13.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

13.1 Research design (½ page)
• Find sources that would help to define (at least 2 sources)
• Your choice

13.2 Methodology (1-2 pages)

13.2.1 Research approach/method
13.2.2 Target Population
Define a population

13.2.3 Sampling Technique/Procedure and Sample

26.08.2024
 RESEARCH DESIGN
What is a research design?
The overall plan for connecting the conceptual research
problems to the pertinent (and achievable) empirical
research.
• It articulates what data is required, what methods are
going to be used to collect and analyse this data, and how
all of this is going to answer your research question.
• In other words research design is the specific procedure
involved in the research process (data collection, data
analysis).
 Research design…
• Each research paradigm has its own type of research design.

• Positivist paradigm uses quantitative research designs, for example,

experimental and survey designs.

• Anti-positivism and the critical paradigms use qualitative, and pragmatism

uses mixed research designs. Examples of designs that are used by anti-
positivists (types of qualitative design) include case study, phenomenology,
hermeneutics, ethnography, grounded theory, narrative research,
historical. Examples of designs used by the critical paradigm are critical
discourse analysis, critical ethnography, action research and ideology
critique.
 Research design….
Interactive Qualitative designs are: (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010)
A. Case study-examines a single study.
B. Ethnography-study of culture or social system.
C. Phenomenological-meanings of lived experiences.
D. Grounded theory-examines a phenomenon as related to theory.
E. Critical studies-nontraditional, theories, and approaches.
F. Historical research-

• Broadly speaking, there are two types of research

methodology: qualitative and quantitative.
 RESEARCH DESIGN
Qualitative (Gathering Insights)
• This is typically a one-on-one process in which a researcher
poses questions directly to an individual.
• The questions often ask not only for information and opinions
but also allow the interviewer to probe the richness of
emotions and motivations related to the topic.
• Researchers use qualitative data to help clarify hypotheses,
beliefs, attitudes and motivations.
• Qualitative work is often a first step because it enables a
researcher to fine-tune the language that will be used in
quantitative tools.
 RESEARCH DESIGN
• Main Types of Qualitative Research
The following section discusses main types of qualitative research in detail.
A. Case Study
1. Purpose: Case studies are constructed to richly describe, explain, or assess
and evaluate a phenomenon (e.g., event, person, program, etc.)

2. Process: The “case” is studied onsite within its natural context. The data
gathering process is often interactive as the researcher or researchers associate
with persons involved in the “case” under study.

3. Data Collection: Data is collected primarily by fieldwork, but secondary data

collection is usually employed as well. It is important that the researcher(s)
understand the phenomenon from the perspective of the participants.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4. Data Analysis: Gall et al. (1996) outlined three approaches to
case data analysis:
a. Interpretational Analysis: When employing this strategy, the
researcher is looking for patterns (threads, constructs,
commonalities, etc.) within the data to explain the phenomenon.
b. Structural Analysis: Investigating patterns which may be
found in conversations, text, activities, etc., with little or no
explication as to pattern meaning.
c. Reflective Analysis: The description and evaluation of the
studied phenomenon based on judgment and intuition by a
highly qualified expert.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
5. Communicating Findings
a. The case narrative richly and fully reports the subject’s
perceptions about the phenomenon being investigated (Leedy,
1997).
b. According to Leedy, researchers using the reflective analysis
strategy try to draw their readers into the participants’
experiences by using emotive writings, poems, etc.
c. Leedy goes onto point out that researchers using the other
two analysis approaches tend to use an objective writing style
and effectively use tables, figures, matrices, etc.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
B. Ethnographic Research Strategy
1. Purpose: Great emphasis is given to the relationship between
culture and behaviour of the group. Ethnography refers to a
qualitative design in which the researcher describes and
interprets the shared and learned patterns of values,
behaviours, beliefs, practices and language of a culture-sharing
group (Creswell,2007).
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
2. Process: Ethnographic research is very labor and time
intensive, involving extensive fieldwork in a natural setting.
Usually a general research question(s) is (are) identified.
• Once entry is gained and rapport (or trust) is established,
the research questions are continually refined becoming
more focused.
• It is not uncommon for the larger research question(s) to
be segmented into more numerous, focused ones.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3. Data Collection: Ethnographic researchers use multiple data collection
devices so that interpretations maybe grounded and triangulated. Leedy,
(1997) outlines three specific data collection devices:
a. Participant Observation: Here the researcher may participate in the
phenomenon under study to varying degrees. Observation runs a
continuum from detached observer to complete participant observer.
The researcher must take great care to be as objective as possible.
He or she is the single greatest source of bias within this strategy. The
researcher will usually record his or her thoughts, feelings, etc. when
developing field notes so as to guard against bias when interpreting the
collected data.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
b. Ethnographic Interviews: These types of interviews are
usually purposeful, employing open-ended items so that the
subject’s reality and perceptions can be documented,
understood, and interpreted.
c. Artifact Collection: This is a secondary data collection
strategy which typically includes unofficial documents, official
documents, objects, etc. which provide insight into the lives,
experiences, and perceptions of subjects.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4. Data Analysis: Data analysis within ethnographic research
occurs as data are collected. The researcher codes and classifies
data (e.g., events, observations, quotes, etc.) into a meaningful
taxonomy. New data are compared and contrasted to old so as to
note patterns, etc. This iterative process continues until the
researcher is able to make “assertions” which describe the
participants’ “reality” and perspectives.
5. Communicating Findings: Findings are reported in the form of
research based assertions supported by analytical vignettes,
interview quotes, and interpretative observations, all intended to
present a holistic, rich description of the experiences and
perceptions of participants.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
C. Phenomenological Research
1. Purpose: A qualitative research approach that seeks to understand
and describe the universal essence of a phenomenon. The approach
investigates the everyday experiences of human beings while
suspending the researchers' preconceived assumptions about the
phenomenon.
The researcher often has a significant personal interest in the
phenomenon under study as well.
2. Process: Once a phenomenon is selected, the researcher engages in
much the same process as used in ethnographic study.
3. Data Collection: Phenomenologists may study one subject, but
typically 6-10, who is or are purposefully selected. These researchers
rely on semi-structured in-depth interviews. The researcher and
subject(s) must work rather closely together to collect data.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4. Data Analysis: The researcher(s) must search interview
transcripts to locate “meaningful units” which are small bits of
text which are independently able to convey meaning.
Phenomenologists search for themes and patterns, not
categories by logically linking these “meaningful units.”
5. Communicating Findings: Phenomenologists communicate
findings through detailed narratives exploring themes and
patterns which emerged from data analysis and reduction.
These themes and patterns are then placed within the context
of virtually all instances of the phenomenon under study.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
D. Grounded Theory Research Strategy (GT)
1. Purpose: Using naturalistic iterative data collection and relationship
analysis processes, researchers derive, from the data, a theory (Creswell,
1994:12). The theory is the expected outcome of the inquiry. GT is concerned
with the generation of theory, which is 'grounded' in data that has been
systematically collected and analysed. GT is used to uncover such things
as social relationships and behaviours of groups, known as social processes.

2. Process: Using the iterative processes of data collection and analysis,

relationships between concepts are continually identified and refined so as to
enable theory development.
3. Data Collection: Grounded theorists employ the same data collection
devices as do other qualitative researchers. The process is iterative with
early data being compared and contrasted with “newer” data to refine,
discard, generate, or extend questions, hypotheses, or conclusions.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4. Data Analysis: Using the iterative process between data
collection and analysis within grounded theory, the
researcher seeks to identify patterns of interaction between
and among subjects (not necessarily individuals) by
logically liking two or more data categories (i.e., similar
topics sharing the same meaning).
Strauss and Corbin (1990) explained the three major data
coding strategies used in grounded theory research:
• (open, axial, selective)
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
a. Open Coding: As the initial coding effort, data are
deconstructed into the simplest form possible, examined for
commonalities, and sorted into categories.
b. Axial Coding: As the intermediate step, data are reassembled
based on logical connections between categories.
c. Selective Coding: At this third stage of coding, the “core”
category is determined and the relationships between it and
secondary categories are posited. Core and secondary
category relationships are later validated. Categories needing
further refinement or development are completed.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Two or more related categories (or concepts) give rise to a
theory, which is referred to as a proposition. Since several
conceptual relationships (i.e., concepts) are required to define a
theory, such theories are said to be conceptually dense.
5. Communicating Findings: Strauss and Corbin (1990) write
that to achieve “integration”, the core category (or concept) is
presented as a story line which becomes the lens through which
all other categories are examined. The relationships are
compared to the data for validation, refinement, or discard.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
E. Focus Groups
1. Purpose: Focus groups are panels, facilitated by a
moderator, who meet for a specified time period to
exchange perspectives, knowledge, and/or opinions on a
particular topic.
Groups are rarely more than a dozen members.
Focus groups are often sponsored by research, marketing,
corporate, or political organizations.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
a. Focus groups
(1) Can quickly and cheaply identify core issues of a topic.
(2) Can observe reactions to a research question or product
in an open forum.
(3) Can explore new or unexpected information or reactions
in subsequent focus groups.
(4) Enable subjects to respond in their own words and their
emotional intensity can be measured.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
b. Focus group disadvantages are
(1) The failure to use probability sampling seriously limits generalizability.
(2) The convenience sampling strategy commonly used in focus groups may
introduce bias into the research process. To counteract, ensure that group
membership is representative of the population of interest.
2. Process: A topical guide is employed, by the focus group leader, to
manage the discussion and ensure that all subjects participate. Cooper and
Schindler (p. 143) recommend running separate groups when seeking data
from subgroups of a defined population. They argue that freer and more
intense discussion will ensue. Locating members for focus groups is usually
done informally, which could result in bias.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3. Data Collection: Focus groups may be conducted in
person, over the telephone or Internet, or
videoconferencing. It is common to record activity either on
paper, tape, or video to enable accurate transcription and
reporting. Using trained observers and standard reporting
forms is also common. It is also routine practice to blend
survey research methods into focus group data collection.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4. Data Analysis: Focus group data are analyzed in much
the same manner as are case studies.
5. Communicating Findings: After data are analyzed and
interpreted, reports are issued which is a blend of rich
narrative and any quantitative data are presented in the
usual manner.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
F. Historical Research
1. Purpose: Historical research relies on records, diaries,
oral histories, photographs, and other artifacts to describe,
analyze, and explain past events, philosophies, etc. The
artifacts and records used are driven by the particular study
and its research question(s). Historical research relies
significantly on inductive, logical reasoning.
2. Process: While lacking highly defined methodological
traditions, historiography is widely used. Essentially, it is a
four step process, with considerable overlap:
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
a. Identification of the Research Problem: Identify the
reason for the research project and its corresponding,
assumptions, questions or hypotheses. If hypotheses are
posed, they are in the form of speculations as to reasons,
processes, consequences, and/or characteristics of an
event, issue, personage, circumstance, etc. under
investigation. Any posited hypotheses should be based on
accurate factual assumptions.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
b. Collection and Evaluation of Source Materials: Documents
(e.g., books, newspapers, journals, letters, transcripts, etc.),
artifacts (e.g., pictures, equipment, records, tapes, film, pottery,
art works, etc.), information databases (hardcopy or electronic),
and/or oral histories are examined. These documents, artifacts,
databases, etc. are either primary or secondary sources:
(1) Primary source is, an original or first-hand account of the
event or experience.
(2) Secondary source is any account that is not primary.
Primary sources are more desirable than secondary sources.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
c. Once evidence is collected it must be examined. External and
internal criticisms are essential components of the examination.
(1) External Criticism: External criticism is used to determine the
physical authenticity (i.e., validity) of the record, document, or
artifact related to its investigation.
(2) Internal Criticism: Historical researchers employ internal
criticism to assess the degree, if any, of bias within the content
of a record, document, or artifact. Internal criticism also seeks
to ascertain the historical meaning and accuracy of an artifact’s
content.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
d. Synthesis of Information: Once each document is authenticated, its
contribution to the research underway must be determined. As the
synthesis process evolves, it may be necessary for the researchers to
reframe research questions or hypotheses given available data. It may
be necessary to repeat the second or even first step in the process.
e. Analysis, Interpretation, and Formulating Conclusions: Historical
research relies on inductive logical information analysis. At this step,
conclusions are derived and hypotheses either supported or not.
Alternative explanations should be “explained away.” Also, the
researcher should be as objective as possible. There should be
substantial citations to support the author’s (s’) conclusions.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3. Data Collection: As noted above, data collection is a function of identifying
documents, artifacts, etc.; examining their authenticity; chronologically
ordering them; and then determining value or contribution to the research
effort.
4. Data Analysis: Cross-referencing (triangulation) is essential to establish
the veracity of a single document, artifact, etc. Each document, artifact, etc.
needs to undergo chronological examination. Core ideas, concepts, and
facts, need to be “pulled together” so as to make sense given the context of
the period of time or event under study.
5. Communicating Findings: Reports of historical research are usually
presented in narrative, absent headings; however, this is changing. The
purpose of the study is typically cited first and placed within a context. Next,
are presented any research questions or hypotheses with supportive or
contradictory evidence; the hypothesis is either retained or refuted. Once all
the evidence is presented, conclusions are drawn.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
QUANTITATIVE (Establishing Statistical Reliability)
This process utilizes detailed questionnaires often distributed to large
numbers of people.
Questions are typically multiple choice and participants choose the most
appropriate response among those listed for each question.
Quantitative research collects a huge amount of data, which can often be
generalized to a larger population and allow for direct comparisons between
two or more groups.
It also provides statisticians with a great deal of flexibility in analyzing the
results.
Quantitative research is a type of educational research in which the
researcher decides what to study, asks specific, narrow questions, collects
numeric (numbered) data from participants, analyses these numbers using
statistics, and conducts the enquiry in an unbiased way, objective manner.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
• According to McMillan and Schumacher (2010) sub
classification of quantitative design is experimental and non-
experimental.
Experimental designs - the researcher intervenes with a
procedure that determines what the subjects will experience.
Non-experimental designs describe phenomena and examine
relationships between different phenomena without any direct
manipulation of conditions that are experienced.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
• Most common experimental designs are (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010):
• True-experimental-includes random assignments for participants.
• Quasi-experimental-no random assignment.
• Single-subject-one or few participants.

There are six types of non-experimental designs (McMillan & Schumacher,

2010):
1. Descriptive-simple qualitative summary.
2. Comparative-differences between groups.
3. Correlational-a relationship between phenomena.
4. Survey-information collected from groups.
5. Ex post facto- intervention from the past.
6.Secondary data analysis-using existing data.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
• Mixed methods design
Mixed method study combines characteristics of both
quantitative and qualitative approaches to research. This mix
could emphasise one set of characteristics or the other
(MacMillan & Schumacher, 2010:11).
With mixed method designs, the following can apply
(McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:25):
• Explanatory designs-quantitative, then qualitative.
• Exploratory designs-qualitative, then quantitative.
• Triangulation designs-quantitative and qualitative together.
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
• Therefore triangulation is the use of two or more
methods of data collection.
• In triangulation, the researcher uses multiple methods or
the multi-method approach that characterizes so much of
research in social sciences.

• This research is carried out by researchers to increase

the validity of their research.
 VALIDITY AND RELIABILTY
• Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers
to a question.

• In QLT research validity might be addressed through honesty, depth and

richness and scope of the data achieved, the participants approached, the
extent of triangulation or the disinterestedness or objectivity of the researcher.

• In QNT research validity might be improved through careful sampling,

appropriate instrumentation and appropriate statistical treatments of the data.
 VALIDITY AND RELIABILTY
• Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement
procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy.

• In QNT research, when the same methods are used with

the same sample then the results should be the same.

• In QLT research, reliability can be regarded as a fit

between what researchers’ record as data and what
occurs in the natural setting that is being researched.
 POPULATION
• Specification of a “population” (or “universe”) to which
you wish to generalize. Target population circuit
• Identification of a sampling frame of the population
which lists all learners, all teachers the persons, families,
etc. in the desired population. Often no perfect frame
exists, and available or compiled lists include some people
not in the population, and perhaps some people are listed
more than once.
• Drawing the sample. Quantitative research using
inferential statistics requires random sampling; qualitative
research usually uses non-random procedures.
 Population…
• According to Castillo (2009) a research population is generally a
large collection of individuals or objects that is the main focus of a
scientific query.
• It is for the benefit of the population that researches are done.
However, due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often
cannot test every individual in the population because it is too
expensive and time-consuming, then researchers rely on sampling
techniques/strategies.
• A research population is also known as a well-defined collection of
individuals or objects known to have similar characteristics. All
individuals or objects within a certain population usually have a
common, binding characteristic or trait.
 Population…
• Usually, the description of the population and the common
binding characteristic of its members are the same.
• "Government officials" is a well-defined group of
individuals which can be considered as a population and
all the members of this population are indeed officials of
the government for example.
 SAMPLE
• The process of selecting a sample from a defined population
with the intent that the sample accurately represents that
population.
• Sometimes a study involves the entire population of interest,
but more often it involves only a small portion of the students,
employees, families, schools, communities, or other “units of
analysis.”
Sampling serves three purposes:
1. It reduces the costs and time required to do the research;
2. It improves the quality of information collected (allowing
intensive data collection) and,
3. It reduces the burden on respondents (participants)
 Sample…
• Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by
taking a sample.

• A Sample is a segment of the population selected to

represent the population as a whole. Ideally, the sample
should be representative and allow the researcher to make
accurate estimates of the thoughts and behaviour of the
larger population.
 Sample…
• Designing the sample calls for three decisions:

1. Who will be surveyed? (The Sample)

• The researcher must determine what type of information is needed
and who is most likely to have it.
2. How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)
• Large samples give more reliable results than small samples.
However it is not necessary to sample the entire target population.
3. How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling
procedure/technique)
• Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire
population (probability sample)
 Types of Samples
• The researcher should decide at research proposal stage who to select
to obtain information from. The needs of the research project will
determine which method is most effective

A. Probability samples (the selection of a sample from a population, this

selection is based on the principle of randomization-random selection or
chance)
• Simple random sample: Every member of the population has a known
and equal chance of being selected.
• Stratified random sample: Population is divided into mutually exclusive
groups such as age groups and random samples are drawn from each
group.
• Cluster (area) sample: The population is divided into mutually exclusive
groups such as blocks, and the researcher draws a sample of the
group to interview.
 Types of Samples…
B. Nonprobability samples (method of selecting participants from a
population using a subjective method - non-random)
• Convenience sample: The researcher selects the easiest population
members from which to obtain information. The researcher selects
participants because they are willing and available to be studied.
• Judgment sample: The researcher uses his/her judgment to select
population members who are good prospects for accurate
information.
• Quota sample: The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed
number of people in each of several categories.
• Convenience sampling: The researcher selects the participants
because they are convenient sources of data.
• Snowballing: The researcher asks participants to identify others to
become members of the sample.