INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

(EDR5121/5221)
Dr DA Sinthumule

2024
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL STUDIES: SCHOOL OF
EDUCATION
Table of Contents
A. COURSE OUTLINE ................................................................................................................ 3
B. NOTES ....................................................................................................................................... 6
1. WHY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH IS IMPORTANT........................................................... 6
2. ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................ 6
3. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 7
4. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .................................................................................................. 7
5. AIM OR PURPOSE OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................. 8
6. RESEARCH QUESTIONS OR HYPOTHESIS ................................................................................ 9
7. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE ................................................................................................. 10
7.1 The specific purpose of literature review .................................................................................... 11
7.2 The importance of literature review ............................................................................................ 12
7.3 Functions of literature review ..................................................................................................... 12
7.4 Procedure for reviewing the literature ......................................................................................... 13
7.5 Search for existing literature ....................................................................................................... 13
8. DEFINITION OF TERMS ............................................................................................................... 15
9. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................ 15
9.1 Qualitative (Gathering Insights) .................................................................................................. 16
9.1.1 Main Types Qualitative Research ..................................................................................... 17
9.2. Quantitative (Establishing Statistical Reliability).......................................................................... 21
9.3. Mixed methods............................................................................................................................... 22
Population ............................................................................................................................................. 23
Determining sample design................................................................................................................... 23
10. TYPES OF SAMPLES ................................................................................................................... 24
10.1 Probability samples ................................................................................................................... 24
10.2 Nonprobability samples............................................................................................................. 24
11. DATA COLLECTION STRATEGIES .......................................................................................... 25
11.1 Quantitative Data collection methods ....................................................................................... 25
12. GUIDELINES TO CONSTRUCT A RESEARCH TOOL ............................................................ 28
12.1 How to construct questionnaires ............................................................................................... 28
12.2 Piloting the Questionnaire ......................................................................................................... 29
13. QUALITAIVE DATA COLLECTION ...................................................................................... 29

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14. DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................................... 30
14.1 Qualitative Data Analysis: ........................................................................................................ 30
14.2 Quantitative Data Analysis........................................................................................................ 30
14.3 Methods of Data Analysis in Qualitative Research ................................................................. 31
15. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY................................................................................................ 34
16. DELIMITATION AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY ............................................................ 35
16.1 Limitation of the Study ............................................................................................................. 35
16.2 Delimitations (Optional) ........................................................................................................... 35
17. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................... 36
17.1 Voluntary participation ............................................................................................................. 36
17.2 Informed consent ....................................................................................................................... 36
17.3 Risk of harm .............................................................................................................................. 36
17.4 Confidentiality and anonymity .................................................................................................. 37
LIST OF REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 37
APPENDIX A: PREPARING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL .......................................................... 39
APPENDIX B: REFERENCE TECHNIQUES .................................................................................... 53

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SCHOOL OF EDUCATION: Department of Educational Studies

EDR 5121 INRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

A. COURSE OUTLINE
1. Title of Module : Educational Research
2. Module Codes : EDR5121
3. Credit Value : 12
4. Semester : One
5. Program : B.ED (Hons)
6. Module level (NQF) : 6
7. School : Education

8. Modules Requirements
Aims
(a) To develop competencies of analysis and critical thinking in educational research;
(b) To identify challenges in education system in order to come up with scientific solutions
to the identified challenges;
(c) To introduce students to methods of research in education;
(d) To introduce and critique Core competencies
At the end of the module students must be able to:
• Conduct research in education;
• Analyse data in educational research;
• Assess what role research in education should play in promoting the aims and
purposes of education in South Africa.

Learning outcomes
At the end of the module, students should have
• Developed research skills to enable them to conduct research in education in relation to
International Standards of Research;
• Developed research skills that would assist them in researching education-related issues
both at local and international level;
• Acquired research skills;
• The ability to comment on and participate meaningfully in the debates about research in
education.

9. Content
Importance of research
Abstract
Statement of the problem
Aim or purpose of the study
Research questions
Literature review
Research design and methodology
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 Methodological paradigms in educational research
• Quantitative paradigm
• Qualitative paradigm
• Mixed paradigm
Data analysis
Ethical Considerations
Significance of the study
Delimitation of the study

10. Teaching and learning methods

• Lecture method
• Discussions
• Self study
• Assignments
• Class presentation
• Project

11. Notional Hours: 120

11.1 Number of contact hours 2 Hours per week
11.2 Lectures
11.3 Class discussions
11.4 Project presentations
11.5 Library

12. Tests and examinations

Number of non-contact hours
12.1 Use of library and self-study 30
12.2 Projects 20
12.3 Self-study 30
12.4 Group discussion 20
12.5 Writing assignments 20
12.6 Study for tests and assignments 30
12.7 Preparation for examinations 30

13. Assessment methods and weighting

13.1 Continuous assessment 60%
13.2 Summative assessment 40%

14. Assessment Criteria for content, learning outcomes and competencies.

Students will be assessed in the following manner:
14.1 Written work 100%
14.2 Assignments 30%
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14.3 Tests 30%
14.4 Examination 40%

15. Lecturer:
Dr DA Sinthumule
Office No.: FF23 School of Education Building
015 962 9111/072 650 8350

16. Reading List

Prescribed Readings
• Maree, K., 2016. First steps in research. Van Schaik Publishers.

Additional Reading
• Lantsoght, E. O. L. (2018) The a-z of the phd trajectory : a practical guide for a
successful journey. Cham: Springer
• McMillan, J.H. and Schumacher, S. 2010. (7th). Research in Education: Evidence-
based enquiry. New York: Pearson.
• Lategan, L.O.K.; Leus, L. and Frederich-Nel, H. (ed.). 2011. Doing research.
Bloemfontein: SUN PRESS.
• Cohen, L. & Manion, L. 2011. Research methods in education. (7th ed). New York:
Routledge Falmer.
• Babbie, E. and Mouton, J. 2001. The Practice of Social Research. Cape Town.
Oxford University Press.
• Mouton, J. (2001). How to succeed in your Master’s and Doctoral studies. Pretoria:
Van Schaick Publishers.
• Christians, C.G. (2000). Ethics and Politics in Qualitative Research. In Norman K.
Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln (Eds.). Handbook of Qualitative Research. London:
Sage Publications, Inc.
• Hammersley, M. 1993. Social Research: Philosophy, Politics and Practice. Sage
Publications: London.
• Hutchingson, S. 1990. Education and Grounded Theory. In Sherman, R.R. and
Webb, R.B. Qualitative Research in Education: Focus and Methods. London:
Macmillan.
• Mcmillan, J.H. 1992. Educational research. New York: Harper Collins.
• Punch, K.F. 1998. Introduction to social research: Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches. London: Sage Publications.
• Punch, M. (1994). Politics and ethics in qualitative research. In N.K. Denzin and
Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative research (pp. 83-97). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
• Rossi, P.H.; Freeman, H. and Lipsey J. 1999. Evaluation: A systematic approach.
London: Sage Publications.

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 • Sherman, R.R. and Rodman B. Webb. 1993. Qualitative Research in Education: A
Focus and Methods. London: Macmillan.
• Strauss, A. and Corbin J. 1990. Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory
Procedures and Techniques. London: Sage Publications.

B. NOTES

1. WHY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH IS IMPORTANT

It is essential for researchers and scholars to understand the importance of research. This is an integral
part for school success as well as in many professions. The main purposes of research are to inform
action, gather evidence for theories, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field of study.
Research is important for everyone, not just students, reserachers, scholars and scientists.

McMillan and Schumacher (2010:3) suggest six reasons for the importance of evidence-based inquiry.
• Educators are constantly trying to understand educational processes and must make professional
decisions.
• Non-educational policy groups, such as state and provincial legislatures and courts, have increasingly
mandated changes in education.
• Concerned public, professional, and private groups and foundations have increased their research
activities.
• Reviews of prior research have interpreted accumulated empirical evidence.
• Educational research is readily available
• Many educators who are not full-time researchers conduct studies to guide their decisions and to
enhance classroom, school, and system accountability.

2. ABSTRACT
The abstract is a short paragraph that summarises the entire research report. Most abstracts contain a
statement of the purpose of the study, a brief description of the subjects and what they did during the
study and a summary of important results the abstract provides a quick overview of the research. The
abstract gives the reader a clear idea of the main thrust of the intended research. It is usually written in
no more than 250 words (between 150 to 250 words). The abstract presents the central problem
question/hypothesis, why it is a problem worthy of study, how the student will go about studying it. It
should be succinct and informative, giving a reasoned indication of what is intended and why.
Although it comes at the beginning the proposal, it is often the last thing the student construct. It can
only be written when once the student has a clear idea about the topic, problem, justification, research
design and main claims. These parts of the proposal must first be written before an attempt to construct
the abstract is made (Bak, 2004).

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 3. INTRODUCTION
This item requires the researcher to state as succinctly as possible the nature of the problem as they
perceive it. In this way the researcher exposes the problem, why it is considered important and how
they hope to contribute to its solution. The researcher gives the background to the problem; this may
include some aspects that the researcher has experienced in their life time, for example, direct personal
experiences or what they read about. It is important for the researcher to start by focusing on the
international perspective and then regional and national perspectives when contextualizing the
research. The past and current developments showing the knowledge gap the investigation seeks to fill
should be shown. In short, the researcher may state how they became aware of the existence of the
problem.

According to Creswell (1994:42), the Introduction should include the following:

• Create reader interest in the topic,
• Lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study,
• Place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and
• Reach out to a specific audience.

4. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

As the heading implies, the purpose of the study is stated in this section. The problem statement is
among the most critical parts of the research proposal or dissertation because it provides focus and
direction for the remainder of the study (and subsequent report). A well-written problem statement
defines the problem and helps identify the variables that will be investigated in the study.

Research problems are the educational issues, controversies, or concerns studied by researchers. These
problems exist in our educational settings. These problems concern personnel in our schools,
classrooms. To locate the research problem in a study, you should ask yourself the following questions
(Creswell, 2005:61):
• What was the issue, problem, or controversy that the researcher wanted to address?
• What controversy leads to a need for the study?
• What was the concern being addressed behind the study?

According to Baron (2013) generally, there is no one "correct" or "best way" to write the problem
statement. However, the following examples illustrate commonly used formats that are acceptable.
• This study will compare, contrast, investigate, describe, determine, examine, develop, clarify,
or evaluate the issue being studied.
• The purpose of this study will be to determine the variables that explain the difference between
males and females and identify those variables that differ significantly between the two genders.
• This study is designed to investigate B.Ed. (Hons) postgraduate students' perceptions regarding
the difficulty of research module at UNIVEN and determine which modules are more difficult
than others.

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The research problem statement is the foundation and focus of one’s research report. It is a clear, stand‐
alone statement that makes explicit what it is one is aiming to discover or establish. If one gets this
right one is setting up for success. If one’s Research Problem is poorly worded, unfocused or
ambiguous, the rest of research is likely to go off‐track very early; one will do a great deal of
unnecessary reading and writing, losing sight of the big picture (Carmichael, 2009:2).

Carmichael (2009:4) further states that one should only have a small number of sub‐problems – no
more than 2 to 3 preferably. If you have too many, your project may be too big. In this case, exclude
some of the investigation and state what you will NOT be included in your research under the heading
“Delimitations”. Your sub‐problems with their key words are your guide as to what to look up in the
literature to see what has already been published on your topic. Your literature review is based on one
sub‐problem at a time. Thus your sub‐problems will keep you on track – but they may be tweaked from
time to time as you read more and more – it is an iterative process. Prepare to do a LOT of reading
around your topic. To be a “Master” of your topic, you need to know most of what has been written
about it, what the main ideas are who the most important authors are, and be able to differentiate
credible sources from those that are not.

In addition, statement of the problem is a clear, precise statement of the research problem. Arising
from the discussion of the literature the student needs to articulate the specific problem that they are
planning to investigate. This captures the essential focus of the study, and it is important that students
spend time on formulating a clear, focused and interesting academic problem that is researchable.

The central research problem must be:

• One main problem stated in a single sentence, question or hypothesis. If the student cannot
state it this way, it is an indication that they do not as yet have enough focus.
• The question must be a problem. It should focus on, for example, a gap in the debates, a
puzzle, a muddle, an ambiguity, a tension, or a paradox (Bak, 2004).

5. AIM OR PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

This item captures the intention of the study. The researcher says explicitly what the study will achieve
at the end – the expected results of the study. The purpose justifies the need for the study. The
objectives are the goals reserchers set out to attain in the study. They inform a reader what you want to
attain through the study. It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.

The objectives should be listed under two headings:

a) main objectives ( aims);
b) sub-objectives.

The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement of the main
associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish.

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The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the main
framework of your study. They should be numerically listed. The wording should clearly, completely
and specifically communicate to your readers your intention. Each objective should contain only one
aspect of the study. The use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.

The objectives should start with words such as:

‘To determine’,
‘To find out’,
‘To ascertain’,
‘To measure’,
‘To explore’ etc.

The wording of objectives determines the type of research (descriptive, correlational and experimental)
and the type of research design you need to adopt to achieve them.
e.g. Descriptive studies:
-To describe the types of incentives provided by the Department of Education to educators in South
Africa.
-To find out the opinion of the employees about the medical assistance provided by hospitals.

Correlational studies:
-To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.
-To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele.

Hypothesis –testing studies:

-To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of drug/alcohol abuse.
-To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in Khoroni hotel will
reduce staff turnover.

McMillan & Schumacher (2010:49) state that the purpose is a statement that indicates in a more specific
manner what is being investigated. This is indicated by the ubiquitous phrase “The purpose of the study
is to….”

6. RESEARCH QUESTIONS OR HYPOTHESIS

Research questions are questions in quantitative or qualitative research that narrow the purpose
statement to specific questions that researchers seek to answer. Unlike the single statement found in a
purpose statement, researcher typically state multiple research questions so that they can fully explore
the topic. Research questions are found in both qualitative and quantitative research, but their elements
differ depending on the type of research one is conducting (Creswell, 2005:117).

Hypotheses are statements in quantitative research in which the investigator makes a prediction or a
conjecture (guess) about the outcome of a relationship among attributes or characteristics. In addition,
Gall; Borg and Gall (1996:50) state that hypothesis is a testable prediction about observable phenomena
that is based on theory’s constructs (concepts) and their presumed relationships. Traditionally,

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hypotheses serve like research questions, to narrow the purpose statement to specific predictions.
Researchers base these predictions on past research results and literature where investigators have
found certain results and can now offer predictions as to what other investigators will find when they
repeat the study with new people or at new sites (Creswell, 2005:117).

The research problem is distinct from the topic of study, the purpose or intent of the study, and specific
research question. The research problem stands on its own because it represents the problem addressed
in the study. A research problem is a general education issue, concern or controversy addressed in the
research that narrows the topic. A purpose is the major intent or objective of the study used to address
the problem. Research questions narrow the purpose into specific questions that the researcher would
like answered or addressed in the study (Creswell, 2005:61; McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:47).

According to Baron (2013) hypotheses and research questions emerge from the problem statement and
operationalize it in terms of specific variables and relationships to be examined and reported.
Hypotheses and research questions also suggest methodology for the study and serve as the basis for
drawing conclusions.

7. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

To start with Baron (2013) states that the purpose of literature review is to provide the reader with a
comprehensive review of the literature related to the problem under investigation. The review of related
literature should greatly expand upon the introduction and background information presented in the
proposal. This chapter may contain theories and models relevant to the problem, a historical overview
of the problem, current trends related to the problem, and significant research data published about the
problem. The first section of literature review generally indicates how the chapter is organized and
explains the subsections that comprise the chapter.

For example: Literature review provides an extensive review of the literature and research related to
principal selection. The chapter will be divided into sections that include (a) history of the principalship,
(b) importance of the principal, (c) current selection practices, and (d) recommended selection
practices.

Literature review may be lengthy, it is essential to divide the chapter into as many sections and
subsections as needed to logically organize the information presented. (Note: Each section and
subsection heading must be properly listed in the Table of Contents). As literature review presents
information and conclusions drawn by other researchers, citations should be used extensively
throughout the chapter. Although you are presenting information from other researchers and writers,
avoid overuse of direct quotations. Including many direct quotations produces a literature review that
usually lacks transitions and flow, and is difficult to read (Baron, 2013). Literature review is NOT the
place for the researcher to interject any personal ideas or theories. Direct quotations, indirect quotations
or paraphrasing, as well as any information attributable to other researchers and individuals require
citations (and subsequent references at the end of the dissertation) should use the format recommended
(Baron, 2013). The School of Education recommends the Harvard Referencing Style.

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In some studies that rely on historical and extensive descriptive information, literature review may be
the main focus of the whole dissertation and quite long. In general, however, literature review contains
between 15 and 30 pages. Generally, literature review (Chapter 2) ends with a short summary of the
information presented in the chapter. Several paragraphs that highlight the most pertinent information
from the review of literature are usually sufficient.
There are two major reasons of reviewing and use literature (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:73):
• The review establishes important links between existing knowledge and the research problem
being investigated, which enhances significance; and
• The review provides very helpful information about methodology that can be incorporated into
a new study.

The use of these ideas, materials, and experiences enhances the overall credibility of new studies. It
must be always remembered that almost every question about doing new research can be answered by
knowing what others have done and reported. This is why literature review is so important.

7.1 The specific purpose of literature review

McMillan and Schumacher (2010:73) state that the purpose of literature review is to relate previous
research and theory to the problem under investigation. The six more specific purposes of literature
review are:
• Refining research problem-the previous literature helps to narrow down the topic to these
specific questions. In one sense, the literature provides the ‘data’ for developing specific
research questions. For qualitative studies, the review helps establish the appropriate
foreshadowed or central questions that guide the investigation. Previous research is used as a
justification for how these questions will achieve the purpose of the study. The literature also
helps frame the more specific sub-questions that guide data gathering.

• Establishing a conceptual or theoretical framework-by placing the research into a more

general conceptual framework or theoretical orientation, a rationale is provided for the research
questions. Essentially, the intellectual or scholarly perspective in which the problem is
embedded is described.

• Developing significance-research needs to make meaningful contribution to existing

knowledge or practice. By basing the study on what has been reported, a stronger case for
significance can be made. It is best to indicate specifically how the results will be significant,
how they will add to, expand, and build on what has already been done.

• Identifying methodological limitations-one of the best ways to justify the significance and
contribution of the study is to focus on methodological limitations of previous research. This
involves an analysis of the literature, not simply a reporting of what others have found.

• Identifying contradictory findings-the review of literature may uncover studies in which the
findings contradict one another.

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 • Developing research hypotheses-good research hypotheses that are used in quantitative
research are based on what is suggested from previous studies. Similar research may suggest
that a specific result is likely, and hypotheses will be consistent with those findings.

7.2 The importance of literature review

Literature review enables reserachers and scholars to collect relevant existing knowledge in the field.
The information on chosen topic is synthesized into a cohesive summary. It is through vigorous
literature review that researcher is prepared to make own argument on the topic. According to Mouton
(2001:87) the following are the importance of a literature review:
• To ensure that one does not merely duplicate a previous study;
• To discover what is the most recent and authoritative theorizing about the subject;
• To find out what are the most widely accepted empirical findings in the field of study;
• To identify the available instrumentation that has proven validity and reliability;
• To ascertain the most widely accepted definitions of key concepts in the field;
• To save time and avoid duplication and unnecessary repetition, and
• To provide clues and suggestions as to what avenues to follow.

7.3 Functions of literature review

Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also rewarding. Its
functions are to bring clarity and focus to your research problem; improve your methodology;broaden
your knowledge as well as contextualise your findings.

• Bring clarity and focus to your research problem

The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better and thus helps
you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to understand the
relationship between your research problem and the body of knowledge in the area.

• Improve your methodology

A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to the ones that you
are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked well for them, and what problems they
have faced with them. Thus you will be better positioned to select a methodology that is capable of
providing valid answer to your research questions.

• Broaden your knowledge base in your research area

It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you intend to conduct your research
study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It also
helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.

• Contextualise your findings

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How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found? What contribution
have you been able to make in to the existing body of knowledge? How are your findings different
from those of others? For you to be able to answer these questions, you need to go back to your literature
review. It is important to place your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of
enquiry.

7.4 Procedure for reviewing the literature

According to Gall et al (1996:117) after formulating a problem statement, a researcher is ready to

initiate a literature review.
The following steps are critical when searching for literature:
They recommended the following steps to follow when literature is reviewed:
• Step 1: Search preliminary sources:
Identify books, articles, professional papers, and other publications that are relevant to the
problem statement.
• Step 2: Use secondary sources:
In examining preliminary sources, one might find out that other researchers already have written
reviews of the literature that are relevant to one’s problem statement. Such reviews are
examples of secondary sources. A secondary source is a document written by someone who did
not actually does research, develop the theories, or express the opinions that they have
synthesized into a literature review. Preliminary sources can help to determine whether
secondary sources are available.

• Step 3: Read primary sources:

Secondary sources generally review many research studies, but none in detail. For this reason,
one will need to obtain and study the original reports of at least those studies that are most
central to one’s proposed investigation. These original reports are called primary sources. A
primary source is a document (journal article or dissertation) that was written by the individuals
who actually conducted the research study or two formulated the theory or opinions that are
described in the document.

• Step 4: Synthesise the literature

Once one has read literature all the relevant primary and secondary sources, one will need to
emphasise what one has learned in order to write a literature review. The purpose of literature
review is to inform the reader about what already is known, and what is not yet known, about
the problems or questions that you plan to investigate.

7.5 Search for existing literature

To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you have in mind at
least some idea of broad subject area and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set
parameters for your search. Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources are: Books and
Journals.
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Books
Books comprise a central part of any bibliography. Advantage-material published generally is of good
quality and the findings are integrated with other research to form a coherent body of knowledge.
Disadvantage-material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years between the completion
of a work and publication in the form of a book. Search for books in your area of interest, prepare a
final list, locate these books in the libraries or borrow from other sources. Examine their content, if
contents are not found to be relevant to your topic, delete it from your reading list.

Journals
Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is a gap of two to three
years between the completion of a research project and the publication in a journal. As with books, you
need to prepare a list of journals for identifying literature relevant to your study. This can be done as
follows:
-locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study;
- use the internet; and
- look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and read the articles.

Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to look at in more detail for your
review of literature. Select the latest issue; examine its content page to see if there is an article of
relevance to your research topic. If you feel a particular article is of relevance to you, read its abstract.
If you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or prepare a summary and record it for reference for
later use.

Review the selected literature:

After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step is to start reading them critically to pull
together themes and issues that are associated. If you do not have a theoretical framework of themes in
mind to start with, use separate sheets of paper for each article or book. Once you develop a rough
framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into that framework, using a separate
sheet of paper for each theme of that framework. As you read further, go on slotting the information
where it logically belongs under the theme so far developed. You may need to add more themes as you
go. Read critically with particular reference to the following aspects:
• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed beyond doubt.
• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies adopted and
the criticisms of them.
• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations. Ascertain the areas in
which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.

Develop a theoretical framework:

As you have limited time it is important to set parameters by reviewing the literature in relation to some
main themes pertinent to your research topic. As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it
deals with a number of aspects that have a direct and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these
aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework.

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Until you go through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework and until you have
developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:
- universal;
- more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program)
In writing about such information you should start with the general information, gradually narrowing
down to the specific.

Writing up the literature reviewed:

In order to comply with the first function of literature review i.e. to provide theoretical background to
your study:
-List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature;
-Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise, descriptive of the theme in
question, and follow a logical progression.
-Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in question,
highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identify gaps and issues.
In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualising the findings of your
study- requires you to very systematically compare your findings with those made by others. Quote
from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It places your findings
in the context of what others have found out. This function is undertaken when writing about your
findings i.e. after analysis of your data.

8. DEFINITION OF TERMS
According to Baron (2013) this section provides definitions for terms used in the proposal that are
unusual or not widely understood. In addition, common terms that have special meaning in the study
should be defined in this section. Acronyms (except those in common usage) frequently require
definition at this point. A brief introductory statement usually precedes the actual list of definitions that
are bolded, first-line indented, and listed in alphabetical order.

The following definitions are provided to ensure uniformity and understanding of these terms
throughout the study. The researcher developed all definitions not accompanied by a citation.

When defining terms, it is important to cite appropriate references if all or some of your definitions are
taken from other sources. As is true throughout the proposal/dissertation, direct quotations (less than
40 words or four typed lines) should be enclosed in quotation marks and the specific page number from
the source of the quotation included in the citation. Take note of the reference style adopted by your
department.

9. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Research design is the overall plan for connecting the conceptual research problems to the pertinent
(and achievable) empirical research. In other words, the research design articulates what data is
required, what methods are going to be used to collect and analyse this data, and how all of this is going
to answer your research question. In other words research design is the specific procedure involved in

15
research process (data collection, data analysis). Both data and methods, and the way in which these
will be configured in the research project, need to be the most effective in producing the answers to the
research question (taking into account practical and other constraints of the study). Different design
logics are used for different types of study (Van Wyk, 2010:3) and (Creswell, 2005:51). Broadly
speaking, there are two types of research methodology: qualitative and quantitative.

9.1 Qualitative (Gathering Insights)

This is typically a one-on-one process in which a researcher poses questions directly to an individual.
The questions often ask not only for information and opinions but also allow the interviewer to probe
the richness of emotions and motivations related to the topic. Researchers use qualitative data to help
clarify hypotheses, beliefs, attitudes and motivations. Qualitative work is often a first step because it
enables a researcher to fine-tune the language that will be used in quantitative tools.
Creswell (2005:39) describes qualitative research as a type of educational research in which the
researcher relies on the views of participants, asks broad, general questions, collecting data consisting
largely of words (or text) from participants, describes and analyses these words for themes, and
conducts the inquiry in a subjective, biased manner.

Interactive qualitative designs/main types of qualitative design are (McMillan & Schumacher,
2010:23):
• Ethnography-study of culture or social system.
• Phenomenological-meanings of lived experiences.
• Case study-examines a single study.
• Grounded theory-examines a phenomenon as related to theory.
• Critical studies-nontraditional, theories, and approaches.
Main Types of Qualitative Research
Attempts to shed light on a phenomenon by studying
in depth a single case example of the
Case study
phenomena. The case can be an individual person,
an event, a group, or an institution.

Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of

Grounded theory
data acquired by a participant-observer.

Describes the structures of experience as they

present themselves to consciousness, without
Phenomenology
recourse to theory, deduction, or assumptions from
other disciplines

Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close

field observation of sociocultural phenomena.
Ethnography
Typically, the ethnographer focuses on a
community.

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 Systematic collection and objective evaluation of
data related to past occurrences in order to test
Historical hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of
these events that may help to explain present events
and anticipate future events. (Gay, 1996)

(Meyers in Neill, 2006)

9.1.1 Main Types Qualitative Research

The following section discusses main types of qualitative research in detail.
A. Case Study

1. Purpose: Case studies are constructed to richly describe, explain, or assess and evaluate a
phenomenon [e.g., event, person, program, etc.] (Gall, Borg & Gall, 1996:549).
2. Process: The “case” is studied onsite within its natural context. The data gathering process is
often interactive as the researcher or researchers associate with persons involved in the
“case” under study.
3. Data Collection: Data is collected primarily by fieldwork, but secondary data collection is
usually employed as well. It is important that the researcher(s) understand the phenomenon
from the perspective of the participants.
4. Data Analysis: Gall et al. (1996:549) outlined three approaches to case data analysis:
a. Interpretational Analysis: When employing this strategy, the researcher is looking for
patterns (threads, constructs, commonalities, etc.) within the data to explain the
phenomenon.
b. Structural Analysis: Investigating patterns which may be found in conversations, text,
activities, etc., with little or no explication as to pattern meaning.
c. Reflective Analysis: The description and evaluation of the studied phenomenon based on
judgement and intuition by a highly qualified expert.

5. Communicating Findings
a. The case narrative richly and fully reports the subject’s perceptions about the
phenomenon being investigated (Leedy, 1997:158).
b. According to Leedy, researchers using the reflective analysis strategy try to draw their
readers into the participants’ experiences by using emotive writings, poems, etc.
c. Leedy goes onto point out that researchers using the other two analysis approaches tend
to use an objective writing style and effectively use tables, figures, matrices, etc.

B. Ethnographic Research Strategy

1. Purpose: Goetz and Le Compte (1984:2-3) describe ethnography as, “[an] analytical
description of social scenes and groups that recreate for the reader the shared beliefs,

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 practices, artifacts, folk knowledge, and behaviors of those people.” Great emphasis is given
to the relationship between culture and behavior.
2. Process: Ethnographic research is very labor and time intensive, involving extensive
fieldwork in a natural setting. Usually a general research question(s) is (are) identified. Once
entry is gained and rapport (or trust) is established, the research questions are continually
refined becoming more focused. It is not uncommon for the larger research question(s) to
be segmented into more numerous, focused ones.
3. Data Collection: Ethnographic researchers use multiple data collection devices so that
interpretations maybe grounded and triangulated. Leedy, (1997:159) outlines three specific
data collection devices:
a. Participant Observation: Here the researcher may participate in the phenomenon under
study to varying degrees. Observation runs a continuum from detached observer to
complete participant observer. The researcher must take great care to be as objective as
possible. He or she is the single greatest source of bias within this strategy. The
researcher will usually record his or her thoughts, feelings, etc. when developing field
notes so as to guard against bias when interpreting the collected data.
b. Ethnographic Interviews: These types of interviews are usually purposeful, employing
open-ended items so that the subject’s reality and perceptions can be documented,
understood, and interpreted.
c. Artifact Collection: This is a secondary data collection strategy which typically includes
unofficial documents, official documents, objects, etc. which provide insight into the
lives, experiences, and perceptions of subjects.
4. Data Analysis: Data analysis within ethnographic research occurs as data are collected. The
researcher codes and classifies data (e.g., events, observations, quotes, etc.) into a
meaningful taxonomy. New data are compared and contrasted to old so as to note patterns,
etc. This iterative process continues until the researcher is able to make “assertions” which
describe the participants’ “reality” and perspectives.
5. Communicating Findings: Findings are reported in the form of research based assertions
supported by analytical vignettes, interview quotes, and interpretative observations, all
intended to present a holistic, rich description of the experiences and perceptions of
participants.

C. Phenomenological Research

1. Purpose: Phenomenology seeks to understand a person’s or persons’ perspectives as he, she,

or they experience and understand an event, relationship, program, emotion, etc. (Leedy,
1997:161). The researcher often has a significant personal interest in the phenomenon under
study as well.
2. Process: Once a phenomenon is selected, the researcher engages in much the same process
as used in ethnographic study.
3. Data Collection: Phenomenologists may study one subject, but typically 6-10, who is or are
purposefully selected. These researchers rely on semi-structured in-depth interviews. The
researcher and subject(s) must work rather closely together to collect data.

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 4. Data Analysis: The researcher(s) must search interview transcripts to locate “meaningful
units” which are small bits of text which are independently able to convey meaning.
Phenomenologists search for themes and patterns, not categories by logically linking these
“meaningful units.”
5. Communicating Findings: Phenomenologists communicate findings through detailed
narratives exploring themes and patterns which emerged from data analysis and reduction.
These themes and patterns are then placed within the context of virtually all instances of the
phenomenon under study.

D. Grounded Theory Research Strategy

1. Purpose: Using naturalistic iterative data collection and relationship analysis processes,
researchers derive, from the data, a theory (Creswell, 1994:12). The theory is the expected
outcome of the inquiry.
2. Process: Using the iterative processes of data collection and analysis, relationships between
concepts are continually identified and refined so as to enable theory development.
3. Data Collection: Grounded theorists employ the same data collection devices as do other
qualitative researchers. The process is iterative with early data being compared and
contrasted with “newer” data to refine, discard, generate, or extend questions, hypotheses,
or conclusions.
4. Data Analysis: Using the iterative process between data collection and analysis within
grounded theory, the researcher seeks to identify patterns of interaction between and among
subjects (not necessarily individuals) by logically liking two or more data categories (i.e.,
similar topics sharing the same meaning). Strauss and Corbin (1990) explained the three
major data coding strategies used in grounded theory research:
a. Open Coding: As the initial coding effort, data are deconstructed into the simplest form
possible, examined for commonalities, and sorted into categories.
b. Axial Coding: As the intermediate step, data are reassembled based on logical
connections between categories.
c. Selective Coding: At this third stage of coding, the “core” category is determined and the
relationships between it and secondary categories are posited. Core and secondary
category relationships are later validated. Categories needing further refinement or
development are completed.
Two or more related categories (or concepts) give rise to a theory (McMillan & Schumacher,
1993), which is referred to as a proposition (Strauss and Corbin, 1990:278). Since several
conceptual relationships (i.e., concepts) are required to define a theory, such theories are
said to be conceptually dense.
5. Communicating Findings: Strauss and Corbin (1990) write that to achieve “integration”, the
core category (or concept) is presented as a story line which becomes the lens through which
all other categories are examined. The relationships are compared to the data for validation,
refinement, or discard.

E. Focus Groups
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 1. Purpose: Focus groups are panels, facilitated by a moderator, who meet for a specified time
period to exchange perspectives, knowledge, and/or opinions on a particular topic. Groups
are rarely more than a dozen members. Focus groups are often sponsored by research,
marketing, corporate, or political organizations.
a. Focus groups
(1) Can quickly and cheaply identify core issues of a topic.
(2) Can observe reactions to a research question or product in an open forum.
(3) Can explore new or unexpected information or reactions in subsequent focus groups.
(4) Enable subjects to respond in their own words and their emotional intensity can be measured.
b. Focus group disadvantages are
(1) The failure to use probability sampling seriously limits generalizability.
(2) The convenience sampling strategy commonly used in focus groups may introduce bias into
the research process. To counteract, ensure that group membership is representative
of the population of interest.
2. Process: A topical guide is employed, by the focus group leader, to manage the discussion
and ensure that all subjects participate. Cooper and Schindler (p. 143) recommend running
separate groups when seeking data from subgroups of a defined population. They argue that
freer and more intense discussion will ensue. Locating members for focus groups is usually
done informally, which could result in bias.
3. Data Collection: Focus groups may be conducted in person, over the telephone or Internet,
or videoconferencing. It is common to record activity either on paper, tape, or video to
enable accurate transcription and reporting. Using trained observers and standard reporting
forms is also common. It is also routine practice to blend survey research methods into focus
group data collection.
4. Data Analysis: Focus group data are analyzed in much the same manner as are case studies.
5. Communicating Findings: After data are analyzed and interpreted, reports are issued which
is a blend of rich narrative and any quantitative data are presented in the usual manner.

F. Historical Research

1. Purpose: Historical research relies on records, diaries, oral histories, photographs, and other artifacts
to describe, analyze, and explain past events, philosophies, etc. The artifacts and records used are driven
by the particular study and its research question(s). Historical research relies significantly on inductive,
logical reasoning.

2. Process: While lacking highly defined methodological traditions, historiography is widely used.
Essentially, it is a four step process, with considerable overlap:
a. Identification of the Research Problem: Here is identified the reason for the research
project and its corresponding, assumptions, questions or hypotheses. If hypotheses are
posed, they are in the form of speculations as to reasons, processes, consequences,
and/or characteristics of an event, issue, personage, circumstance, etc. under
investigation. Any posited hypotheses should be based on accurate factual assumptions.
b. Collection and Evaluation of Source Materials: Documents (e.g., books, newspapers,
journals, letters, transcripts, etc.), artifacts (e.g., pictures, equipment, records, tapes,
20
 film, pottery, art works, etc.), information databases (hardcopy or electronic), and/or
oral histories are examined. These documents, artifacts, databases, etc. are either
primary or secondary sources:
(1) Wiersma (1995:234) defines a primary source as, “an original or first-hand account
of the event or experience.”
(2) A secondary source is any account that is not primary. Primary sources are more
desirable than secondary sources.
c. Once evidence is collected it must be examined. External and internal criticisms are
essential components of the examination.
(1) External Criticism: External criticism is used to determine the physical authenticity
(i.e., validity) of the record, document, or artifact related to its investigation.
(2) Internal Criticism: Historical researchers employ internal criticism to assess the
degree, if any, of bias within the content of a record, document, or artifact. Internal
criticism also seeks to ascertain the historical meaning and accuracy of an artifact’s
content.
d. Synthesis of Information: Once each document is authenticated, its contribution to the
research underway must be determined. As the synthesis process evolves, it may be
necessary for the researchers to reframe research questions or hypotheses given
available data. It may be necessary to repeat the second or even first step in the process.
e. Analysis, Interpretation, and Formulating Conclusions: Historical research relies on
inductive logical information analysis. At this step, conclusions are derived and
hypotheses either supported or not. Alternative explanations should be “explained
away.” Also, the researcher should be as objective as possible. There should be
substantial citations to support the author’s (s’) conclusions.
3. Data Collection: As noted above, data collection is a function of identifying documents,
artifacts, etc.; examining their authenticity; chronologically ordering them; and then
determining value or contribution to the research effort.
4. Data Analysis: Cross-referencing (triangulation) is essential to establish the veracity of a
single document, artifact, etc. Each document, artifact, etc. needs to undergo chronological
examination. Core ideas, concepts, and facts, need to be “pulled together” so as to make
sense given the context of the period of time or event under study.
5. Communicating Findings: Reports of historical research are usually presented in narrative,
absent headings; however, this is changing. The purpose of the study is typically cited first
and placed within a context. Next, are presented any research questions or hypotheses with
supportive or contradictory evidence; the hypothesis is either retained or refuted. Once all
the evidence is presented, conclusions are drawn.

9.2. Quantitative (Establishing Statistical Reliability)

This process utilizes detailed questionnaires often distributed to large numbers of people. Questions are
typically multiple choice and participants choose the most appropriate response among those listed for
each question. Quantitative research collects a huge amount of data, which can often be generalized to
a larger population and allow for direct comparisons between two or more groups. It also provides
statisticians with a great deal of flexibility in analyzing the results.

21
Quantitative research is a type of educational research in which the researcher decides what to study,
asks specific, narrow questions, collects numeric (numbered) data from participants, analyses these
numbers using statistics, and conducts the enquiry in an unbiased way, objective manner.

According to McMillan and Schumacher (2010:21) sub classification of quantitative design is

experimental and non-experimental. In experimental design the researcher intervenes with a procedure
that determines what the subjects will experience. The researcher makes comparison either between
subjects who have had others who have not had interventions or between subjects who have
experienced different interventions. Non-experimental designs describe phenomena and examine
relationships between different phenomena without any direct manipulation of conditions that are
experienced.

Most common experimental designs are (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:21):

• True-experimental-includes random assignments for participants.
• Quasi-experimental-no random assignment.
• Single-subject-one or few participants.

There are six types of non-experimental designs (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:22):
• Descriptive-simple qualitative summary.
• Comparative-differences between groups.
• Correlational-a relationship between phenomena.
• Survey-information collected from groups.
• Ex post facto- intervention from the past.
• Secondary data analysis-using existing data.

9.3. Mixed methods

Mixed methods study combines characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative approaches to
research. This mix could emphasise one set of characteristics or the other (MacMillan & Schumacher,
2010:11).

With mixed method designs, the following can apply (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:25):
• Explanatory designs-quantitative, then qualitative.
• Exploratory designs-qualitative, then quantitative.
• Triangulation designs-quantitative and qualitative together.

Therefore triangulation is the use of two or more methods of data collection. Triangulation is the use
of multiple methods or the multi-method approach that characterizes so much of research in social
sciences. This research is carried out by researchers to increase the validity of their research.

Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question. According
to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000:105) validity in qualitative data might be addressed through the
honesty, depth, richness and scope of the data achieved, the participants approached, the extent of
22
triangulation or the disinterestedness or objectivity of the researcher. In quantitative data validity might
be improved through careful sampling, appropriate instrumentation and appropriate statistical
treatments of the data.

Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and
accuracy. Le Compte and Preissle (in Cohen et al. 2004:119) quantitative research assumes the
possibility of replication; if the same methods are used with the same sample then the results should be
the same. In qualitative research reliability can be regarded as a fit between what researchers’ record
as data and what actually occurs in the natural setting that is being researched.

Population
According to Castillo (2009) a research population is generally a large collection of individuals or
objects that is the main focus of a scientific query. It is for the benefit of the population that researches
are done. However, due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often cannot test every individual
in the population because it is too expensive and time-consuming. This is the reason why researchers
rely on sampling techniques.
A research population is also known as a well-defined collection of individuals or objects known to
have similar characteristics. All individuals or objects within a certain population usually have a
common, binding characteristic or trait.
Usually, the description of the population and the common binding characteristic of its members are
the same. "Government officials" is a well-defined group of individuals which can be considered as a
population and all the members of this population are indeed officials of the government for example.
Determining sample design
Sample refers to the process of selecting a sample from a defined population with the intent that the
sample accurately represents that population (Gall, et al., 1996:220). Sometimes a study involves the
entire population of interest, but more often it involves only a small portion of the students, employees,
families, schools, communities, or other “units of analysis.” Sampling serves three purposes:
• It reduces the costs and time required to do the research;
• It often improves the quality of information by allowing more intensive data collection than
would otherwise be possible; and,
• It reduces the burden on respondents

There are four main steps to sampling that are important to the interpretation of the results. There may
be weaknesses in one or more of the steps. The terminology and procedures of sampling differ, some
between quantitative and qualitative research, and the quantitative framework is used immediately
below. The phases are:
• Specification of a “population” (or “universe”) to which you wish to generalize. One cannot
properly make inferences beyond the population that was sampled.
• Identification of a sampling frame of the population which lists all the persons, families, etc.
in the desired population. Often no perfect frame exists, and available or compiled lists include
some people not in the population, and perhaps some people are listed more than once.
• Drawing the sample. Quantitative research using inferential statistics requires random
sampling; qualitative research usually uses non-random procedures.
23
 • Securing the needed data from the sample. Usually not all people included in a sample can
be contacted and are willing to participate in the data collection. Some that do participate will
fail to provide some of the needed data, either because they do not know the information or they
do not want to divulge it. Response rates in surveys and long-term follow-ups of experiments
are often very low (15-30 percent), and often it is difficult to ascertain whether they are
representative of the other 70-85 percent of the people.

Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample. Having identified sample
phases, sampling is to identify and define precisely the population to be sampled. A Sample is a segment
of the population selected to represent the population as a whole. Ideally, the sample should be
representative and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates of the thoughts and behaviour of the
larger population. Designing the sample calls for three decisions:
Who will be surveyed? (The Sample)
• The researcher must determine what type of information is needed and who is most likely to have it.
How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)
• Large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However it is not necessary to sample
the entire target population.
How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)
• Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire population (probability sample)
• The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information from (nonprobability
sample). The needs of the research project will determine which method is most effective

10. TYPES OF SAMPLES

10.1 Probability samples

Use randomisation and take steps to ensure all members of a population have a chance of being selected.
There are several variations on this type of sampling and following is a list of ways probability sampling
may occur:
Random sampling – every member has an equal opportuinity of being selected for the study.
Systematic sampling – uses a specific system to select members such as every 10th person on an
alphabetised list
Simple random sample: Every member of the population has a known and equal chance of being
selected.
Stratified random sample: Population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such as age groups and
random samples are drawn from each group.
Cluster (area) sample: The population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such as blocks, and
the researcher draws a sample of the group to interview.
Multi-stage random sampling – a combination of one or more of the above methods
10.2 Nonprobability samples
Do not rely on the use of randomisation techniques to select members. This is typically done in studies
where randomisation is not possible in order to obtain a representative sample. Bias is more of a concern
with this type of sampling. The different types of non-probability sampling are as follows:
: Members of a particular group are purposefully sought after
24
Modal instance sampling: Members or units are the most common within a defined group and therefore
are sought after.
Expert sampling: Members considered to be of high quality are chosen for participation
Proportional and non-proportional quota sampling: Members are sampled until exact proportions of
certain types of data are obtained or until sufficient data in different categories is collected
Diversity sampling: Members are selected intentionally across the possible types of responses to capture
all possibilities.
Convenience sample: The researcher selects the easiest population members from which to obtain
information. The researcher selects participants because they are willing and available to be studied.
Judgment sample/Purposive sampling: The researcher uses his/her judgment to select population
members who are good prospects for accurate information.
Quota sample: The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number of people in each of several
categories.
Convenience sampling: members or units are selected based on availability.
Snowballing: The researcher asks participants to identify others to become members of the sample.

11. DATA COLLECTION STRATEGIES

11.1 Quantitative Data collection methods
The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results
that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to
estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may
be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on
participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the
dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger
population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:
• Experiments/clinical trials.
• Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting in
emergency at specified times of the day).
• Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
• Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone interviews,
questionnaires etc).

 Questionnaires
• Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher
time and money.People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding
controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous. But they
also have drawbacks.Majority of the people who receive questionnaires don't return them and
those who do might not be representative of the originally selected sample (Leedy and Ormrod,
2001).
25
 • Web based questionnaires : A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet
based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address
that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type of research is often
quicker and less detailed.Some disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of people
who do not have a computer or are unable to access a computer.Also the validity of such surveys
are in question as people might be in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate
responses. Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales.These devices help
simplify and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes. A checklist is a list of
behaviors,characteristics,or other entities that te researcher is looking for.Either the researcher
or survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is observed, present or true or
vice versa. A rating scale is more useful when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a
continuum.They are also known as Likert scales (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).

The Questionnaire:
Structured surveys/ interviews employ the use of a questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers.
The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers
themselves.
It is called an Interview Schedule when the researcher asks the questions (and if necessary, explain
them) and record the respondent’s reply on the interview schedule.
Because there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very flexible. Questionnaire should
be developed and tested carefully before being used on a large scale.
There are three basic types of questionnaire:
• Closed –ended
• Open-ended
• Combination of both

Closed –ended Questionnaire:

-Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten response categories, and respondents
are asked to choose among them.
-e.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions
- Type of questions used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
- As these follow a set format, and most responses can be entered easily into a
computer for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.

Open-ended Questionnaire:
-Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words.
-Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leaves a blank section for the respond to write
in an answer.
-Whereas closed –ended questionnaires might be used to find out how many people use open-ended
questionnaires might be used to find out what people think about a service.
-As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is more complex.
- As it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers, fewer questionnaires need to be distributed.
26
Combination of both:
-This way it is possible to find out how many people use a service and what they think of the service
in the same form.
-Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish
with a section of open-ended questions or more detailed response.

11.2 Qualitative data collection methods

Qualitative data collection methos play an important role in impact evaluation by providing information
useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in people’s perceptions
of their well-being.Furthermore qualitative methods can beused to improve the quality of survey-based
quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey
questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are
characterized by the following attributes:
• they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change the
data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants)
• they rely more heavily on iteractive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several times
to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data
• they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on
multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results)
• generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather each case study
produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among different
studies of the same issue
Regardless of the kinds of data involved,data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of
time.The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thououghly,accurately, and
systematically,using field notes,sketches,audiotapes,photographs and other suitable means.The data
collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research.
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories:
• indepth interview
• observation methods
• document review

The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important of a research
project because anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based upon the type of
information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the questions that you ask
of your respondents. The famous saying about computers- “garbage in garbage out”- is also applicable
for data collection. The research tool provides the input into a study and therefore the quality and
validity of the output (the findings), are solely dependent on it.

 Interviews

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In Quantitative research(survey research),interviews are more structured than in Qualitative research.
In a structured interview,the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2001)

• Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish
rapport with potential partiocipants and therefor gain their cooperation.These interviews yield
highest response rates in survey research.They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous
answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages include impractical
when large samples are involved time consuming and expensive (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).
• Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has ready
access to anyone on the planet who hasa telephone.Disadvantages are that the response rate is
not as high as the face-to- face interview but cosiderably higher than the mailed
questionnaire.The sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the
population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
• Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but
instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held
computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time involved
in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of
questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be expensive to set up and
requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills.

12. GUIDELINES TO CONSTRUCT A RESEARCH TOOL

The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure the validity of your
instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the objectives of your study.
Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research.
Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions that you want to answer
through your study.
Step III: Take each research question listed in aims and objectives and list the information required to
answer it.
Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.

12.1 How to construct questionnaires

• Deciding which questionnaire to use:
- closed or open ended, or
- self or interviewer administered
• Wording and structure of questions
- Questions should be kept short and simple--avoid double barreled i.e. two questions in one –ask two
Qs rather than one.
- Avoid negative questions which have not in them as it is confusing for respondent to agree or disagree.
- Question should not contain Prestige Bias – causing embarrassment or forcing the respondent to give
false answer in order to look good. Questions about educational qualification or income might elicit
this type of response
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 - Use indirect questions for sensitive issues- in indirect questions respondents can relate their answer
to other people.
- Using closed- ended questions- try to make sure that all possible answers are covered so that
respondents are not constrained in their answer. “Don’t Know” category also needs to be added.
-Avoiding Leading Question: Don’t lead the respondent to answer in a certain way.
e.g. “How often do you wash your car?” assumes that respondent has a car and he washes his car.
Instead, ask a filter question to find if he has a car, and then, ‘If you wash your car, how many times a
year?’
• Length and ordering of the Questions:
- Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.
-Ask easy questions which respondents will enjoy answering.
- If combined questionnaire, keep open ended Qs for the end.
-Make Qs as interesting as possible and easy to follow by varying type and length of question.
- Group the questions. Into specific topic as this it makes it easier to understand and follow.
- Layout and spacing is important as cluttered Questionnaire is less likely to be answered.

12.2 Piloting the Questionnaire

Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you must pilot it. This means that you must test it out
to see if it is obtaining the result you require. This is done by asking people to read it through and see
if there are any ambiguities which you have not noticed. They should also be asked to comment about
the length, structure and wording of the questionnaire. Alter the questions accordingly.

13. QUALITAIVE DATA COLLECTION

• Interviews
The questions you will ask are determined by the purpose of your research. As a result, be very clear
in your own mind about what you hope to discover as a result of conducting the interview. The best
way to develop solid questions is to free write as many as possible. By refining the purpose of your
research and by sharing your questions with other people, you will be able to identify the ones that are
most apt to uncover the information you need. You may also find it useful to categorize the questions
that you have free written according to the sort of information that the questions are likely to elicit.
There are three major types of questions, each of which is suited to a particular part of the interview:
open questions, closed questions, and hypothetical questions.
Strategies for developing useful interviewing questions:
1. Closed questions: What specific information do you need?
2. Open questions: What philosophical issues underlie your research? What two or three major
questions do you need to ask to open up your interviewee to really communicate?
3. Hypothetical questions: What creative situations can you devise to determine an interviewee's true
feelings and likely responses to various circumstances?
In this case, the researcher conducts face to face interviews with participants. These interviews involve
unstructured and generally open-ended questions that are few in number and intended to elicit views and
opinions from the participants (Creswel, 2009:181).

29
 • Observations
Creswel (2009: 181) states that the researcher takes field notes on the behaviour and activities of
individuals at the research site. In these field notes the researcher records in an unstructured or semi-
structured way activities at the research site.

14. DATA ANALYSIS

14.1 Qualitative Data Analysis:

Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process with few rigid rules and procedures. For this
purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process called Content Analysis. Content Analysis means
analysis of the contents of an interview in order to identify the main themes that emerge from the
responses given by the respondents. This process involves a number of steps:

Step 1. Identify the main themes. The researcher needs to carefully go through the descriptive responses
given by respondents to each question in order to understand the meaning they communicate. From
these responses the researcher develops broad themes that reflect these meanings People use different
words and language to express themselves. It is important that researcher select wording of the theme
in a way that accurately represents the meaning of the responses categorized under a theme. These
themes become the basis for analyzing the text of unstructured interviews.
Step 2. Assign codes to the main themes: If the researcher wants to count the number of times a theme
has occurred in an interview, he/she needs to select a few responses to an open- ended question and
identify the main themes. He/she continues to identify these themes from the same question till a
saturation point is reached. Write these themes and assign a code to each of them, using numbers or
keywords.
Step 3. Classify responses under the main themes: Having identified the themes Next step is to go
through the transcripts of all the interviews and classify the responses under the different themes.
Step 4. Integrate themes and responses into the text of your report: Having identified responses that
fall within different themes, the next step is to integrate into the text of your report. While discussing
the main themes that emerged from their study, some researchers use verbatim responses to keep the
feel of the response. There are others who count how frequently a theme has occurred, and then provide
a sample of the responses. It entirely depends upon the way the researcher wants to communicate the
findings to the readers.

14.2 Quantitative Data Analysis

This method is most suitable for large well designed and well administered surveys using properly
constructed and worded questionnaire. Data can be analysed either manually or with the help of a
computer.
Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the number of respondents is reasonably small, and there
are not many variables to analyse. However, this is useful only for calculating frequencies and for
simple cross tabulations. Manual data analysis is extremely time consuming. The easiest way to do this
is to code it directly onto large graph paper in columns. Detailed headings can be used or question
numbers can be written on each column to code information about the question.
30
To manually analyse data (frequency distribution), count various codes in a column and then decode
them. In addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they have to be calculated manually.
However, the use of statistics depends on your expertise and the desire/need to communicate the
findings in a certain way.

Data Analysis Using a Computer:

If you want to analyse data using computer, you should be familiar with the appropriate program. In
this area, knowledge of computer and statistics plays an important role.
The most common software is SPSS for windows. However, data input can be long and laborious
process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results.

14.3 Methods of Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

(a) Typology: a classification system, taken from patterns, themes, or other kinds of groups of data.
Ideally, categories should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive if possible. Basically a list of
categories. Example: acts, activities, meanings, participation, relationships, settings
Comparison/Grounded Theory (widely used, developed in late 60's):
• Look at document, such as field notes.
• Look for indicators of categories in events and behavior - name them and code them on
document
• Compare codes to find consistencies and differences.
• Consistencies between codes (similar meanings or pointing to a basic idea) reveal categories.
So need to categorize specific events.
• People used to cut apart copies of field notes, now use computers. (Any good word processor
can do this).
• Memo on the comparisons and emerging categories.
• Eventually category saturates when no new codes related to it are formed.
• Eventually certain categories become more central focus - axial categories and perhaps even
core category.

(b) Analytic Induction: looks at event and develops a hypothetical statement of what happened. Then
look at another similar event and see if it fits the hypothesis. If it doesn't, revise hypothesis. Begin
looking for exceptions to hypothesis, when find it, revise hypothesis to fit all examples encountered.
Eventually will develop a hypothesis that accounts for all observed cases.

(c) Logical Analysis/Matrix Analysis: an outline of generalized causation, logical reasoning process,
etc. Use flow charts, diagrams, etc. to pictorially represent these, as well as written descriptions.

(d) Quasi-statistics: (count the # of times something is mentioned in field notes as very
rough estimate of frequency) Often enumeration is used to provide evidence for
categories created or to determine if observations are contaminated.

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(e) Event Analysis/Microanalysis: a lot like frame analysis. Emphasis is on finding precise
beginnings and endings of events by finding specific boundaries and things that mark
boundaries or events. It is specifically oriented toward film and video. After find
boundaries, find phases in event by repeated viewing.

(f) Metaphorical Analysis: (usually used in later stages of analysis) Try on various
metaphors and see how well they fit what is observed. Can also ask participant for
metaphors and listen for spontaneous metaphors. "Hallway as a highway." Like highway
in many ways: traffic, intersections, teachers as police, etc. Best to check validity of
metaphor with participants - "member check".

(g) Domain Analysis: (analysis of language of people in a cultural context) Describe social
situation and the cultural patterns within it. Semantic relationships. Emphasize the
meanings of the social situation to participants. Interrelating the social situation and
cultural meanings.

(h) Different kinds of domains: Folk domains (their terms for domains), mixed domains,
analytic domains (researcher's terms for domains).
• select semantic relationships
• prepare domain analysis worksheet
• select sample of field notes (statements of people studied)
• look for broad and narrow terms to describe semantic relationships
• formulate questions about those relationships
• repeat process for different semantic relationship
• list all domains discovered

(i) Hermeneutical Analysis: (hermeneutics = making sense of a written text). Not looking
for objective meaning of text, but meaning of text for people in situation. Try to bracket
self out in analysis - tell their story, not yours. Use their words, less interpretive than
other approaches. Different layers of interpretation of text. Knowledge is constructed –
we construct meaning of text (from background and current situation - Social
construction because of influence of others - symbolic interactionism).
Use context - time and place of writing - to understand. What was cultural situation?
Historical context. Meaning resides in author intent/purpose, context, and the encounter
between author and reader - find themes and relate to dialectical context. (Some say
authorial intent is impossible to ascertain.)
Videotape - probably needs to be secondary level of analysis. Get with another person
who is using another method and analyze their field notes.

(j) Discourse analysis: (linguistic analysis of ongoing flow of communication). Usually use
tapes so they can be played and replayed. Several people discussing, not individual
person specifically. Find patterns of questions, who dominates time and how, other
patterns of interaction.

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 (k) Semiotics: (science of signs and symbols, such as body language). Assume meaning is
not inherent in those, meaning comes from relationships with other things. Sometimes
presented with a postmodernist emphasis.

(l) Content Analysis (not very good with video and only qualitative in development of
categories - primarily quantitative) (Might be considered a specific form of typological
analysis). Look at documents, text, or speech to see what themes emerge. What do
people talk about the most? See how themes relate to each other. Find latent emphases,
political view of newspaper writer, which is implicit or look at surface level - overt
emphasis. Theory driven - theory determines what you look for. Rules are specified for
data analysis.

Standard rules of content analysis include:

• How big a chunk of data is analyzed at a time (a line, a sentence, a phrase, a paragraph?)
Must state and stay with it.
• What are units of meaning?
The categories used must be:
1. Inclusive (all examples fit a category).
2. Mutually exclusive.
• Defined precisely: what are properties.
• All data fits some category (exhaustive)

(m) Also note context. Start by reading all way through, then specify rules. Could have emergent
theory, but usually theory-driven. After determine categories, do the counting -how often do
categories occur. Most of literature emphasizes the quantitative aspects. Originated with
analyzing newspaper articles for bias - counting things in print. Very print oriented - can it be
adapted for visual and verbal?

(n) Phenomenology/Heuristic Analysis: (phenomenological emphasis - how individuals experience

the world) Clark Moustakas emphasizes idiosyncratic meaning to individuals, not shared
constructions as much. Again, try to bracket self out and enter into the other person's perspective
and experience. Emphasizes the effects of research experience on the researcher-personal
experience of the research. How does this affect me as researcher. Much like hermeneutical
analysis, but even more focused on the researcher's experience. Some use the term
"phenomenology" to describe the researcher's experience and the idea that this is all research is
or can ever be.

(o) Narrative Analysis (study the individual's speech): Overlaps with other approaches. (Is it
distinctive?) Discourse analysis looks at interaction, narrative is more individual). The story is
what a person shares about self. What you choose to tell frames how you will be perceived.
Always compare ideas about self. Tend to avoid revealing negatives about self. Might study
autobiographies and compare them.
• context-situation.

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 • core plot in the story told about self.
• basic actions.

15. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the problem is the rationale (justification, motivation) of the study. It justifies why
an evidenced-based inquiry is important and indicates the reasons for the researchers’ choice of a
particular problem. Because research requires knowledge, skills, planning, time, and fiscal resources,
the problem to be investigated should be important (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010:251). McMillan
and Schumacher (2010:51) further indicate that a research problem is significant when it aids in
developing theory, knowledge, or practice. That significance increases when several reasons can be
provided to justify the inquiry. Justifications may be based on one or more of the following criteria:
whether the study provides knowledge about enduring practice, tests a theory, is generalizable, extends
understanding of a broader phenomenon, advances methodology, is related to a current issue, evaluates
a specific practice at a given site, or is an exploratory study.
• Knowledge about enduring practice-the study may provide knowledge about an enduring
educational practice. Perhaps previous research on the practice has been done, but this particular
research problem has been investigated. The practice being studied may be common to many
schools but not necessarily found in every school. The story will add knowledge about an
enduring common practice.
• Theory testing-the study may be significant because it tests an existing theory with a verification
design.
• Generalizability-the study may be designed so that results will be generalizable to different
populations or practices.
• Extensions of understanding-many qualitative studies conducted in the phenomological
tradition extend understanding tradition extend understanding rather than generalizability.
• Methodological advancement-the study may be significant because it increases the validity and
reliability of an instrument or uses a methodology different from the methodologies used in
previous studies.
• Current issues-the study may focus on a social issue of immediate concern.
• Evaluation of a specific practice or policy at a given site-the study may evaluate a specific
practice or policy for decision makers at a given site or for external groups.
• Exploratory study-exploratory research is usually conducted in new areas of inquiry, and such
studies may be quantitative or qualitative.

This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points out how your study relates to
the larger issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for your study. It makes the
purpose worth pursuing.

The significance of the study answers the questions:

1.Why is your study important?
2. To whom is it important? and
3. What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?

34
The researcher discusses how the study could add value to theory and knowledge in the area of research,
and who of the population would benefit from the findings.

16. DELIMITATION AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Here the researcher determines the scope of the study. Which areas, regions, or communities will the
study cover? The study cannot take place all over the places.

16.1 Limitation of the Study

Limitations are factors, usually beyond the researcher's control, that may affect the results of the study
or how the results are interpreted. Stating limitations of the study may be very useful for readers because
they provide a method to acknowledge possible errors or difficulties in interpreting results of the study.

Limitations that are not readily apparent at the start of the research project may develop or become
apparent as the study progresses. In any case, limitations should not be considered alibis or excuses;
they are simply factors or conditions that help the reader get a truer sense of what the study results
mean and how widely they can be generalized. While all studies have some inherent limitations, you
should address only those that may have a significant effect on your particular study.

Examples of frequently encountered limitations might include the following:

• Due to the small/unique sample available for the study, results may not be generalizable beyond
the specific population from which the sample was drawn.
• Due to the failure of sample respondents to answer with candor, results might not accurately
reflect the opinions of all members of the included population.
• Due to the length of the study, a significant number of respondents available in the preliminary
testing may be unavailable or unwilling to participate in the final stage of testing.

Although stating limitations of the study assists the reader in understanding some of the inherent
problems encountered by the researcher, it is also important for the researcher to design and conduct
the study in a manner that precludes having such numerous or severe limitations that any results of the
study are essentially useless. Research designs that control or account for the unwanted influence of
extraneous variables help assure that the study results are both valid and reliable – thus keeping
limitations of the study to a reasonable number and scope. (Note: While this section is optional, almost
all research proposals and dissertations include a limitations section. Not including this section implies
that your study has accounted for all (or nearly all) variables, is generalizable to all populations, and
could be replicated accurately under all conditions.)

16.2 Delimitations (Optional)

Delimitations are factors that affect the study over which the research generally does have some degree
of control. Delimitations describe the scope of the study or establish parameters or limits for the study.
Frequently, setting limits on the sample size, extent of the geographic region from which data are
collected, response formats included in data-collecting instruments, or the time frame for the study
makes the study feasible for the researcher, and such delimitations should be noted here. Technically,
35
delimitations (factors which the researcher controls) are distinct from limitations (over which the
researcher has little or no control). However, in some dissertations the researcher includes delimitations
within the section on limitations (although technically they are distinct and should be included in
separate sections of Chapter 1).

Examples of delimitations might include the following:

• In order to assure manageability of the collected data, survey instruments used only multiple-
choice items and did not include open-ended response items.
• Due to the large number of potential participants in the study population, the population
involved in the current study focused only on members located within Vhembe.

Notes:
(1) Recommendations for further study made at the end of the study frequently address
limitations/delimitations present in the study. This allows future researchers to incorporate the
information generated by the study, while simultaneously suggesting ways in which their future studies
might improve upon or be more comprehensive than the present study.
(2) As limitations and delimitations frequently overlap, it is acceptable to entitle this section
Limitation/Delimitations or Limitation and Delimitations.

17. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Ethics are the rules that bind the researcher as he/she conducts his/her research. Critical ethical issues
such as permission to conduct research, anonymity, informed consent, privacy, voluntary participation,
and confidentiality, emotional and psychological constraints should be considered.

There are a number of key phrases that describe the system of ethical protections that the contemporary
social and medical research establishment has created to try to protect better the rights of their research
participants. The following are principles of ethical considerations:

17.1 Voluntary participation

The principle of voluntary participation requires that people not be coerced into participating in
research.

17.2 Informed consent

Closely related to the notion of voluntary participation is the requirement of informed consent.
Essentially, this means that prospective research participants must be fully informed about the
procedures and risks involved in research and must give their consent to participate.

17.3 Risk of harm

Ethical standards also require that researchers not put participants in a situation where they might be at
risk of harm as a result of their participation. Harm can be defined as both physical and psychological.

36
There are two standards that are applied in order to help protect the privacy of research participants.
Though all researchers (student, professional, or academic) are well intentioned, there is the possibility
that interaction with participants may inadvertently harm them in some unintended way. This could
include:
• Psychological harm: for example, researching the use of nudity in advertising may show participants
images that offend them.
• Financial harm: researching unethical behavior within a given firm may provide management with
information on individual employees that result in an individual getting fired, or undertaking industry
based research may inadvertently share sensitive information with a firm’s competitors, resulting in
financial harm to the organization.
• Social harm: researching how lifestyle affects consumption may unintentionally disclose a person’s
sexual orientation when that person wanted to keep this confidential. It is your responsibility to consider
whether any type of harm could occur when you plan your research and to ensure that mechanisms are
instituted to remove it. It is, therefore, essential that you carefully evaluate the potential for harm to
arise and ensure that you
(a) Behave according to appropriate ethical standards;
(b) Consider how your research might negatively affect participants; and
(c) Protect yourself, your supervisors/teachers, and your institution from being placed in situations in
which individuals could make claims of inappropriate behavior, resulting in public criticism or even
your being sued.

17.4 Confidentiality and anonymity

Almost all research guarantees the participants’ confidentiality. They are assured that identifying
information will not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study. The stricter
standard is the principle of anonymity which essentially means that the participant will remain
anonymous throughout the study,- even to the researchers themselves. Clearly, the anonymity standard
is a stronger guarantee of privacy, but it is sometimes difficult to accomplish, especially in situations
where participants have to be measured at multiple time points (e.g., a pre-post study).

LIST OF REFERENCES
Baron, M.A. 2013. Guidelines for writing research proposals and dissertations.
http://people.usd.edu/mbaron/edad 885/Dissertation%20guide.pdf
Carmichael T. 2009. How to write your Research Problem Statement at WBS. Johannesburg: Wits
University.
Cohen, L.; Manion, L. & Morrison, K. 2000. Research methods in education. 5th ed. London:
Routeledge Falmer.

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 th
Cooper, D. R. & Schindler, P. S. (2001). Business research methods (7 ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill
Irwin.
Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research designs: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Creswell, J.W. 2005. Educational research. New Jersey: PEARSON.
De Vaus, D.A. 2001. Research design in social sciences. London: SAGE.
Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. 1996. Educational research: An introduction. White Plains, NY:
Longman.
Goetz, J. P. & Le Compte, M. D. (1984). Ethnology and qualitative design in educational
Kumar, R. 2005. Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners (2nd. ed.). Singapore:
Pearson Education.
McMillan. J.H. & Schumacher, S. 2010. 7th ed. Research in education. New York. PEARSON.
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and
techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Van Wyk, B. 2010. Research design and methods Part I: Post-graduate enrolment and throughput.
Cape Town: University of the Western Cape Press.

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APPENDIX A: PREPARING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The research proposal is often the key element to the successful dissertation or thesis and, as such, the
most important step in the whole research process. Acceptable dissertations are a product of a well
thought out proposal. A proposal forces the student to adopt a coherent, systematic procedure, which
is essential in any scholarly enterprise (Madsen 1992:52).
There are variations in the presentation of research proposals. Without the exclusion of the cover page
and the abstract (lecturers, supervisors or promoters in research will illustrate these two aspects), most
dissertation/thesis proposals will comprise the following elements:
The Cover Page
This page contains the following items:
• Title of the dissertation/thesis
• Name of the student
• Student number
• Proposed degree
• Department
• Name of the University
• Supervisor (master’s degree) or promoter (doctoral degree)
• Co-supervisor (master’s degree) or co-promoter (doctoral degree
• Student, supervisor/co-supervisor or promoter/co-promoters’ signatures

39
 SAMPLE OF A COVER PAGE FOR A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

TITLE

by

STUDENT’S NAME
Student Number:…………..

Proposal submitted to Higher Degrees Committee for the degree of

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION HONOURS DEGREE

in the

DEPARTMENT OF …………………………

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES, SOCIAL SCIENCES AND EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF VENDA

SUPERVISOR

Dr S.T. ZWANGA

YEAR 2023

SIGNATURES
Student:_________________ Date:_____________

Supervisor:_____________________ Date:___________

40
Introduction
The purpose of this document is to provide a coherent structure on how students can write a successful
research proposal. The research proposal provides key elements to successful dissertation or thesis
writing. The proposal helps the student to focus on and define research plans.

The title
The title should be compact and sufficiently expressive. It should be brief. It should be noted that
students start with a working title which is revisited and reformulated as they read for greater focus.

1. The structure of the proposal

In what follows, the most important elements of a research proposal are given attention.

1.1 Abstract
The abstract gives the reader a clear idea of the main thrust of the intended research. It is usually
written in 150 – 300 words. It presents the central problem and why it is a problem worthy of study.
It should contain the background, purpose, methodology, expected outcomes, implications and
conclusion of the study. Although it comes at the beginning of the proposal, it is often the last thing a
student should construct.

At the end of the abstract a student provides a compact list of key concepts which convey what the
dissertation is about. Key concepts should be written in a logical sequence; from broad to more specific
or from central to related ones.

1.2 Introduction
The introduction provides the background information for the study. This may include the student’s
personal experience about the problem, for example, how the student was reawakened to current state
of affairs. It can originate from potential sources. This might spring from an experience researchers
have had in their personal lives or workplaces. It may be from an extensive debate that has appeared
in the literature. It might develop from policy debate in government, etc. (Creswell, 2009).

The introduction should create interest in the topic, establish the problem that leads to study, place the
study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and reach out to a specific audience (Creswell,
2009).

1.3 Statement of the problem

A statement of the problem indicates the variables of interest to the researcher and specific relationship
between those variables which is to be investigated (Gay, 1992). For example: “The problem to be
investigated in this study is the effects of positive reinforcement on the quality of tenth graders’ English
composition”. Other possible problem statements might read:

41
 “The problem to be investigated in this study is
… secondary teachers’ attitudes towards school-based management.
… the relationship between amount of television viewing time and aggressive
behaviour in high school students.”
… etc.

The statement of the problem should be accompanied by a presentation of the background of the
problem. Background of the problem means information required for an understanding of the problem
(Gay, 1992). Current literature on the problem provides this background.

1.4 Aim or purpose of the study

The aim or purpose statement states the reason why the study has to be carried out and spells out what
the study intends to achieve. The aim or purpose conveys the overall intent of a proposed study in a
sentence or several sentences. The purpose specifically sets forth the intent of the study, it does not
address the problem or issue leading to the need to the study (Creswell, 2009).

The research aim or purpose is followed by objectives to be achieved or addressed by the study that
may be numbered separately. Each objective should relate to the aim and carefully crafted to attempt
to achieve the aim (Hakkarainen, 2011).

1.5 Research questions

Research questions are formulated from the aim or purpose. The main aim or purpose generates the
main research question. The crafted objectives generate the secondary or subsidiary research questions.

1.6 Hypotheses (Applicable in quantitative studies)

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain behaviours, phenomena or events that have occurred
or will occur. A hypothesis states the researcher’s expectation concerning the relationship between the
variables in the research problem; a hypothesis is the most specific statement of a problem in
quantitative studies. The researcher does not then set out to “prove” his or her hypothesis, but rather
collects data that either support or do not support the hypothesis. The hypothesis is formulated
following the review of the literature prior to the execution of the study (Gay, 1992).

The following is an example of a hypothesis:

There is a significance difference in the reading comprehension of primary-level learners who

participate in cooperative learning activities and those who receive regular instruction.

Its accompanying null hypothesis might state:

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 There is no difference in the reading comprehension of primary-level learners who participate
in cooperative learning activities and those who receive regular instruction only.

1.7 Review of the literature

The literature review accomplishes several purposes. It shares with the reader the results of other
studies that are closely related to the one being undertaken. It relates the study to the larger, on-going
dialogue in the literature, filing in gaps and extending prior studies. It provides framework for
establishing the importance of the study as well as benchmark for comparing the results with other
findings (Creswell, 2009).

Reviewing earlier literature assists students or researchers to understand broader contexts of their
research and relate their study to the broader tradition of academic research. The point of scientific
research is not to create something new out of the blue, but advance research traditions and a line of
inquiry established by former generations of researchers. By building on the already created lines of
inquiry, researchers can genuinely contribute to academic research. Inexperienced students try too
often to reinvent the wheel in terms of creating weak and vague research proposals (Hakkarainen,
2011).

1.8 Definition of key terms or concepts

Identification and definition of key terms or concepts that readers will need to understand the proposed
study are important elements. This section defines terms or concepts that individuals outside the field
of study may not understand. This includes terms that go beyond common language (Creswell, 2009).

1.9 Research paradigms

There are three major paradigms to the verification of theoretical propositions. These are positivism,
anti-positivism or interpretivism and the critical paradigm (Scotland, 2012; Mack, 2010; Dash, online).
This section gives an overview of what each paradigm consists of and explores and discusses their
assumptions.

1.9.1 Positivism
The positivist paradigm is also referred to as the scientific paradigm. This paradigm emphasises
observation and reason as means of understanding human behaviour. Positivism holds the view that all
genuine knowledge is based on sense experience and can only be advanced by means of observation
and experiment (Cohen et al. 2000; Dash, online). The ontological position of positivism is on realism,
the view that objects have an existent independent of the knower. Thus, discoverable reality exists
independently of the researcher (Scotland, 2012).

The positivist epistemology is one of objectivism. Positivists approach the world impartially,
discovering absolute knowledge about an objective reality. The researcher and the researched are
independent entities. Meaning resides in the objects, not the conscience of the researcher, and it is the
aim of the researcher to obtain meaning (Scotland, 2012 & Mack, 2010).

43
1.9.2 Anti-positivism
Anti-positivism was developed as a reaction to positivism (Cohen et al. 2000). The anti-positivist
paradigm is also referred to as the interpretivist paradigm. Anti-positivists believe that reality is multi-
layered and complex and that a single phenomenon has multiple interpretations. The ontological
position of interpretivism is relativism. Relativism is the view that reality is subjective and differs from
person to person. Our realities are mediated by our senses. Reality emerges when consciousness
engages with objects which are already pregnant with meaning. Reality is individually constructed;
there are as many realities as there are individuals (Scotland, 2012; Cohen et al. 2000). The interpretive
epistemology is one of subjectivism. Interpretivists or anti-positivists believe that reality consists of
people’s subjective experiences of the external world. Interpretive or anti-positivistic paradigm is
underpinned by observation and interpretation. Observation is a way of collecting information about
events, while to interpret is to make meaning of the information by drawing inferences or by judging
the match between the information and some abstract pattern. The interpretivist paradigm is concerned
with understanding the world from subjective experiences of individuals. They use meaning oriented
methodologies such as interviewing, observation and analysis of documents, events, videos or pictures
and artefacts that rely on a subjective relationship between the researcher and participants (Scotland,
2012; Cohen et al. 2000).

1.9.3 Critical Paradigm

The critical paradigm was developed from the critical theory and the belief that research is conducted
for groups in an egalitarian society. Critical researchers assume that social reality is historically
constituted and that it is produced and reproduced by people. Although people can consciously act to
change their social and economic circumstances, critical researchers recognise that this is constrained
by various forms of social, cultural and political situation. Critical scholarship, therefore, seeks to
transcend beliefs, values and social structures and the problems they produce visibly by encouraging
self-consciousness, criticism and by developing emancipatory consciousness in scholars and social
members in general. The aim is to openly critique the status quo, focus on the conflicts and constraints
in contemporary society and seek to bring about cultural, political and social change that would
eliminate the causes of and domination. Freire (1993) defines critical thinking as:

“.... thinking that discerns an indivisible solidarity between the world and the people and admits
of no dichotomy between them – thinking which perceives reality as a process, as
transformation, rather than as static entity – thinking which does not separate itself from action,
but constantly immerses itself in temporality without fear of the risks involved.”
(Freire,1993:73).

The ontological position of the critical paradigm is historical realism. Historical realism is the view
that reality has been shaped by social, cultural, economic, political, ethnic and gender values (Scotland,
2012; Mack, 2010 & Dash, online).

1.10 Research design

Each research paradigm has its own type of research design. Positivists use quantitative research
designs, for example, experimental and survey designs. Anti-positivists and the critical paradigm use

44
qualitative research designs. Examples of designs that are used by anti-positivists include case study,
phenomenology, hermeneutics, ethnography, and ethnomethodology. Examples of designs used by the
critical paradigm are critical discourse analysis, critical ethnography, action research and ideology
critique.

This abundance of information leads to the question: “Is the study going to employ the qualitative or
quantitative or mixed-methods design?”

1.11 Methodology
Each research design has its own data collection methods.

Qualitative research designs use interviews, document analysis, analysis of artefacts, and observation
as methods of data collection.

Quantitative research designs use surveys or questionnaires and experiments as methods of data
collection.

1.12 Sampling
Sampling involves techniques used to select participants of the study from a wider population. This is
done because it is not usually possible to include whole populations in research as a result of time or
financial constraints (Jupp, 2006). In this section, the following aspects are addressed: population,
sampling procedures and sample.

1.13 Measures of quality control

The researcher should point out the type of quality control used in a particular study. The may involve
either validity and reliability of the quantitative research and/or Trustworthiness of the qualitative
research

1.13.1 Validity and reliability of the quantitative research

Validity and reliability are concepts that are rooted in the positivist perspective. Validity and reliability
of research instruments influence the extent to which we learn something about the phenomenon we
are studying.

Validity

Golafshani (2003) using Joppe’s (2000) viewpoint provides the following explanation of what validity
is in quantitative research:

Validity determines whether the research truly measures that which it was intended to measure
or how truthful the research results are. In other words, does the research instrument allow you
to hit "the bull’s eye" of your research object? Researchers generally determine validity by asking

45
 a series of questions, and will often look for the answers in the research of others (Golafshani,
2003:599).

Form this viewpoint, there are three types of reliability in quantitative research which relate to: (1) the
degree to which a measurement, given repeatedly, remains the same, (2) the stability of a measurement
over time; and (3) the similarity of measurements within a given time period (Golafshani, 2003). In a
nutshell, validity is the extent to which a research instrument measures what it is intended to measure
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2010).

Reliability
Golafshani (2003) using Joppe’s (2000) point of view, defines reliability as:

The extent to which results are consistent over time and an accurate representation of the total
population under study is referred to as reliability and if the results of a study can be reproduced
under a similar methodology, then the research instrument is considered to be reliable
(Golafshani, 2003:598).

Reliability is the consistency with which a research instrument yields a certain result when the entity
being measured has not changed (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010).

1.13.2 Trustworthiness of the qualitative research

Trustworthiness deals with the quality of qualitative research. Traditionally, positivist criteria of
internal and external validity, reliability and objectivity are replaced by anti-positivisit criteria of
credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability (Denzin & Lincoln 2000). A study is
trustworthy if steps are taken in the research procedures to ensure that perspectives of the participants
are authentically gathered and accurately represented in the findings (Lietz & Zayas 2010). In this
section the four parallel criteria that work together to achieve trustworthiness in qualitative research are
addressed: credibility, transferability, dependability (auditability) and confirmability. The criteria are
regarded as the “gold standard” or “yardstick” with which to assess and ensure quality of qualitative
research.

Credibility
Credibility refers to the degree to which a study’s findings represent the meanings of the research
participants. Qualitative interpretations must be authentic and accurate to the descriptions of the
primary participants, and to achieve this, qualitative research must manage the risk of research
reactivity and bias (Lietz & Zayas 2010). Qualitative researchers need to remain aware of how the
research procedures may exert an influence on the credibility of the data. Shenton (2004), Leitz and
Zayas (2010), Loh (2013) and Morrow (2005) suggest the following strategies to manage threats of
research reactivity and bias:
• Researchers may make the data gathering efforts less conspicuous and intrusive;
• Researchers may engage in reflexivity and seek to build self-awareness regarding their own
influence on the research project;

46
 • Data triangulation: This involves the use of two or more sources to achieve or comprehensive
picture of a fixed point of reference, e.g. gathering data from multiple sources and utilising
multiple analysts to review the data.
Data triangulation might involve gathering data at multiple points in time or using varied data
collection strategies such as interviews focus groups, or observations, the use of multiple
observers or interviewers working independently to collect the same type of data.

Member checking: This involves corroborating the research findings by seeking feedback from the
research participants. It can involve the inclusion of selected research participants in data analysis or
returning to a sample of participants with a draft of the findings to ascertain their sense of agreement
with the findings.

Thick description: This involves deep sense, detailed accounts of a phenomenon of inquiry with
particular consideration of the context(s) in which it occurs. Thick descriptions involve detailed, rich
descriptions not only of participants’ experiences of phenomenon but also of context in which these
experiences occur. “Thickness” of the description relates to the multiple layers of culture and context
in which the experiences are embedded. To adequately study a phenomenon, it is important to obtain
ample and contextual documentation from which to derive knowledgeable and insightful
interpretations.

Prolonged engagements: This strategy supports the process of obtaining thick description. It involves
conducting multiple interviews or spending extended time to observe participants in order to achieve a
complete look at the experience. Researchers may document the training of interviewers or observers,
the frequency, duration and intensity of data collection efforts, probing techniques, whether interviews
were audio-recorded or notes were taken and whether data saturation was achieved.

Transferability
Transferability refers to the degree to which the findings are applicable or useful to theory, practice and
future research. Transferability refers to the degree to which findings fit situations outside of the study
and are found meaningful. Transferability is achievable when findings have applicability to another
setting to theory, to practice, or future research. Given the usually small sample size and absence of
statistical analysis, qualitative data cannot be said to be generalisable like in quantitative standards,
because probability sampling is not employed. Instead, purposive sampling that seeks a specific group
of participants who have experienced the phenomenon being studied is used.

Dependability (Auditability)
Dependability deals with the core issue that the way in which a study is conducted should be consistent
across time, researchers, and analysis techniques. Thus, the process through which findings are derived
should be explicit and repeatable as much as possible. This is accomplished by keeping an audit trail
and through carefully tracking the emerging research design that is a detailed chronology of research
activities and processes, influences on data collection and data analysis, emerging themes categories or
models and analytic memos. The audit trail may then be examined by peer researchers as students
advisors or colleagues in the field.
47
Confirmability
Confirmability is based on the acknowledgement that research is never objective. It addresses the fact
that the findings should represent as far as is humanly possible, the situation being researched rather
than the beliefs, pet theories or biases of the researcher. To achieve confirmability a study must
demonstrate that the findings and data are clearly linked.

1.14 Analysis of data

The proposal should include an explanation regarding how the research data are planned to be analysed
and examined. This occurs in all research designs. In cases where technology-mediated research
instruments are used, such as statistical programmes (e.g. SPSS), programmes for qualitative content
analysis (e.g. ATLAS.ti), or instruments of video analysis (e.g. ELAN), these should be explicitly
explained (Creswell, 2009:218 & Hakkarainen, 2011).

1.15 Significance of the study

Researchers need to reflect on what the results of the study mean by putting them into the context of
the investigations. How would the findings advance the study? What would be the novelty of the
study? How can the results be utilised? (Hakkarainen, 2011).

The resulting knowledge should be fed back to investigated communities? The results should be used
to raise public awareness of the investigated area (Hakkarainen, 1011). The researcher needs to address
these necessary aspects.

1.16 Delimitation of the study

The researcher determines the scope of the study. This is the area, region, or community in which the
study will be conducted. For example; “This study will be conducted within the District of Vhembe in
the Limpopo Province”.

1.17 Ethical considerations

These deal with seeking permission to solicit data from schools and protecting the anonymity of
participants, treating them respectfully and protection of their rights. Participants have to be offered a
form that addresses informed consent. The form should explain the purpose of the study and the rights
of the participants, such as withdrawal from participation should they so wish without any explanation.
Currently, the university requires that research on human beings should be preceded by a proposal’s
acceptance by the ethics committee constituted by the University Higher Degrees Committee (UHDC)
members. The UHDC ensures that ethical issues are considered and prevents any harm to the
participants.

2. The research programme

This is about the research schedule. This entails speculation on dates on which certain aspects would
be completed. For example, when will the proposal be submitted to the higher degree committees?
When will the review of the literature be completed? When will data be collected, etc.?

48
3. Budget estimation
It is expected that students work on budget estimation of all aspects of the research project. This is
important to allow students to access Research and Publication Committee (RPC) funding.

4. Referencing conversion
The referencing conversion requires researchers to systematically follow some style of presenting
references. The School of Education currently uses the Harvard Referencing Conversion. Students
should deal with references carefully and consistently in the text and the reference list and ensure that
each dot or comma is in its correct place. All references listed should have been mentioned in text.
References that are not listed should be eliminated from the text.

The Harvard Referencing Conversion requires student to acknowledge the year of publication and page
reference of all books, journals and manuscript used in the text. Supervisors and promoters will assist
in this regard.

Examples of Harvard Reference Citing in Text:

• Pedersen (1994:182) argues that bad behaviour is not always deliberate.

• According to Ponterotto (1991:216), separation is a common occurrence throughout the world.

• Interconnectedness, interrelatedness and interdependence are values that emerge from the
perspective (Speight et al. 1991:32; Meyers & Speight, 1994:102).

• Berne says:
The unit of social intercourse is called a transaction. If two or more people encounter each
other in a social aggregation, sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some indication
of acknowledging the presence of the other. This is called stimulus transaction. (Berne,
1991:29)

4.1 Development of References List

Building your references list at the end of the proposal requires effort and consistency. Every
punctuation mark must be put where it belongs.

The following are examples of how sources consulted are put together on the list of references:

Books:
Brislin, R.W., & Petersen, P. 1976. Cross-Cultural Orientation Programs. New York: Gardner Press.
Inc.

Freire, P. 1993. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 20th Anniversary Ed. New York: Continuum.

49
Journals:
Lupton-Smith, H.S., Carruthers, W.L., Flyth, R., Goettee, E., & Modest, K.H. 1996. Conflict resolution
as curriculum: A definition, description, and process of integration in core curricula. The School
Counsellor, 43(5): 374-391.

Salzman, M. 1995. Attributional discrepancies and bias in cross-cultural counselling. Journal of

Multicultural Counselling and Development, 23(3): 181-183.

Handbook of Several Authors, Edited by other Authors

Stakes, R.E. 2000. Case Studies. In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds), Handbook of Qualitative
Research (2nd Ed.), (pp.435-454). London, Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

Watt, R.J. 1994. Multicultural education. In M.P.P. Root (Ed). The Multicultural Experience: Racial
Borders as the New Frontier, (pp. 380-391). San Francisco: Jossey-Boss.

Press:
Mail and Guardian (The), February 20-26, 2014.
Sowetan, Friday, 3, 2014.

Government Publication:
Department of Education, 2008. Foundation for Learning Campaign. Pretoria.

5. Appendices
Needful resources that are necessary to facilitate the evaluation of the proposal could be placed as
appendices. For example, research instruments, data samples, informed consent, and other relevant
materials.

6. Conclusion
Doing research involves working together in teams. Each student works with two supervisors who
collaboratively assist the student in his or her effort to navigate the journey from the preparation of the
research proposal through to the submission of the final dissertation after the examination processes.

7. Skeletal presentation of the research proposal

Below is the skeletal presentation of what should be considered when students prepare their research
proposal to the School of Education:

1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Statement of the problem
5. Aim/purpose of the study (choose either)
6. Research questions

50
7. Hypothesis (only applies to quantitative research designs)
8. Literature review/conceptual framework/theoretical framework (choose any)
9. Definition of key concepts/terms (choose either)
10. Research design and methodology
11. Sampling
11.1 Population
11.2 Sampling procedures
11.3 Sample
12. Measures of quality control: validity and reliability of quantitative research and/or
trustworthiness of qualitative research
12. Data analysis
13. Significance of the study
14. Delimitation
15. Ethical consideration
16. References
17. Time frames/lines
18. Budget estimation

REFERENCES
Creswell, J.W. 2006. Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Approaches (3rd Ed.).
Los Angeles: Sage Publication Ltd.

Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y.S. 2000. Introduction: The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative
Research. (In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd Ed.), (pp.1-
28). London, Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication, Inc.

Gay, L.R. 1992. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application (4th Ed.).
Englewood Cliffs: Merrill.

Hakkarainen, K. 2011. The Structure and Content of an Academic Research Proposal. Department
of Education: University of Turku. www.http:/utu.academia.edu/KaiHakkarainen. (2014/09/22).

Janesick, V.J. 2000. The Choreography of Qualitative Research Design: Minutes, Improvisations, and
Crystallization. (In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd Ed.),
(pp.379-399). London, Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

Jupp, V. 2006. The sage dictionary of social research methods. London: SAGE Publications.

Leedy, P.D., & Ormrod, J. 2010. Practical Research: Planning and Design (9th Ed.). Boston:
Pearson Educational International.

Lietz, C.A. & Zayas, L.E. 2010 Evaluation of qualitative research for social work practitioners.
Advances in Social Work, 11(2), 188.

51
Loh, J. 2013. Inquiry into issues of trustworthiness and quality in narrative studies: a perspective. The
Qualitative Report, 18, 1-15.

McMillan, J.H., & Schumacher, S. 2006. Research in Education: Evidence-Based Inquiry (6th Ed.).
Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Morrow, S.L. 2005. Qualitative and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counselling psychology.
Journal of Counselling Psychology, 52(2): 250-260.

Shenton, A.K. 2004. Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education
for Information. 22: 63-2.

Stakes, R.E. 2000. Case Studies. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds), Handbook of Qualitative
Research (2nd Ed.), (pp.435-454). London, Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

52
APPENDIX B: REFERENCE TECHNIQUES

REFERENCE TECHNIQUES: HARVARD METHOD STYLE

by
Me. M. Cronjé
Me. N. Murdoch
Me. R. Smit (editor)

Tips on writing and referencing

Collecting information:
• Broad and deep research is the essential basis of an essay

Using the Internet:

• Use the internet – but with care and discrimination.
• Always state the date you visited the site.
• Where possible, identify the author.

Writing:
• A well thought-out structure is at the heart of every good essay.
• You do need a solid introduction.
You need a tight, powerful conclusion that is the logical consequence of everything that has
gone before.
• You need to organise your material so that it flows from one area, sub-section or argument to
the next in a logical order.
• Keep checking that you are remaining on track throughout the essay, don’t wander off this
subject.
• A good student not only has good ideas to write about, but also can write about them well.
• Do not use superfluous words, phrases or sentences.
• Construct your sentences carefully.

General tips:
• Don’t cheat. Plagiarism – using other people’s words and ideas without acknowledging where
you got them from – is regarded as an enormous sin. Make sure your references are perfect.
• Try a fresh, original approach.
• Argue your case with your own point of view. Try to avoid formulas, clichés, and the obvious
approaches.
• Illustrate your points with up-to-date examples.
• Don’t fill and essay with irrelevant historical detail.
• Check spelling and punctuation.
• Ensure your essay is the required length.
• Bring your subject to life!
53
Commonly used abbreviations
• Appendix - app.
• Chapter - ch.
• Column - col.
• Columns - cols.
• Editor - ed.
• Editors - eds.
• Edition - edn.
• Editions - edns.
• Number - no.
• Numbers - nos.
• No date - n.d.
• No place, no publisher, no page - n.p.
• Page - p.
• Pages - pp.
• Paragraph - para.
• Revised - rev.
• Reprinted - rpt.
• Supplement - Suppl.
• Technical Report - Tech. Rep.
• Translated, translator - trans.
• Volume - vol.
• Volumes - vols.
• Written - writ.

Latin abbreviations
• And others - et al. (et alii)
• Used where there are too many authors to list
• In the same work - ibid. (ibidem)
• Signifies the same work as the one cited immediately before, but a different page. The same -
id. (idem)
• The item cited is by the author of the item cited immediately before in the work cited - op. cit.
(opere citato)
• Refers the reader back to the author’s previously cited work, but to a different page without
place - s.l. (sine loco)

Sample paragraph and reference list: Harvard method1

Many researchers have investigated the use of technology in Higher Education (Blake, 1998; Davis,
1987:45; Johnson, n.d.; Tyson, Burke & Jacobs, 1994). According to Blake (1998:234; 1999a;
1999b:4), new technologies such as CD-ROMs, the Internet, and mobile technologies hold great
promise for the future of education, but other researchers (Johnson, n.d.; Education Trust, 2000) caution
54
that the use of technology in educational settings should be studied in greater depth to evaluate its
effectiveness. A longitudinal study by Tyson et al. (1994) showed that technology can enrich education,
if used by a skilled teacher.

The Internet offers some useful resources on this topic, including Johannesburg University’s EdTech
(http://www.joburg.ac.za/EdTech/), which provides information relevant to the South African context.
Other resources include brochures by the Education Trust (e.g. 1999), and a toolkit on using technology
in the classroom by Mellers (1998).

Reference list
Blake, N. 1998. Using the web in undergraduate education. Journal of Educational Computing,
5(2):234:251.
Blake, N. 1999a. The promise of mobile technologies for education. Edulink, 3(2). Available from
http://www.joburg.ac.za/edtech/pubs/edulink/992/blake.html. (Accessed 8 February 2001).
Blake, N. 1999b. Higher Education in the 21st century. New York: University Press.
Davis, K. 1987. Computer-based training for accountants. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Rand
Afrikaans University: Johannesburg, South Africa.
Education Trust. 1999. Using videos in your classroom (Brochure). Sandton: Eduprint.
Education Trust. 2000. Issues in the use of educational technologies: Report to the Executive
Committee. (Available from Landry, S. Education Trust, 501 Grayston Drive, Sandton, South Africa).
Johnson, L. (n.d.). Will technology save the education system? Available from
http://www.netscape.com/users/johnl/save.html. (Accessed 16 January 2000).
Mellers, A. 1998. Transform your classroom with technology (CD). Sacramento:Crunch Pod Media.
Tyson, T., Burke, R.L. & Jacobs, G.M. 1994. Preliminary findings regarding the use of computers
in secondary schools. Paper presented at the meeting of the South African Association for Teachers:
Bloemfontein, South Africa.
Please note that all the sources used in this example are completely fictional, and were only created to
illustrate the different reference techniques discussed in this publication.

Basic in-text referencing

In-text reference where the author of the source is known, simply use whatever you used as author in
the reference, as well as the year of publication. Always insert the page number where possible. …the
result of this is a “technical super identity” (Erikson, 1967:20). Azar and Martin (1999) found that…
(As part of the sentence) …thus Cox (1966:52) refers to the modern urbanite as… in-text reference to
more than one source. In-text reference to more than one author should be ordered alphabetically.

More recent studies (Bartlett, 1992; James, 1998) show that…The researchers (Bartlett, 1992:54;
Brown, 1876:56; James, 1998:45) refer to…

General forms for reference lists

55
Non-periodical
Author, A.A. 1994. Title of work. Location: Publisher.
Non-periodicals include items published separately: books, reports, brochures, certain monographs,
manuals, and audiovisual media.

Part of a Non-periodical
Author, A.A. & Author, B.B. 1994. Title of chapter. In Title of book.
Edited by Editor, A., Editor, B. & Editor, C. Location: Publisher.

Periodical
Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. 1994. Title of article. Title of
periodical, xx:xxx-xxxx.
Periodicals include items published on a regular basis: journals, magazines, scholarly newsletters, etc.

Online periodical
Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. 2000. Title of article. Title of periodical, xx:xxx-xxxx.
Available from: web address (Accessed day Month year).

Online document
Author, A.A. 2000. Title of work. Available from: web address (Accessed day Month year).

Referencing other sources

A book with only one author
Rose, L. 1977. Crime and Punishment. London: Batsford.

A book by two authors

Gordon, E.W. & Rourke, A. 1966. Compensatory education for the disadvantaged. New York: College
Entrance Examination Board.

When quoting a book with more than 1 author in the text, use the word ‘and’ between the names; if the
reference is in parentheses, use ‘&’. In order to avoid possible communication problems all procedures
should be explained to the patient (Gardner & Sheldon, 1967:40)…. Gardner and Sheldon (1967:40)
examine the problem…

A book by three or more authors

Meyer, B.S., Anderson, D.P., Bohning, R.H. & Fratanna, D.G., Jr. 1973. Introduction to plant
physiology. New York: Van Nostrand.

In referring to a work by three or more authors all the relevant names have to be furnished in the first
reference to the work:
…the traditionalist personality (Riesman, Denney & Glazer, 1968:40) restrains him from doing…
In later references to this work only the first author’s name is stated, and the abbreviation ‘et al.’ is
used:

56
…due to his “other-directness” modern Western man in a sense is at homeeverywhere and yet nowhere
(Riesman, et al. 1968:40).

Reference to more than one publication of the same author in the same year Johnson (1994a:48)
discussed the subject… In his later works (Johnson, 1994b:56) he argued…
Johnson, P.D. 1994a. Pedagogy. London: Routledge.
Johnson, P.D. 1994b. Advanced Pedagogy. London: Routledge.

Different authors with the same surname

When you refer to publications by different authors with the same surname, use their initials in the
reference: According to B. Smith (1989) and F. Smith (1997), ….

A book with an institution, organisation or association as author

Where reference is made to the work by a body (institution, organisation, association, etc.) where no
specific author is responsible for the work, the official name of the body is used as author. You can also
use the name of the body as part of the sentence.
…it had long been evident that the intellectual potential of the Afrikaners on the Witwatersrand was
underutilised (Rand Afrikaans University, 1976:48)……thus the Rand Afrikaans University (1963:30)
concluded that…
RAU (Rand Afrikaans University). 1970. The new university: A practical guideline. Johannesburg:
Rand Afrikaans University.

A book with (an) editor(s)

Driver, E. & Broisen, A. (Editors). 1989. Child sexual abuse. Basingstoke, UK:
Macmillan Education Ltd.
Strunk, W. (Editor). 1976. Adult learning. New York: Macmillan.

A chapter in a book (not edited)

Capra, F. (1983). The systems view of life. Chapter 9 in The turning point: science, society and the
rising culture. London: Fontana Press.

Part/chapter of an edited book

Hartley, J.T., Harker, O.J. & Walsh, D.A. (1980). Contemporary issues and new directions in adult
development of learning and memory. In Aging in the 1980’s: psychological issues. Edited by Poon,
L.W. Washington: American Psychological Association.

Anonymous work
When a work’s author is designated as “Anonymous”, cite in text the word ‘Anonymous’: A recent
article (Anonymous, 1993) stated that…
In the case of articles in newspapers or magazines where no author is named, the title is used instead
of the author.
A recent article (War over, 1991) stated that…
Anonymous. 17 February 1993. Best practices. The Star, page 10.

57
War Over. (7 January 1991). The Star, page 10.

A work with a foreign title

Spyridakis, A. 1987. E historia tis Helladas [A history of Greece]. Athens: TheriositaIona.

Translated works
Luria, A.R. 1968. The mind of a mnemonist: a little book about a vast memory.
Translated from the Russian by Solotaroff, L. New York: Basic Books. (Original work published in
1967)
In text, cite the date of the translation:
A recent study (Luria, 1968:35).

Second, further or revised editions

Dyson, G.G.H. 1977. The mechanics of athletics. 7th edition. New York: Homes and Meier.
Cohen, J. 1977. Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences.

Revised edition. New York: Academic Press. Date of publication unknown

Wolverton, H. (n.d.). The geological structure of the Black Hills. Wilmington: Prairie Press.

Dictionaries
The concise Macquarie dictionary. (1982). New South Wales: Lane Cove.
Nguyen, D.H. (1966). Vietnamese-English dictionary. Rutland Vermont: Charles Tuttle Company.
Sadie, S. (Editor). 1980. The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians. 6th edition. London:
MacMillan.

Encyclopedia
Bergman, P.G. 1993. Relativity. In The new encyclopaedia Britannica. (Vol.26:501-508). Chicago.
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
If an entry has no byline, place the title in the author position.

Personal communication
Personal communications may be letters, memos, some electronic communication (e.g., e-mail or
messages from non-archived discussion groups or electronic bulletin boards, personal interviews,
telephone conversations, and the like.
Lowman, D. 17 January 2003. ProCite and Internet. Unpublished letter to Cross, P. Unpublished
manuscript submitted for publication.
Jordan, B.1989. Psychology of adolescent parents. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Unpublished manuscript not submitted for publication

Ryder, M. 1987. Wonder Woman: an Amazon legacy. Unpublished manuscript.

Newspaper article
Lamb, J. 20 October 1970. The perfect plants for lazy gardeners. Weekend Australian, page 3.

58
Periodical article
If a journal or newsletter does not use volume numbers, include the month, season, or other designation
with the year, for example (April 1994).

Phillips, E. May 1985. The Australian scene. Australian journal of ecology, 3(2):25-29. Only indicate
the issue number after the volume number if each issue begins on page 1.

Journal article in press

Phillips, E. (in press). The Australian scene. Australian journal of ecology.
In text: Phillips (in press) or (Phillips, in press).

Abstract
Phillips, E. 1985. The Australian scene (Abstract). Australian journal of ecology, 3(2):25-29.

Non-English journal article

Give the original title, as well as an English translation in brackets.
Ising, M. 2000. Intensitätsabhängigkeit evozierter Potenzial im EEG: Sind impulsive Personen
Augmenter oder Reducer? [Intensity dependence in eventrelated EEG potentials: Are impulsive
individuals augmenters or reducers?]. Zeitschrift für differentielle und diagnostische Psychologie,
21:208-217.

Published dissertation or thesis

Bevins, G.D. 1987. Theory and practice at an Australian university. Doctoral dissertation. Montreal:
McGill University.

Unpublished dissertation or thesis

Little, P. 1965. Helplessness, depression and mood in end stage renal disease. Unpublished thesis.
Johannesburg: Wits University. Or: unpublished doctoral dissertation

Dissertation abstract
Ross, D.F. 1990. Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: when a witness misidentifies a
familiar but innocent person from a lineup. Doctoral dissertation. Cornell University. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 51:417.

Government publications
When referring to a government publication, the date is sufficient for intext referencing, e.g.: According
to The Bill of Rights (1996)…Education is in the process of transformation (Department of Education,
1995)…Provide all numbers, sections, chapters or volume numbers that is available, in brackets.
The Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the Republic of South African. (1996). Government Gazette.
(No. 17678).

59
Department of Education. (1995). White Paper on Education. Government Gazette. (Vol. 375, No.
45621).
Commission on Civil Rights. 1967. Racial isolation in the public schools. Washington: United States
Government Printing Office.

Unpublished raw data

Use brackets to indicate that the material is a description of the content, not a title. Do not italicize title.
Bordi, F. & LeDoux, J.E. 1993. [Auditory response latencies in rat auditory cortex]. Unpublished raw
data.

Booklet, pamphlet or leaflet

South African College of Advanced Education (1976). Referencing: the footnote and Harvard system
(Brochure). Johannesburg: Wits Technikon.

Research and Training Center in Independent Living. 1993. Guidelines for reporting and writing about
people with disabilities (Brochure). 4th edition. Lawrence, K.S.: Author.
Study guide Speedy, C. (1999). Study Guide: Electrical Engineering 1. America: South American
College of Engineering.

Conference proceedings, no author or title

International Microcomputer Conference. 1984. Conference proceedings held at the Western
Australian Institute of Technology, Perth, 22 – 24 May 1984.
Conducted by the Department of Computer Studies. Perth: Western Australian Institute of technology.

Conference proceedings, with title

National Scientific Conference. 1989. The athlete: maximising participation and minimising risk.
Conference proceedings of the 25th bicentennial conference held in Sydney. Conducted by the
Australian Sports Medicine Federation Ltd. Sydney: Sports Federation.

Conference proceedings, with author

Neal, J.T. 1971. Education – technology or art? Conference proceedings of the 15th biennial
conference held in Adelaide. Conducted by the Library Association of Australia. Sydney: Library
Association. Unpublished paper presented at a meeting.
Lanktree, C. & Briere, J. 1991. Early data on the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSC-C).
Paper presented at the meeting of the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children: San
Diego, CA.

Publication of limited circulation

For a publication of limited circulation, give in parentheses immediately after the title a name and
address from which the publication can be obtained:
Klombers, N. (Editor). 1993. ADAA Reporter. (Available from the Anxiety Disorders Association of
America, 6000 Executive Boulevard, Suite 513, Rockville, MD20852) Review

60
Schatz, B.R. 2000. Learning by text or context? (Review of the book The social life of information).
Science, 290:1304.
Kraus, S.J. 1992. Visions of psychology: a videotext of classic studies (Review of the motion picture
Discovering Psychology). Contemporary Psychology, 37:1146-1147.

Electronic sources
In-text reference where the author of the electronic source is known, simply use whatever you used as
author in the reference, as well as the year of publication:
The project website was created using Aldus Pagemaker version 3 (1987-1988)…Several films (e.g.,
Bertolucci, 1988) have used this technique…Azar and Martin (1999) found that…

In-text reference to a web site

To cite an entire Web site (but not a specific document on the site), simply give the site's URL in the
text:
Rainbow MOO is a virtual space designed especially for teachers and their elementary-school students
(http://it.uwp.edu/rainbow).
When a specific part of an electronic source has to be quoted and no page number can be found, use
the paragraph number if available, proceede by the symbol or the abbreviation para. If these are absent,
cite the heading and the number of the paragraph following it: Jones, 2000:5) Jones, 2000: Conclusion,
para.7)

Internet site with author

Holmes, A. 1998. Greenpeace wins media war. Available from:
http://www.independent.co.uk/international/green25.htm (Accessed 25 November 1998).

Internet document without author

GVU’s 8th www user survey (n.d.). Available from:
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/user_surveys/survey-1997-10/ (Accessed 25 November 1998).
Personal electronic communication/ (e-mail)
FORMAT: Sender (sender’s e-mail address). (Day month year). Subject of message. E-mail to
recipient (recipient’s e-mail address).
Lowman, D. ([email protected]). (4 April 1996). RE: ProCite and Internet Refere. E-mail
to Cross, P. ([email protected]).

Article in an Internet-only journal

Frederickson, B.L. 7 March 2000. Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being.
Prevention & Treatment, 3, Aricle 001a. Available from:
http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html (Accessed 20 November 2000).

Electronic copy of a journal article retrieved from database

Borman, W.C. 1993. Role of early supervisory experience in supervisor performance. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 78:443-449. Available from PsycArticles database: http://….(Accessed 23
October 2000).

61
Internet articles based on a print source
VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2000). Role of reference elements in the selection of resources
by psychology undergraduates (Electronic version).
Journal of Bibliographic Research, 5:117-123.
If you have reason to believe that the article might be subject to change, you should add the URL and
the date you retrieved the document.

Newsgroups, online forums, electronic mailing lists

FORMAT: Author. (Day Month year). Subject of the message. Available from mailing list, URL
(Accessed Day Month year).
Brack, E. 2 May 1995. Re: Computing short courses. Available from LisLink: http://archive.lislink.com
(Accessed 10 December 2002).
Jensen, L.R. 12 December 1995. Recommendation of student radio/tv in English. Available from
IASTAR: http://nrg/dtu.dk (Accessed 11 January 2003).
Brett, P. 6 June 1999. Experiments proving the collective unconscious. Available from newsgroup:
alt.psychology.jung (Accessed 8 June 1999).
If you cannot determine the author's name, then use the author's email address as the main entry. When
deciding where in your Reference List to insert such a source, treat the first letter of the email address
as though it were capitalized.
[email protected] (26 May 1996). Thinking of adoption. Available from newsgroup: alt.adoption
(Accessed 29 May 1996)

Paper presented at a virtual conference

Tan, G. &Lewandowsky, S. (1996). A comparison of operator trust in humans versus machines. Paper
presented at the CybErg 96 virtual conference. Available
from:http://www.curtin.edu.au/conference/cyberg/centre/outline.cgi/frame?dir=tan (Accessed 30
January 2003).
Abstract
Isaac. J.D., Sansone, C., & Smith, J. L. May 1999. Other people as a source of interest in an activity
(Abstract). Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35:239-265. Available from: IDEAL database
www.europe.idealibrary.com (Accessed 7 June 1999).

Article in an electronic magazine (ezine)

Adler, J. 17 May 1999. Ghost of Everest. Newsweek. Available from: http://newsweek.com/ nw-
srv/issue/20_99a/printed/int/socu/so01201.htm (Accessed 19 May 1999).

Newspaper article
Azar, B. & Martin, S. October 1999. APA's Council of Representatives endorses new standards for
testing, highschool psychology. APA Monitor. Available from:
http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct99/in1.html (Accessed 7 October 1999).

Review

62
Parfit, M. 7 December 1997. Breathless (Review of the book The climb: Tragic ambitions on Everest).
New York Times on the Web. Available
from:http://search.nytimes.com/books/97/12/07/reviews/971207.07parfitt.html (Accessed 7 October
1999).

Letter to the editor

Gray, J. 7 May 1999. Pesticides linger in land and air - and in our bodies (Letter to the editor). Lexington
Herald-Leader. Available from:
http://www.kentuckyconnect.com/heraldleader/news/050799/lettersdocs/507lette rs.htm (Accessed 7
October 1999).

Government publication
Bush, G. 12 April 1989. Principles of ethical conduct for government officers and employees Exec.
Order No. 12674. Pt. 1. Available from: http://www.usoge.gov/exorders/eo12674.html (Accessed 18
November 1997).
CD-ROM Hawking, S. 1994. A Brief history of time: and interactive adventure (CD). Sacramento:
Crunch Pod Media.

Sound recording
Williamson, C. 1985. Prairie fire. On Arkansas traveler (Cassette recording). Oakland, California:
Olivia Records.
Rock 'n roll classics. 1986. (Phonographic recording). San Diego, California: Uptown Sound.

Motion
picture/film Transactional analysis. 1974. (Motion picture). Los Angeles: Research Films.
Bertolucci, B. (Producer). (1988). The last emperor (Motion picture). Los Angeles: Columbia Pictures.

Television broadcast
Crystal, L. (Executive producer). 11 October 1993. The MacNeil/Lehrer news hour. (Television
broadcast). New York and Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service.

Video recording
Babakuieria. 1986. (Video recording). Sydney: ABC Drama Department.
Sutton, P. (Producer). 1986. Kay Cottee: First Lady (Video recording). New South Wales: Direct Video
Pty Ltd.
Cochrane, C. (Executive producer) & Graham, S. (Director). 1988. The Superkids' fitness video (Video
recording). Perth: Dynami Australia.

Microfiche
Illinois State Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1971. Toys for early development of
the young blind child: a guide for parents (Microfiche).
ERIC Document Reproduction Service. No. ED 065 201.

63
Computer program
Aldus Pagemaker version 3.0 (1987-1988). (Computer software). Seattle, Washington: Aldus
Corporation.
Schwarzer, R. 1989. Statistics software for meta-analysis (Computer software and manual). Available
from: http://www.yorku.ca/faculty/academic/schwarze/meta_e.htm

Tips for the use of electronic sources

Evaluating Internet resources
(Source: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_evalsource4.html) Internet sources can be
very timely and very useful, but they should not be your sole source of information because there are
also books, journals, government publications, brochures, newspapers, etc. to read, and knowledgeable
people to interview. Evaluating Internet sources is particularly difficult because anyone can put up
anything he or she wants to on the Internet.

There is no way to monitor what is there and no fact checking is possible, though there are some site
ratings you can check. See Hope Tillman’s "Evaluating Quality on the Net"
(http://www.tiac.net/users/hope/findqual.html). Scroll down to the last part of her essay for a discussion
of some sites that review and rate Web sites.

Be sure to document what you find on the Internet in such a way that others can locate what you found.
This is most easily done when you access the data. Include the date you accessed the material since it
can be changed or updated later on. Be sure to browse around on the Web site to be sure you know who
the author is, what the sponsoring organization is, and so. This will enable you to cite the source fully
and will help you to evaluate it properly before including it in your paper.

Authorship
• Is there an author or organization clearly indicated? If there’s an author, go back to the questions
listed above about authors and ask yourself how reputable this person is. Can the author be
contacted? (If an e-mail address is given, you can contact that person or look up the address by
using the "finger" command.)
• What can you find out about the author?
If there is no information on the site, use a search engine or search Usenet. You may find the
author’s homepage or other documents which mention this person. Or look up the person on the
Internet Directory of Published Writers (http://www.writers.net). If the person is associated with
a university, look at the university Web site.
• If there is an organization sponsoring the page, what can you learn about the organization and
who they are? (You can search the site by following links to its home page or going back to a
previous level on the site by eliminating the last part of the address, after a "/" markor a period.
Another way to find the organization is to go to the View menu at the top of your Web browser
and open the Document Information window where the owner of the document is listed.)

64
 • Does the organization take responsibility for what’s on the site? Does it monitor or review
what’s on the site? Look at the address for the site. Does it end in .edu, indicating that it’s an
educational institution? If it has .gov, it should be fairly objective government-sponsored
material. Addresses with .org are usually non-profit organizations that are advocacy groups.
(The Sierra Club is an example of an advocacy group. Their postings will conform to their goals
of environmental preservation. Information posted by advocacy groups may be accurate but not
entirely objective.) If the site has a .com address, it’s most likely promoting or selling
something.

Accuracy of information
• Is there documentation to indicate the source of the information? There may be a link to the
original source of the information.
• Can you tell how well researched the information is?
• Are criteria for including information offered?
• Is there a bibliography or links to other useful sites? Has the author considered information on
those sites or considered viewpoints represented there?
• Is the information current? When was it updated? (You can check at the bottom for a "last
revised" date and/or notice if there are numerous dead links on the site.)
• Is there any indication of bias on the site?
• Does the site have any credentials such as being rated by a reputable rating group? If you see a
high rating, is that because of the soundness of the content or the quality of the design? (An
attractive page is not a reason for accepting its information as reliable.)

Goals of the site

• What is the purpose of the site? To provide information? Advertise? Persuade?
• Are the goals of the site clearly indicated?
• Who is the intended audience?
• Is there a lot of flash and color and gimmicks to attract attention? Is that masking a lack of
sound information or a blatant attempt to get you to do or buy something?

Access
• How did you find the site? Were there links from reputable sites? From ads? If you found the
site through a search engine, that means only that the site has the words in the topic you are
researching prominently placed or used with great frequency. If you found the site by browsing
through a subject directory, that may mean only that someone at that site registered it with that
directory.

List of sources
American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

65
American Psychological Association (1999, August 9). Electronic reference formats recommended by
the American Psychological Association. Available from: http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html
(Accessed 4 October 1999).
Harnack, A. & Kleppinger, E. (2000). Online! A reference guide to using internet sources. Available
from: http://webster.comnet.edu/apa/apa_index.htm (Accessed 24 August 2000).
Vista University Academic Language Editing Service. (1999). A Summary of the Adapted Harvard
Method of Referencing. Available from: http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/lindavr/Harvard/html
(Accessed 3 August 2000).
University of Sunderland. (1999). Harvard Reference System. Available from:
http://osiris.sunderland.ac.uk/~cs0jwr?IT&P/refs.htm (Accessed 3 August 2000).
University of Bournemouth. (1998). Harvard System. Available from:
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library2/html/Harvard_system.html (Accessed 3 August 2000).
University of Bournemouth. (1998). Guide to Citing Internet Sources. Available from:
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library2/html/guide_ot_citing_internet_sourc.html (Accessed 3
August 2000).
Loft, B. and Jones, R.M. (2000). Reference styles: Harvard and Vancouver systems. Available from:
http://library.bma.org.uk/html/refsystem.html (Accessed 3 August 2000).
Smit, R. (2000). Bibliographic References. In: Rossouw, D, editor. Intellectual Tools: Skills for the
Human Sciences. Translated by C. Fourie. Lynnwood Ridge: Amabhuku Publications.

66