesticides, energy production, and industry. It may be emitted constantly
or irregularly.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. What are three main routes by which people are exposed to pollution
2.What is exposure route?

3.5 Climate and Pollution

Climate change and air pollution are intimately related. The other factor
lowering the quality of our planet is the climate. Climate change is
mostly caused by natural factors, such as variations in the sun's rays,
volcanic eruptions, changes in the Earth's orbit, and levels of carbon
dioxide (CO2). Climate changes may also be brought on by the
emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere. The term "climate forcers"
is frequently used to describe these pollutants, which include greenhouse
gases. The climate is warmed by ozone in the atmosphere, and it can be
warmed or cooled by various PM constituents. The amount of sunlight
that enters the atmosphere is impacted by pollutants such aerosols,

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methane, black carbon, and tropospheric ozone. As a result, the Earth's

temperature is rising, which causes glaciers, icebergs, and ice to melt.
Climate change will thus have an impact on the incidence and
prevalence of both imported and residual illnesses. Climate and weather
have a significant impact on the length, timing, and intensity of
outbreaks and alter the distribution of infectious diseases around the
world. Parasitic or viral infections spread by mosquitoes are very
climate-sensitive because warming both shortens the incubation period
for the pathogen and alters the geographic distribution of the vector.
Similar to how climate change causes water to warm, this causes a high
prevalence of waterborne illnesses. Recent population migration in
Europe appears to be causing previously eradicated illnesses, such
cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria, to reemerge.
Natural weather disasters like storms, which appear to occur more
frequently these days, are linked to the spread of epidemics. The new
illnesses that are harming public health are also linked to undernutrition
and immune system imbalance. Since outbreaks of the disease were
reported in Italy and France, the Chikungunya virus "took the aeroplane"
from the Indian Ocean to the continent. Following flooding, there
appears to have been an increase in cryptosporidiosis in the Czech
Republic and the United Kingdom. As previously mentioned, aerosol
compounds, despite their small size, have a significant impact on the
climate. They are able to dissipate sunlight (the albedo phenomenon) by
dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space and have cooled the
global temperature over the last 30 years.What are the 3 main natural
causes of climate change? These have been caused by many natural
factors, including changes in the sun, emissions from volcanoes,
variations in Earth's orbit and levels of carbon dioxide (CO2).

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. How does climate impact infectious diseases?

2. How can aerosols affect climate?

3.6 Summary

This unit has made it abundantly evident that organic and water
pollution have a significant impact on aquatic ecosystems.
Environmental and health effects of air pollution are also substantial.
The unit has described some key principles that support pollution
prevention and control, including the loss of vegetation, biological
diversity, excessive levels of harmful chemicals in the ambient
atmosphere and in food grains, rising risks of environmental accidents,
and threats to life support systems as indicators of the decline in
environmental quality as a result of pollution.

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3.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Matthew, R. Fisher (2018). Environmental Biology, Publisher: Open

Oregon Educational Resources
Miller, G. Tyler Jr. and Scott E. Spoolman (2009). Essentials of
Ecology, 5e, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 10 Davis Drive
Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA, ISBN-13: 978-0- 495-
55795-1, 383pp
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5122104/

https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/air-pollution/index.cfm

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014/full

https://www.activesustainability.com/environment/effects-air-pollution-
human-health/

https://www.vedantu.com/biology/effects-of-pollution-on-human-health

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z4YFkK3Wtsg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVBeY1jSG9Y

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Qt5XMebHDY

3.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1
1, Organic pollutants originate from domestic sewage (raw or
treated), urban run-off, industrial (trade) effluents and farm
wastes. Sewage effluents is the greatest source of organic
materials discharged to freshwaters.
2. Nutrient pollution damages the environment and harms water
quality by creating algal blooms. Algal blooms consume large
amounts of oxygen that fish, shellfish and other organisms need
to survive. Algal blooms can make water cloudy, reduce the
ability of aquatic life to find food, and clog the gills of fish.

Answers to SAE 2

1. The three main routes by which people are exposed to pollution

are:

i. Ingestion
ii. Inhalation

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iii. Skin contact

2. An exposure route is the way a chemical enters an organism

upon contact. It is a point of contact/entry of a stressor from the
environment into an ecological receptor (e.g., via ingestion,
dermal absorption, or inhalation)

Answers to SAE 3

1. Climate and weather affect the duration, timing, and intensity of

outbreaks strongly and change the map of infectious diseases in
the globe.
2. They affect climate as they are able to dissipate sunlight (the
albedo phenomenon) by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays
back to space and have cooled the global temperature over the
last 30 years

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UNIT 4: POLLUTION: EFFECTS, PREVENTION AND

CONTROL

Unit Structure

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
4.3 Pollution and Human Health
4.4 Links between environmental pollution and health
4.4.1 The source–effect chain
4.4.2 Solving the Environmental Problems
4.5 Principles of pollution management
4.5.1 Principles of pollution prevention
4.5.2 Pollution control
4.6 Summary
4.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
4.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

4.1 Introduction

Appreciate the effect of pollution and human health, understand the

links between environmental pollution and health and understand how to
solve the environmental problems. The principles of pollution
management through pollution prevention and pollution control will be
explained.

4.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit you will be able to:

• Appreciate the effect of Pollution and Human Health

• understand the links between environmental pollution and health
• Understand how to solve the environmental problems.
• Explain the principles of pollution management
• Describe the pollution prevention and Pollution control
methods.

4.3 Pollution and Human Health

Despite the significant efforts that have been made recently to clean up
the environment, pollution still poses a serious threat to human health.
The issues are obviously worse in the developing world, where a large
number of people are exposed to traditional sources of pollution such
industrial emissions, poor sanitation, insufficient waste management,
contaminated water supplies, and indoor air pollution from biomass
fuels. Environmental contamination does, however, still exist in wealthy

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nations, particularly in the lower sections of society. A wide variety of

contemporary pollutants have also evolved in recent decades, including
those linked to road traffic and the use of contemporary chemicals in
food, the home, water treatment, and pest control. Effects on health are
typically not instantaneous or immediately apparent because the
majority of these pollutants are rarely present in excessively high
quantities. Additionally, it was already said that just a small number of
the environmental exposure issues that we face now include significant
relative hazards. There are significant scientific problems in detecting
minor effects against a background of exposure and human
susceptibility variations, as well as measurement error. Even slight
increases in relative risk can lead to significant public health concerns
because a rising number of individuals are being exposed to
environmental pollution (even if just as a result of population growth
and urbanisation). There is a continual need for both attention and action
due to the introduction of new sources of exposure and risk factors,
some of which, like endocrine disruptors, have the potential to have
lifetime effects on health. The need to acknowledge and treat the health
concerns linked with environmental pollution becomes ever more
pressing as human activity's effects and environmental health issues
become more and more global in scope. Effective action, however,
necessitates an awareness of the problem's scope as well as its root
causes and underlying mechanisms since only then can an intervention
be focused on the areas where it is most necessary and likely to have the
biggest impact. What are the health consequences of air pollution on
populations?

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. What is the consequence of the emergence of new sources of exposure and

risk factors with the capacity to have lifelong implications for health?
2. What are the traditional sources of pollution in developing world?

4.4 Links Between Environmental Pollution and Health

The presence of an agent in the environment that has the potential to

harm the environment or human health can be simply, though rather
broadly, characterised as environmental pollution. Pollutants can
therefore take on various forms. In addition to chemicals, they also
consist of living things, biological materials, and energy in all of its
forms (e.g. noise, radiation, heat). Thus, there are virtually innumerable
potential contaminants. For instance, there are currently about 30,000
chemicals in widespread use, and any one of them has the potential to
release pollutants into the environment through usage or processing.
Less than 1% of these have undergone a thorough evaluation of their

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toxicity and health hazards. There are genuinely too many biological
contaminants to count. They encompass both dead and undead species,
such as bacteria, as well as the enormous variety of endotoxins that can
be released from the protoplasm of live things. Therefore, there is no
shortage of possible health dangers associated with the environment.
Understanding the nature and mechanisms of these dangers is mostly
what is lacking.

4.4.1 The Source–Effect Chain

The relationship between pollution and health is intricate and variable.

Pollutants must be present in concentrations that cause detectable
symptoms in sensitive persons before they can have a negative impact
on health. These people have to have been exposed to the pollutant,
frequently over a lengthy period of time or repeatedly, for this to
happen. Such exposures necessitate the simultaneous presence of
contaminants and sensitive people in the same surroundings. In order for
this to occur, the pollutants must not only be introduced into the
environment but also spread therethrough in media accessed or used by
people. Even for pollutants that are inherently toxic, health effects of
environmental pollution are not always inevitable; instead, they depend
on the coincidence of the processes of emission and dispersion that
determine where and when the pollutant occurs in the environment, as
well as the human behaviours that determine where and when they
occupy those same locations.

Simply said, the entire process can be visualised as a source–to–effect

causal chain. This shows that most pollutants are caused by people.
They come from human activities like industry, energy usage and
production, transportation, daily chores, waste management, agriculture,
and leisure. Natural causes of pollution, however, might also be
important in specific circumstances. These include heavy metals
accumulating in soils and sediments derived from ore-bearing rocks,
radon released through the decay of radioactive materials in the Earth's
crust, arsenic released into ground waters from natural rock sources, and
particulates and sulphur dioxides released by wildfires or volcanic
activity. The atmosphere, surface waters, ground waters, and soil are just
a few of the many environmental media through which these varied
sources can release their waste. Since they are rarely directly
measurable, estimates of emission by source and environmental medium
are invariably simply approximations. Instead, most emissions
inventories are the result of modelling, either based on input-output
models or emission factors for various processes or source activities.

4.4.2 Solving the Environmental Problems

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Rapid human population increase is to blame for all of the

environmental issues that have so far been listed in this unit and the ones
before it. The following difficulties are inescapable and clear results of
the increase.

• an increasing need for energy

• a depletion of resources
• a growing level of pollution.

Environmental scientists have considered these problems not to be

insurmountable. It will however require a combination of scientific
investigation and public action to be brought to bear effectively for
solutions to be achieved. Solving environmental problems may require
the following suggested steps to be undertaken

• Assessment: The first stage in addressing any environmental

problem is scientific analysis, through the gathering of
information. With collected data and experimentation, models
can be constructed to describe the situation and to make
predictions about future course of events.
• Risk Analysis: Using the results of scientific analysis as a tool, it
is possible to analyse what could be expected to happen if a
particular course of action were followed. An environmental
impact statement is often prepared at this point.
• Public Education: When a clear choice can be made among
alternative courses of action, the public must be informed.
• Political Action: The public, through its elected officials, makes a
choice, selecting a course of action and implementing it. To
implement choices can be difficult when environmental problems
transcend national boundaries.
• Follow –through: The result of any action taken should be
carefully monitored to see whether the environmental problem is
being solved and more basically to evaluate and improve the
initial evaluation and modeling of the problems. It should be
borne in mind that perhaps one of the ways of solving the world’s
environmental problems is the improvement of technology in the
area of solar energy and wind energy to provide the driving force
for the technological development of the future.

What is environmental pollution?

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. What are the three rapid human population growth problems?

2. What is the Source–Effect Chain?

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4.5 Principles of Pollution Management

There are two main approaches to pollution management:

1. Pollution Prevention: focuses on stopping pollution being

produced in the first place, or reducing any waste generation at
the source.
2. Pollution control: those measures taken to control pollution and
wastes after they have been generated or produced.

4.5.1 Principles of Pollution Prevention

There are a number of principles of pollution prevention; we will briefly

discuss some of them.
Principle of waste optimisation: The motto in this principle is ‘Do not
produce any waste; if this is not possible, reduce or minimise waste
generation as much as possible’.

Figure 1. The waste hierarchy. Waste management options are listed in

order of desirability from most desirable at the top to least desirable at
the bottom.

There are three ‘Rs’ that are applied in waste optimisation: Reduce,
Reuse and Recover. Figure 1. shows the hierarchy or the order in which
the waste optimisation options should be used.

Reduction is the process of altering a process to prevent the creation of

waste in the first place.

Reusing something means using it more than once (for example you can
reuse plastic bottles for collecting water). Recovery is the process of
obtaining materials or energy through composting, recycling, and
cremation. Using recycled metal to create new products out of used

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aluminium cans (also known as tin cans) is an illustration of recycling.

We can turn organic waste into compost that can be used as fertiliser by
composting it. We can recover the energy in waste items through
incineration (burning). The concept of waste optimisation is applied in
industries through cleaner production. Cleaner production implies
appropriate environmental management, waste minimisation,
replacement of toxic chemicals, process and product modification, and
the application of the three ‘Rs’.

Polluter pays principle: According to this idea, those responsible for

any harm to people or the environment are the individuals or
organisations that create waste or pollution. They are liable for any
damage's associated costs. The guiding concept serves as a practical
means of enforcing duty and accountability. Making the polluter pay can
be done by enforcing strict requirements for permits for pollution
discharge and imposing high taxes on goods or waste management.
Principle of ‘Cradle to Grave’: The production of any item or action by
a person or organisation, as well as whatever pollution that item or
activity may create during the course of its lifecycle, from the "cradle"
to the "grave," are all covered by this principle. For instance, when
making a plastic bottle, pollution may be created throughout the
production process, in the lorries used to transport the bottles across the
nation, and when the bottle is discarded. Consideration should be given
to each of these factors.

Precautionary principle: The precautionary principle states that it is

always necessary to avoid harming others, even when one is unsure of
how their actions will affect other people or the environment. According
to this theory, you take efforts to prevent environmental harm even if
you are unsure that harm will occur. One example is the use of waste
minimization.

Principle of duty of care: Any individual or organisation that generates

waste, often known as a waste generator, has a civic and moral
responsibility to manage their waste correctly. They have a
responsibility to make sure it doesn't hurt the environment or other
people.
Principle of discharge/emission permit: A waste generator has an
obligation to obtain permission from the regulatory authority in order to
discharge waste to surface water and to the atmosphere.

4.5.2 Pollution Control

It is not always possible to prevent pollution by various applicable

concepts and procedures, and as a result, some pollution is created. If
pollution is created, steps should be taken to reduce its impact on both

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humans and the environment. Some of the intervention choices in waste

control include applying waste treatment prior to disposal, limiting
waste contact with the public, and monitoring and analysing the impact
of the trash on the nearby environment.

What does the Principle of duty of care suggest?

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. What does the Polluter pays principle address?

2. What does the Principle of ‘Cradle to Grave’ implied?

4.6 Summary

Despite the major efforts that have been made over recent years to clean
up the environment, pollution remains a major problem and poses
continuing risks to health. In this unit, we have on the effect of pollution
on human health. You have also studied the links between
environmental pollution and health ,and how to solve the environmental
problems. The Principles of pollution management through pollution
prevention and Pollution control was also explained.

4.7 Further Reading/Reference/Web Sources

https://www.clientearth.org/latest/latest-updates/stories/what-are-
environmental-principles/

https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=799
64&printable=1

https://digitalcommons.mtech.edu/campus_lectures/60/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6IKaUTYWtvg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BzKs0FYSxmo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5tXyMiOVas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K_nL8iPD83g

4.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

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1. The emergence of new sources of exposure and new risk factors,

some of them—such as endocrine disruptors—with the capacity
to have lifelong implications for health, means that there is a
continuing need for both vigilance and action.
2. The traditional sources of pollution in developing world include:
industrial emissions; poor sanitation; inadequate waste
management; contaminated water supplies; and exposures to
indoor air pollution from biomass fuels.

Answers to SAE 2

1. The three rapid human population growth problems are:

• an increasing need for energy
• a depletion of resources
• a growing level of pollution.
2. This effect tries to explain the link between pollution and health
is both a complex and contingent process. For pollutants to have
an effect on health, susceptible individuals must receive doses of
the pollutant, or its decomposition products, sufficient to trigger
detectable symptoms. For this to occur, these individuals must
have been exposed to the pollutant, often over relatively long
periods of time or on repeated occasions.

Answers to SAE 3

1. The principle is an economic tool to enforce accountability and

responsibility
2. Principle of ‘Cradle to Grave’ applies to the production of any
object or to any activity by an individual or institution and all the
pollution that object or activity might cause throughout its
lifecycle

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UNIT 5 HUMANS, ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH

Unit Structure

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
5.3 Human -Environmental Interactions
5.4 Coevolution and Coadaptation
5.5 Links between Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being
5.6 Summary
5.7 References/Further Readings/Web sources
5.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

5.1 Introduction

In this unit, you will study the Human -Environmental-Health

Interactions as interactions between the human social system and (the
“rest” of) the ecosystem. You will learn about Coevolution and
Coadaptation, although similar in process, are not the same; co-
adaptation refers to the interactions between two units, whereas co-
evolution refers to their evolutionary history. The links between
ecosystem services and human well-being will be stressed.

5.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you shall be able to:

• Describe the human -environmental-health nexus as interactions

between the human social system and the ecosystem.
• Explain the meanings of Coevolution and Coadaptation
• Explain the links between ecosystem services and human well-
being.

5.3 Human -Environmental Interactions

The linkages between people and the overall ecological system are
known as human environmental interaction. Both the environment and
the human social systems are complex adaptive systems. They are
complex because there are many components and connections between
ecological units and human social systems. The ability to adapt is a
result of the feedback systems that help with survival in constantly
changing environments. The term "human environmental interactions"
refers to interactions between the ecosystem and (the "rest" of) the
human social system. Three different kinds of human-environment
interactions exist: how people are dependent on the environment for
things like food, water, lumber, and natural gas; The manner in which

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individuals modify the environment, either positively or badly, for as by

drilling holes or constructing dams, to meet their own demands.
Ecosystems and human social systems are both sophisticated adaptive
systems. Complexity results from the large number of components and
connections that both human social systems and ecosystems have. They
are adaptive because they contain systems for feedback that help them
survive in a setting that is continuously changing. Understanding certain
traits of the human social system is crucial for analysing how people
interact with their surroundings. The sort of society has a significant
impact on how people behave, how they view nature, and how they
affect ecosystems. Population size, social organisation, values,
technology, money, education, knowledge, and many other factors are
crucial aspects of human social systems. Values and knowledge, in
particular, have a significant impact on how people "see life" and, as a
result, how they behave. The available technology then places
restrictions on the range of feasible activities. People alter the
environment to serve their needs and gain from it (ecosystem services).
For example, these ecosystem services include the provision of
resources like water, lumber, food, electricity, information, land for
farming, and many others. These ecosystem services are crucial for
human well-being. Using these resources obviously has a significant
impact on the environment. To create new ecosystems that seem to
better meet their requirements, individuals frequently reorganise
already-existing ones. The relationship between ecosystem services and
elements of human well-being was examined as part of the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (MA). Figure 1 shows the strength of
relationships between categories of ecosystem services and frequently
occurring aspects of human well-being. It also shows the extent to which
socioeconomic considerations may be able to mitigate the relationship.
(For instance, there is a high likelihood of mediation if a replacement for
a deteriorated ecological service can be purchased.) Different
ecosystems and geographical areas have varying levels of linkage
strength and capacity for mediation. Various elements, such as other
environmental factors, as well as economic, social, technological, and
cultural factors, influence human well-being in addition to the impact of
ecosystem services on it as shown above. Changes in human well-being
also have an impact on ecosystems. Why are human social systems and
ecosystems said to be complex adaptive systems? Complex because
ecosystems and human social systems have many parts and many
connections between these parts.

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Figure 1. Linkages between Ecosystem Services and Human Well-

being.
Source: https://learningforsustainability.net/mwa/dpsir/

Self-Assessment Exercises 3
1. A part from the influence of ecosystem services on human well-being
depicted in Figure 1. What are the other factors that influences human well
being?
2. What are the 3 types of human environment interaction?

5.4 Coevolution and Coadaptation

The never-ending process of mutual adjustment and change between

human social systems and the environment is referred to as coevolution
and coadaptation. Environmental implications are a result of human
behaviour. The environment, however, also has an impact on human
activity. Human social systems must change to fit their unique
surroundings. Storms and earthquakes are examples of natural events
that cause people to react. These natural phenomena may or may not be
largely caused by human activity, but they nonetheless have an impact
on human behaviour since humans must adapt to changing
circumstances. To further comprehend this link, the Drivers-Pressures-
State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) model was developed. With the help of

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the DPSIR model, you may examine and analyse the crucial interaction
between social and environmental components. It is a widely accepted
and favoured framework everywhere. A useful analytical framework for
evaluating complicated natural resource challenges is the DPSIR model.
It identifies the several causal networks that connect human activity to
environmental deterioration. In order to clarify how human activity
affects the state of the environment, the model separates several sorts of
indicators.

Human actions either exacerbate or lessen environmental pressure. It is

primarily socio-economic and socio-cultural forces that propel human
activity. For instance, it is helpful to be able to analyse the state of and
influences on these ecosystems not just in the present but also across
time since fresh water management considers continuously fluctuating
complex aquatic ecosystems and their relationship to nearby
populations.

Why does the DPSIR model has to distinguishes several categories of

indicators?

The following graphic explains the DPSIR process:

Figure 2. A graphic outlining the DPSIR framework

Source: https://learningforsustainability.net/mwa/dpsir/

Self-Assessment Exercises 3
1. What is the full meaning of DPSIR in sustainability ecology?

2. What does the terms coevolution and coadaptation implied?

5.5 Links Between Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being

Changes in the structure and function of ecosystems, as well as the

subsequent flow of ecosystem services, have an impact on human well-
being. When defined in terms of the ability of ecosystems to deliver a

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specific basket of services to users of those services, commonly used

words like "ecosystem health" or "ecosystem integrity" gain much more
focus. It is unclear if ecosystems can continue to supply the services
required for a level of human well-being that is considered to be
acceptable in light of evidence of growing human influences on
ecosystems around the world.

Numerous environmental services already suffer from human activities.

Within a few decades, if current trends continue, mankind will have
significantly changed almost all of Earth's surviving natural ecosystems.
Typically, these changes will boost the supply of one service (such food
or fibre) at the expense of others (for example, clean water and self-
regulation of pests and diseases).

The choices made by humans regarding how to use ecosystem services

and how ecosystems are changed can either increase or decrease societal
advantages. For instance, the conversion of wetlands and forests to
croplands contributes to stable food supply but also damages
biodiversity, pollutes streams, disrupts hydrology, reduces fish yields,
and destroys picturesque areas. The long-term worth of the services lost
to human civilization may be greater than the immediate economic gains
from those transformational actions. Naturally, ecosystem alteration is
done in order to reap current or future benefits, at least temporarily.
Indeed, such transformation is necessary for the societies of today. One
in every two jobs worldwide are in agriculture, forestry, and fishing,
while industrial goods are outperformed in terms of their contribution to
the global economy by crops, timber, and fish. How to comprehend and
measure the costs, risks, and advantages associated with any scenario,
both present and future, is the crucial question. The present and future
well-being of people are greatly at risk. The intricate relationships
between environmental services and human well-being are best
illustrated by the mining industry in Papua New Guinea. Localized
agricultural land, plantations, and coral reefs are lost as a result of
mining, but the mining firms make up for this loss with financial
payments. The money can also be used to obtain services that were not
previously available, such as better housing, piped water supply
systems, high-protein foods, western medicines, and other types of
health care, with a significant improvement in well-being. This may not
entirely replace the lost services, though. However, the loss of
controlling and delivering services typically outlasts the financial
benefit. There are also important social impacts (for example, social
disintegration and loss of spiritual values connected to a ‘‘sense of
place’’) that decrease well-being in important ways.

Ecosystem changes can affect people's well-being on a global, regional,

sub-regional, national, and local level, frequently on several dimensions

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at once. For instance, fishing activities in the Caribbean Sea, which

contribute significantly to the region's GDP and provide many people
with employment and protein, can be studied at the scale of the fishing
community, the nation, the subregion, the region, and the entire North
Atlantic Ocean. All of these scales have institutions in place to control
how the service is used, and when one of these institutions fails, it
affects the tiers above and below it. Indigenous peoples are a unique
example of the relationship between ecosystem services and wellness
since they have existed within the setting of a specific ecosystem for
many generations. Furthermore, when the ecosystem services they
depend on deteriorate, individuals might not have many options for
replacing them with services from other sources because their "feeling
of place" plays such a large role in their worldview. Additionally,
indigenous people are typically excluded from political decisions
affecting the resources they have used and frequently preserved for
decades. What are indigenous people? They are people who have lived
within the context of a particular ecosystem for many generations, and
represent a special case of ecosystem service-wellbeing linkage

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Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. What are the factors affecting human well being?

2. Changes to ecosystems, and thus to human well-being, can occur at

several scales simultaneously. For example, fishing activities in a given
locality, at what scale can it be analysed?

5.6 Summary

The linkages between people and the overall ecological system are
known as human environmental interaction. Both the environment and
the human social systems are complex adaptive systems. Three different
kinds of human-environment interactions exist: People rely on the
environment for things like food, water, wood, natural gas, etc. The
manner in which people alter the environment, either positively or
badly, by creating dams or drilling holes, to meet their own demands.
The two inextricably linked emergent characteristics of the
interdependent social system and ecology are: 1. Coevolution (changing
together). 2. Coadaptation (fitting together) were described.

5.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Beerling, D. The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History.

Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Biro, P. A., Beckmann, C. et al. Small within-day increases in

temperature affects boldness and alters personality in coral reef
fish. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences 277, 71-77 (2010).

Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. and Fox, G.A. (2020). The Ecology of

Plants, 3rd Edition,
https://www.uni-

kiel.de/ecology/users/fmueller/salzau2006/studentpages/Human_Enviro
nmental_Interactions/index.html

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.p
df

https://learningforsustainability.net/mwa/dpsir/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gFxhYcStEg

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w391HkYO_bM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r7UCAsBT5Yg

5.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAE 1

1. Other factors the influences human well being-include other

environmental factors as well as economic, social, technological,
and cultural factors-influence human well-being
2. The 3 types of human environment interaction are:

The way people depend on the environment for food, water,

timber, natural gas etc
The way people adapt the environment to fulfill their own needs
The way people modify the environment positively or negatively
like drilling holes, building dams

Answers to SAE 2

1. Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response
2. The terms coevolution and coadaptation describe the never-
ending process of mutual adjustment and change between human
social systems and the environment.

Answers to SAE 3

1. Human well-being is affected by changes in the composition and

functioning of ecosystems and the resultant flow of ecosystem
services.
2. It can be analyzed at the fishing community scale, the national
scale, the subregional scale, the regional scale, and the scale of
the entire continent

Glossary

Absorption: The passage of one substance into or through another.

Acid: A substance that has a pH of less than 7 (7 = neutral) which can

lower the pH value of water or soils to be harmful to growth of crops.

Acute: Occurring over a short period of time; used to describe brief

exposures and effects which appear promptly after exposure.

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Acute Exposure: A single exposure to a toxic substance which may

result in severe biological harm or death. Acute exposures are usually
characterized as lasting no longer than a day, as compared to longer,
continuing exposure over a period of time.

Air Quality Standards: The level of pollutants prescribed by

regulations that are not to be exceeded during a given time in a defined
area.

Ambient Temperature: Temperature of the surrounding air (or other

medium).

Anaerobic: To function without air or oxygen.

Anhydrous: Free from water.

Aquifer: An underground rock formation composed of such materials

as sand, soil, or gravel, that can store groundwater and supply

Area A: In accordance with Arizona Revised Statutes §49-541 , the

part of the greater Phoenix Metropolitan area where specific pollution
control programs are in place for ozone, carbon monoxide, and
particulate matter. Includes parts of Yavapai and Pinal County.

Back Pressure: A pressure that can cause water to backflow into the
water supply when a user’s water system is at a higher pressure than the
public water system.

Bioaccumulation: The retention and concentration of a substance by an

organism.

Bioassay: A test which determines the effect of a chemical on a living

organism.

Bioconcentration: The accumulation of a chemical in tissues of an

organism (such as fish) to levels that are greater than the level in the
medium (such as water) in which the organism resides.

Biological Degradation: A process by which micro-organisms break

down waste materials. Nutrient additives may be introduced into a
contaminated area (such as groundwater or soil) for the specific purpose
of encouraging biodegradation.

Cadmium: A highly toxic soft, malleable, bluish white metal that

accumulates in the environment, found primarily in zinc ores.

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Carbon monoxide: A colorless, odorless gas formed by incomplete

combustion of carbon or a material relating to, containing or composed
of carbon material.

Carcinogen: A substance or agent that may produce or increase the risk

of cancer.

Characteristic: With respect to hazardous waste, one of the following

four categories: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity.

Chemical Compound: A distinct and pure substance formed by the

union or two or more elements in definite proportion by weight.

Chlorinated Solvent: An organic solvent containing chlorine atoms.

Chlorinated solvents are used in aerosol spray containers, highway
paint, dry cleaning fluids and the electronics industry.

Chlorination: The application of chlorine to water, generally for the

purpose of disinfection, but frequently for accomplishing other
biological or chemical results (aiding coagulation and controlling tastes
and odors).

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): A family of inert, nontoxic, and easily

liquefied chemicals used in refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging,
insulation, or as solvents and aerosol propellants.

Chronic: Occurring over a long period of time, either continuously or

intermittently; used to describe ongoing exposures and effects that
develop only after a long exposure.

Chronic Exposure: A continuous or repeated exposure to a hazardous

substance over a long period of time.

Contamination: Any hazardous or regulated substance released into the

environment.

Convection: Vertical transport of heat and moisture that can lead to an

increase in cloud cover and precipitation. Commonly results in
thunderstorm activity during the North American Monsoon.

Desalinization: Removal of salt from saline water to provide fresh

water (also desalination).

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Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT): The first chlorinated

hydrocarbon insecticide chemical name. It has a half-life of 15 years and
can collect in fatty tissues of certain animals. EPA banned registration
and interstate sale of DDT for virtually all but emergency uses in 1972.

Disinfectant: A chemical or physical process that kills pathogenic

organisms in water, air, or on surfaces. Chlorine is often used to
disinfect effluent, water supplies, wells, and swimming pools.

Dispersion: Dilution over time of a pollutant concentration from its

point source due to spreading out of the pollutant.

Oxygen (DO): The oxygen freely available in water, vital to fish and
other aquatic life and for the prevention of odors. DO levels are
considered a most important indicator of a water body's ability to
support desirable aquatic life.

Water Source (DWS): The use of a surface water as a source of potable

water.

Water: Water that enters a drain or channel.

Water: Water safe enough to be consumed by humans or used with low

risk of immediate or long-term harm. Also known as potable water.

Ecosystem: The interacting system of a biological community and its

non-living environmental surroundings.

Effluent: Treated or untreated wastewater that flows out of a treatment

plant, sewer, or industrial outfall. Generally refers to wastes discharged
into surface waters.

Emission: Pollution discharged into the atmosphere from smokestacks,

other vents, and surface areas of commercial or industrial facilities; from
residential chimneys; and from motor vehicle, locomotive, or aircraft
exhausts.

Environment: Includes the air, water and land, and the relationship that
exists between them and all living things, including plants, man and
other animals.

Environmental Assessment (EA): An environmental analysis prepared

pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act to determine whether
a federal action would significantly affect the environment and thus
require a more detailed environmental impact statement.

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Environmental Sustainability: Maintenance of ecosystem components

and functions for future generations.

Pathway: The route of contaminants from the source of contamination

to potential contact with a medium (air, soil, surface water, or
groundwater) that represents a potential threat to human health or the
environment. Determining whether exposure pathways exist is an
essential step in conducting a risk assessment.

Extinction (of light): The loss of light due to scattering and absorption
as it passes through the atmosphere.
Floodwater: The water that overflows because of a flood.

Groundwater: Water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore

spaces and in the fractures of geologic formations. A formation of rock
or soil is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water.

Hardness (of water): The sum of the calcium and magnesium

concentrations, expressed as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in milligrams
per liter. Excessive hardness results in excessive use of soaps and
detergents and causes the deposition of scale in teapots, water heaters,
etc.

Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs): Air pollutants which are not

covered by ambient air quality standards but which, as defined in the
Clean Air Act, may present a threat of adverse human health effects or
adverse environmental effects. Such pollutants include asbestos,
beryllium, mercury, benzene, coke oven emissions, radionuclides, and
vinyl chloride.

Hazardous Substance: Any material that, because of its quantity,

concentration, and physical or chemical characteristics, poses a
significant present or potential hazard to human health and safety or to
the environment.

Hazardous Waste (HW): By-products of society that can pose a

substantial or potential hazard to human health or the environment when
improperly managed. Hazardous waste possesses at least one of four
characteristics -- ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity.

Hazardous Waste Operator Certification: The training process to

meet guidelines produced and maintained by the Occupations Safety and
Health Administration that regulates hazardous waste operations and
emergency services.

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Inorganic Compounds: Compounds that are considered to be of

mineral as opposed to biological.
End of Module Questions

1. What are the three major consequences of population explosion?

2. What are the seven negative consequences of population growth?
3. Why is it unrealistic to expect exponential growth to continue
forever?
4. Why can exponential growth not go on forever?
5. Why can't exponential growth go on indefinitely?
6. What is the weakness of the exponential growth model?
7. Why human population is increasing at an exponential rate?
7. What are the 4 main challenges of population growth?

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