1.

Introduction

Here we are dealing with Extractive Metallurgy

Metals are known to be the most important part of human life for development. They can
be obtained mainly by two resources: Primary resources and secondary resources.
Primary resources are mostly identified as natural resources in which the metals are
extracted in ore. In secondary source, metals are generally scraped or recycled material.

What is mineral?

The forms in which metals are found in the crust of the earth and as sea-bed deposits
depend on their reactivity with their environment, particularly with oxygen, sulphur, and
carbon dioxide. Gold and platinum metals are found principally in the native or metallic
form. Silver, copper, and mercury are found native as well as in the form of sulphides,
carbonates, and chlorides. The more reactive metals are always in compound form, such
as the oxides and sulphides of iron and the oxides and silicates of aluminium and
beryllium. The naturally occurring compounds are known as minerals, most of which
have been given names according to their composition (e.g., galena- lead sulphide, PbS;
sphalerite - zinc sulphide, ZnS; cassiterite- tin oxide, SnO2).
Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solid with a fixed or limited range
in chemistry. The term naturally occurring means the synthetic production of mineral is
not possible. Some flexibility, however, is allowed in this definition. Minerals are
crystalline in nature and thus the molecules or atoms or ions are arranged in an arranged
symmetrical pattern, repeatedly.

The properties of mineral are mainly the result of composition and its physical structure.
Composition can affect colour and bond strength. Molecular arrangement plays a big role
on the physical properties of mineral.

What is ore?

Formation of mineral depends upon the instability of earth’s lower crust where volcanic
activities take place. Gradual change in temperature forms solidus matter and at a certain
point of low temperature, it starts crystal formation. During this process, many other
elements which are more likely to share their valency, forms a unique structure. This
structure contains more than one element, water content etc. In other words, this structure
is the gathering of various mineral or the gangue of minerals which is known as mineral
ore. Ore is the mixture of minerals with other impurities.

In the earth's crust, metals are present in the form of minerals and there are more than one
mineral for a particular metal. However, metal may not be extracted from all of them.
The mineral from which a metal can be profitably and conveniently extracted is known as
ore. Materials which contain sufficient quantity of minerals so that metals can be
extracted profitably.

• Ore contains a good percentage of metal.

• There are no objectionable impurities.

• All ores are minerals.

• Why all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ore?

All ores are minerals while all minerals are not ores as some of them might have a large
number of unwanted substances such as sand, stones and earthly impurities. For example:
Aluminium occurs in earth's crust in the form of two minerals bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) and
clay (e.g., 4SiO2.Al2O3.H2O)
[Clay are minerals those are made up of water, silica, alumina, or magnesia. They can
also contain iron, potassim, sodium, and calcium. The ratio of silica (SiO 2) in the formula
determines the type of clay mineral.].

Out of these, aluminium can be easily and profitably extracted from bauxite only. So, we
can infer that bauxite is an ore of aluminium. On the other hand, it has not been possible
to obtain aluminium from clay by some easy and cheap method. So, clay remains only as
mineral and not as ore of aluminum.

Other example,

the different minerals of iron are:

Haematite: Fe2O3, Limonite: Fe2O3.3H2O. Siderite: FeCO3, Iron pyrites: FeS2.

Iron is extracted from haematite. Haematite mineral is the ore of iron while other
minerals are not good ores.
Extractive Metallurgy

The process of extracting metals from their ores and then refining them for use is called
Extractive metallurgy. The process of metallurgy depends upon the nature of the ore,
nature of the metal and the types of impurities present. Therefore, there is not a single
method for the extraction of all metals. However, most of the metals can be extracted by
a general procedure which involves the following steps.

• Crushing and grinding of the ore.

• Concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore.

• Conversion of ore into metal oxide

• Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore.

• Refining or purification of the impure metal.

What is mineral processing?

Mineral processing is one of the branches of extractive metallurgy that deals with various
processes which turn the natural inorganic material (i.e., Ore) into the economically
viable mineral. Processing of such material or gangue of mineral defines the unique
property for desired mineral or element. Mineral processing is based on the concepts of
mass conversion, sorting, separation and analysis. In other words, these processes are
backbone for preparation and beneficiation of valuable mineral.

After the mineral analysis, ore sample needs size reduction to get separated from the
waste particle. Size reduction is achieved through the series of crushing and grinding. In
crushing, large rocks are placed into the crusher where the large rock is cut into small
pieces under the size range of centimetres to millimetres. After crushing, smaller parts
are separated into a big hopper. Material in this hopper turns into feed for the next
procedure called grinding. Grinding is the most important part of whole mineral
processing. Generally, grinders are containing the size reducing element such as metallic
balls, rods etc. Such elements are called grinding media. Material passes through this
media results into huge size transformation in a big rotating uniaxial tumbler under the
remarkable influence of gravity. Screening can be followed by crushing and sometimes
grinding. Sieves of holes with different diameter separate the material into different sizes.
At this point, mineral is mixed with liquid chemical for the removal of contaminants by
optic separation. Concentration includes the differentiation of valuable minerals from the
waste and other material. It can be done by colour, density, electric and magnetic
sensitivity and other properties. Filtration, floatation, thickening, drying and dewatering
processes make the mineral identical and ready for various purposes.

Mineral beneficiation

Any physical operation carried out on the ore to enhance its quality and make it more
suitable for subsequent operations will be termed as Ore Dressing or Mineral
Beneficiation.
So mineral dressing or ore dressing is commonly regarded as processing of raw ores to
yield marketable products by such physical means those do not destroy the physical and
chemical identity of the ore.

Economic Justification of Mineral Dressing:

1. To purify and upgrade the ore:
It is apparent that many ores & minerals do require some prior preparation to enhance
their chemical purity and physical properties before their use in smelters.

2. Making smelting practice easier:

Hydrometallurgical extraction of metals is very slow, complex and expensive in most of
the cases compared to pyrometallurgical process of extraction. In the initial stages the
ores can be upgraded by employing inexpensive and simple dressing methods to make
them suitable for pyrometallurgical extraction. Such an activity reduces the complexity of
the smelting practice resulting in economic justification.

3. Savings on Freight:
During ore dressing the ores get beneficiated and gangue materials get separated. As the
waste products are not to be transported from the mines areas, huge money is saved on
freight by transporting upgraded ores.

4. Reduced losses of metal at the smelter:

As the gangue portion of the ore is separated by means of simple beneficiation methods
the slag volume during the smelting process decreases. This ultimately results in a lesser
loss of metal into the slag.

5. Reduction of the total smelting cost:

As there is a partial separation of gauge from the ore, lesser amount of upgraded ore is to
be smelted for a particular output capacity. This reduces the fuel and energy consumption
per ton of metal smelted.

6. Reduction of the total smelting cost:

As there is a partial separation of gauge from the ore, lesser amount of upgraded ore is to
be smelted for a particular output capacity. This reduces the fuel and energy consumption
per ton of metal smelted.
7. Reduction of the total smelting cost:

As there is a partial separation of gauge from the ore, lesser amount of upgraded ore is to
be smelted for a particular output capacity. This reduces the fuel and energy consumption
per ton of metal smelted.
8. Reduction of the total smelting cost:
As there is a partial separation of gauge from the ore, lesser amount of upgraded ore is to
be smelted for a particular output capacity. This reduces the fuel and energy consumption
per ton of metal smelted.
9. Enhancing the efficiency of unit processes:
Sometimes the ore is separated into one or more valuable products and a tailing. This
leads to separation of certain minerals which interfere seriously with smelting or
leaching. Hence complex ores require prior separation or processing treatment for
economical smelting.
Objective of mineral dressing
1. To eliminate unwanted chemical species:
To prepare the ore particle from chemical stand point, primarily involving the following
steps:
a. Liberation of dissimilar particles from each other appearing in the bulk ore.
b. Separation of chemically dissimilar particles.
2. To prepare ore from physical standpoint.
This involves:
a. Reduction in size.
b. Separation of particles of dissimilar physical nature.

Scope Of Application Of Mineral Dressing.

1. It helps in eliminating unwanted chemical species from the bulk of the ore.
2. It helps in eliminating particles improper size and physical structure which may
adversely affect the working of smelters, roasters etc. Of the above scopes, first one is
more important and is considered to be the extent or working sphere of ore dressing. The
second one is also equally important for proper smelting operation.
GENERAL OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN ORE DRESSING:
1. Comminution:
Comminution or size reduction can be accomplished dry or wet.
2. Sizing:
This is the separation of product material into various fractions depending on their size
parameter.
3. Concentrating:
Concentration of valuable portion of the ore is obtained by the various means which
generally involve physical characteristics of the ore particles. Sizing, jigging, tabling,
classification, magnetic & electrostatic separation are few such examples. We may
exploit an entirely different set of physio-chemical properties for concentrating the ore as
it happens during froth flotation.
4. De -Watering:
Where aqueous medium is involved, water is to be removed before smelting can take
place.
This involves:
a) Removal of most of the water by the use of the thickener.
b) Then use of filter presses to prepare a damp cake of the concentrated ore.
c) Then drying the cake in a furnace

Mineral beneficiation is considered as the first step of mineral extraction from its natural
resources (Ore). It’s very rare to find mineral particle on the surface which is ready for
extraction process. When ore aggregates with gangue mineral, it becomes necessary to
separate valuable mineral from the gangue. Mineral beneficiation is the process to
convert raw material into marketable product. This process is also known as mineral
dressing or ore dressing. During this operation, mineral doesn’t loose its chemical and
physical identity.

In all the operations, mineral beneficiation is done by crushing and grinding with the help
of different equipment. Large particles are passing through the hard surfaces where it gets
hammered and broken into small pieces. These pieces further move to the different
machines with allowable size opening and again go under intense size reduction and turn
into fine particles. In extractive metallurgy, such operations are technically known as
comminution. Comminution or size reduction requires huge amount of energy.
Specimen of ore with valuable mineral and waste particles

When the particles are more liberated, they are more likely to get free from each other
and more single mineral to be available in mass generation. Thus, by reducing size in
comminution, it tends to create much larger surface area for mineral particles which
becomes advantageous in several processes such as leaching, forth floatation etc. For
example; in leaching, mineral particles in powder form create large effective area which
is more likely to dissolve in acid or alkali and turn into rich solution and execute the
upcoming processes more effective. Comminution process creates not only the larger
surface area, by breaking the particle it adds new surfaces which may be more active for
any chemical and physical reaction.

There are very few processes where it requires large particle size. The degree of fineness
of the particle depends upon the acceptance of the particle size for the upcoming process
that needs to be operated. For example, in fluidic process, particles make homogeneous
mixture with gas. If the particle is very fine, it becomes lighter than the density of gas
which results into scattering of particle and turning the process less efficient. In forth
floatation technic, large surface area of the particles is easy to get attached due to surface
tension of the bubble. If the particles are too big, it becomes harder to get elevated and
attached with foam bubble surface.
• Flow sheet is a combination of processes which are followed in the given plant to
extract the metal(s) most economically. While analysing the flow sheet we come
across certain unit processes and operations.

• The unit processes are usually characterized by certain chemical reactions such as
roasting, leaching etc while unit operations are usually physical processes carried out
discreetly on the ore.
These physical processes are usually represented by crushing, grinding and similar
such
processes.

Unfortunately there is no rigid line of distinction between them. However, from

metallurgical engineering point of view any physical operation carried out on the ore to
enhance its quality and make it more suitable for subsequent operations will be termed as
Ore Dressing or Mineral Beneficiation.

Comminution

It is a size reduction process, it can be accomplished in both dry and wet

conditions.
Comminution of any ore is carried out in several stages using different crushing
equipments.
So the objective crushing is to reduce the large lumps in to smaller sizes.

Most of the minerals create agglomeration and convert ore particle in to gangue mineral
which needs to be liberated prior to separation. Liberation of the valuable mineral follows
a unique process during mineral beneficiation called comminution (Wills, 2006).
Comminution process targets to convert the raw material to a manageable feed for further
separation or various ore carriers. Comminution, in general, consists of two processes
together namely crushing and grinding. Crushing is the first stage in comminution where
lumps of ore from natural reserves are being crushed into intermediate size from its
originally huge size. Screening process is followed by crushing at individual stage. At
every stage, over size ore pieces which are not crush into proper size, again conveyed
towards re-crushing by process circuit and the under-size particles are sent to upcoming
size reduction operations. After crushing, valuable mineral gets liberated up to certain
extent but the mineral particles which are still agglomerated with gangue mineral because
of the particle size need to go further intense crushing stage which is called grinding or
milling. In the milling operation, the feed is under-size from crushing process.

Mechanism of Size Reduction:

Crushing is a mechanical operation in which a force of large magnitude is applied to a
relatively brittle solid material in such a direction that its failure takes place.

The theory of size reduction for solids is quite complex, but can be attributed to the
action
of following forces acting on the particle:
1. A huge compressive force exceeding the ultimate strength of the material may be
responsible for size reduction as actually happens in case of jaw, gyratory and roll
crushers.
2. A sufficiently high impact force may be responsible for size reduction. Impact force is
largely utilized in hammer & ball mills.
3. Attrition, rubbing action or frictional forces may be utilized for size reduction. Such
action
is largely responsible for crushing in attrition mill, tube and pebble mills.
4. Cutting force is utilized in knife edge mills to reduce the size of fibrous materials like
mica,
asbestos.
At least one or a combination of the above forces is always involved in size reduction in
any
crushing equipment.
Classification of the Size Reduction Equipments
A. Primary Crushers:
1. Jaw crusher.
2. Gyratory crusher.
B. Intermediate crushers:
1. Crushing rolls.
2. Cone crusher.
3. Disc crusher.

C. Fine crushers or Coarse Grinders:

1. Ball Mill.
D. Fine Grinders:
1. Rod mill.
2. Pebble mill.
3. Tube mill.
4. Hammer mill with internal classifier.

Crushing and grinding

Jaw crusher

Jaw crusher is an important primary crushing element in mineral processing industries. It

uses pressure crushing that results the large size particle into smaller pieces and reducing
the cost for further processing. It delivers simple crushing operation using two jaws
where one jaw is stationary, and the other is moving in an oscillatory motion with the
help of toggle and drawing rod. Feed enters through opening on top and goes under
repetition of alternate nipping and discharge as free-fall ahead for upcoming crushing
chamber. Size of the crusher is known by its opening which allows maximum size of
feed.
Classification of Jaw Crushers:
From capacity and working mechanism point of view jaw crushers are three types such
as:
1. Blake crusher.
2. Dodge crusher.
3. Universal crusher

Gyratory crusher

Gyratory crushers are the part of primary crushing for heavy duty operation that reduces
large rock pieces resulted during mine blasting into the gravel size rock mixture. Design
of this crusher is mainly consisting of outer shell and inner asymmetric spindle shaft
which is placed inside the inner hole surrounded by mantel. Outer shall is made of
manganese or steel alloy where the shaft is forged metal made of carbon steel alloy.
Eccentric motion of shaft is driven by driving gears at the bottom and held by concave
with the wear resisting shield in a steady spider at top. Sectional view describes the
conical shape of outer shell which continuously decreases by diameter and ends with
reduced gap between shaft and shell.

Cone crusher

Cone crusher comes under fine grinding operation and hence, it is placed at the initial
stage of secondary grinding circuit. Cone crusher can be named as advance version of
gyratory crusher with shorter spindle size. Crushing process is quite similar to primary
gyratory crusher.

Roll crusher

Size reduction in roll crusher works on the principle of attrition, shearing and
compression. Roll crusher, as its name suggest, has roller as crushing element which are
further classified into two types by number of rollers. Single roll crusher and double roll
crusher.

Grinding

The usual meaning of grinding is the comminution of an ore particle that has already
been reduced to a size less than 6mm size by crushing. Hence any comminution
process aiming at a product size less than 6mm size is known as grinding.

Grinding in mineral processing is considerably the final stage size reduction process and
important for further extraction of valuable mineral from ore. Principle of grinding is
mainly impact and abrasion. Principle of grinding is mainly impact and abrasion. In
general, output of grinding mill is powdered form of ore and economically viable for
mineral sorting. Ore in powder form increases surface area which results into effective
liberation and reduces the energy consumptions. Grinding is highly energy consuming
size reduction method.

Grinding is exclusively performed through nipping method where media can be ball or
rod. Size of the media is a relevant factor of ore characteristics and output quality. A
huge cylindrical vessel gets continues rotation with media in it where media gets agitated
and material surrounding it goes under repetitive nipping. As per motion of the vessel for
energy transfer to the ore, grinding is classified by two types:

tumbling mills: is defined as a drum rotating on horizontal axis for making pulverisation
of ore with the help of grinding media. Tumbling mill has two cylindrical shells where
outer remain stationary and inner shell rotates for milling. Grinding in tumbling mill is
highly affected by rotation speed of drum, type of grinding media (material of ball or rod
too) and spacing that allows media to transfer charge.

and
stirred mills: Stirred mills have stationary outer shall and rotating stirrer inside the mill.
Unlike tumbling mill, feed is given from upper side of drum which goes under fine
grinding through grinding disks and stirrer. Fine particles are discharged with water
mixture and coarse material is again conveyed to the mill for further reduction. Vertical
mills have gravitational advantage of ore breaking with reduced damage to the disks and
pins during operation.

Ball mill

Critical Speed of the Ball Mill: The minimum rotational speed at which centrifuging
occurs
in a ball mill is defined as its critical speed. It has already been noticed that no grinding
takes
place in the ball mill when it centrifuges.

Dry & Wet Grinding

It is to be noted that ball mills can he operated dry or wet. Mills are usually employed to
grind ore in wet condition. But for some specific purpose essentially in chemical
industries
dry grinding is employed.
During dry grinding the mills are connected with pneumatic classifiers in closed circuit to
produce extremely fine powder. Pulverized coal is obtained in this manner.
Advantages of Wet Grinding Over Dry Grinding:
Though wet grinding is generally applicable in low speed mills there are number of
advantages of wet grinding over dry grinding:
1.Wet grinding facilitates better removal of the product, eliminates dust problem, lessen
the
noise and heat produced though the wear may actually increase by 20 %.
2. Power consumption is lowered by10-30% over dry grinding per ton of product.
3. The capacity increases per unit volume of the mill.
4. This grinding makes wet screening possible for producing materials in narrow size
range.
5. Dust problem is eliminated.
6. Wet grinding makes handling & transportation of product easier.

Screen

Explain the operation of classifier & their application.

Classification:
• Classification is a process by which particles of various sizes, shapes and specific
gravities are separated into separate groups by allowing them to settle in a fluid
medium.
• The coarse and heavier grains settle faster than the finer and lighter grains. Usually,
air or water is used as the fluid medium. Classification may be regarded as a mineral
beneficiation process based primarily on Stokes‟ law of sedimentation.

Free settling
• When a particle is at sufficient distance from the
wall of the container and from other particle, so
that its fall is not affected by them, the process is
called free settling.
• Terminal velocity is also known as free settling
velocity.
Hindered settling
• When the particles are crowded, they settle at a lower rate and the
process is called hindered settling.
• The particles will interfere with the motion of individual particles
• The velocity gradient of each particle are affected by the close presence of other
particles.

Factors affecting classification:

1. Specific gravity: For particles of same size but different specific gravities, the particle
having the highest specific gravity will settle fastest than any other particle.
2. Size: For particles of same specific gravity but different sizes, the largest one will
settle
fastest than any other particle.
3. Shape: Spherical particles settle faster than the narrower, longer and flatter particles.
4. Specific gravity of the fluid: In fluids of different specific gravities, the particle will
settle
fastest in the lightest fluid.
5. Air bubbles: Adherence of air bubbles to the solid particles would decrease the settling
speed.

CLASSIFICATION
Classification is a method of separating of minerals into two or more
products on the basis of size. In coarse size range this may be achieved
under dry conditions. However, starting from grinding most operations are
generally performed under wet conditions in mineral processing. When a.
solid particle falls in fluid (water) medium there is resistance to this movement
and the value increases with velocity. When equilibrium is attained between
the gravitational and fluid resistances forces, the body reaches its terminal
velocity and thereafter falls at a uniform rate. This terminal velocity is function
of the particle size and density.
Classifiers consist essentially of sorting column in which a fluid is rising
at a uniform rate. Particles introduced into the sorting column either sink or
rise according to whether their terminal velocities are greater or less than the
upward velocity of the fluid. The sorting column therefore separates the feed
into two products - an overflow consisting of particles with terminal velocities
less than the velocity of the fluid and an underflow of particles with terminal
velocities greater than the rising velocity.
Classifiers are divided mainly into two broad classes depending on the
direction of flow of the carrying current. Horizontal current classifiers such
as mechanical classifiers, spiral classifiers, rake classifier are essentially of
the free settling type. Vertical current or hydraulic classifiers such as
elutriators, hydrocyclones, hydrosizers are usually of hindered settling types.
Sieve bends are also commonly used for classification.
Floatation
Comprehend elementary principle of froth floatation, practical utility of frother,
collection,
modifiers & depressants.
Flotation is the most widely used method of wet concentration of ores for separating the
valuable constituent of the ore from the worthless gangue. The process is primarily a
surface phenomena based on the adhesion of some mineral particles to air and
simultaneous adhesion of other particles to water in the pulp. It is the most efficient but is
the most complex of all ore beneficiation processes. A In this process adhesion is made
between air bubbles and small mineral particles in such a way that they rise in that pulp.
The floating mineralized froth is then skimmed off while the other minerals are retained
in the pulp. The above fact is known as flotation proper. There is another term called skin
flotation. In such a case the adhesion is affected between a free water surface and the
mineral particles.

Physico-Chemical Principles of Flotation: Physico-chemical principles of flotation can be

explained in terms of surface energy & surface tension, contact angle, polarity and
adsorption. Surface Energy or Surface Tension and Contact Angle: At any interface there
exists certain amount of energy called surface energy

Froth flotation
It is used for the concentration of sulphide ores. It is based on the different wetting
characteristic of ore and gangue particles with water and oil. Finely powdered ore is
mixed with water in a large tank to form a slurry then some pine oil is added to it.
The sulphide ores are preferentially wetted by the pine oil, the gangue particles are
wetted by the water. When air is blown through the mixture froth carrying metal
sulphides rises to the top of the tank and floats as scum, then it is removed and
dried. The gangue particles being heavier, sink to the bottom of the tank.

Froth flotation is a process used to separate minerals, suspended in

liquids, by selectively attaching them to gas bubbles. Hence, in flotation we
have a three-phase system. The separation principle is based on the lack of
affinity of the mineral surface towards water, a property denoted by hydrophobicity.
Flotation is undoubtedly the most important and
versatile mineral processing technique and
applications are being expanded to treat greater
tonnages and to cover new areas. It is a selective
process and can be used to achieve separation
from complex ores such as lead-zinc, copperzinc
etc.
Principles of flotation:
Froth flotation utilises the differences in physico-
chemical surface properties of various minerals.
After treatment with reagents, such differences
in surface properties between the minerals within the flotation pulp become apparent. For
flotation to take place, an air bubble must be able to attach itself to a particle and lift it to
the water surface. The process can be applied to relatively fine particles. In flotation
concentration, the mineral is usually transferred to the froth leaving the gangue in the
tailing in direct flotation and in the reverse flotation the gangue is separated into the float
fraction leaving the concentrate in the pulp. In flotation, the minerals can be classified as
hydrophobic, i.e., having no affinity towards water and hydrophilic, i.e., having strong
affmity towards water. Very few minerals are naturally hydrophobic and the hydrophobic
conditions could be achieved by using chemical reagents.

Flotation Reagents:
Froth flotation being a physico-chemical process requires a number of chemical reagents
for its successful operation. Broadly the flotation reagents can be classified under
following categories:
1. Frothers
2. Collectors &
3. Modifiers.

Frothers: Frothers are heteropolar surface active organic reagents, capable of being
adsorbed on the air-water interface. The adsorption of frothers at the bubble-water
interface reduces the surface tension and stabilizes the air bubble. In the froth bubble, the
non-polar group is oriented towards the water phase providing the necessary water
repellency to the froth as required. A typical froth bubble is shown schematically in the
figure .
Collectors: The collector is said to be the most important reagent in flotation. Each
collector molecule contains a polar and a non-polar group. It gets adsorbed on the
mineral surface and forms a continuous heteropolar film all around the particle. The
heteropolar film is so formed that the polar part is attached to the mineral surface and the
non-polar group is projected outwardly providing hydrophobicity to the mineral surface.
This results in attachment of mineral particles to the air bubbles available in the pulp and
ultimately results in flotation.
Modifiers or Regulators: Sometimes it may be necessary to use a modifier before any
collector can be made to function effectively. By means of a modifier, it is possible to
accomplish the followings:
a. Utilize collectors under optimum conditions
b. Prevent or control mutual mineral interaction.
c. Prevent or control action of atmospheric air or aquatic ingredients at the mineral
surfaces. d. Modify favourably or adversely the ability of some minerals to acquire
floatability.

DE-WATERING
The removal of water from solid, either partially or completely, comes under the unit
operation, 'Solid-Liquid Separation' which forms an integral part of several mineral
processing and hydro-metallurgical processes. In recent years the importance of solid-
liquid separation techniques have gained considerable importance in order to reduce the
load on thermal dryers which are highly energy intensive and also for environmental
protection. The economics of coal utilisation, large scale mineral processing and water
treatment operations are critically dependent on the solid-liquid separation technology
since any improvement in product moisture reduction techniques can result in significant
cost saving.

The term, 'De-watering' in solid-liquid separation is used to define two different

operations:
a) The reduction of slurry volume and production of semi-dried solid which are most
commonly achieved through sedimentation. In this case separation is affected by
exploiting earth's gravitational field (thickener) or centrifugal field (centrifuge or hydro-
cyclone).
b) The slurry is subsequently de-watered through filtration in which separation of solids
from liquid is achieved by passing the slurry through a filtering medium on which solids
build up forming cake.

AGGLOMERATION
Often concentrates are produced from mineral processing plants in fine particulate form
and as such those can not be utilized for metal extraction unless they are bound into some
compacted or lumpy form called 'agglomerates' suitable for handling and feeding into
furnaces. The process of 'agglomeration' can be classified mainly into the following
groups, namely, Briquetting, Nodulizing (rotary kiln sintering), Vacuum extrusion,
Sintering and Pelletizing.

• CONVERSION OF METAL ORE INTO METAL OXIDE

• Calcination:
• This process is carried out specifically for carbonate ores. The main purpose of this
process is the removal of CO2 form the ore. Hence the ore is heated to its
decomposition and temperature and gets converted to the oxide form. Along with
CO2, volatile impurities are also removed in this process. Apart from the carbonate
ores, hydrated ores are also subjected to calcinations for the removal of water of
crystallization
Example:
• ZnCO3(s) = ZnO(S) + CO2(g)
• FeCO3(s) = FeO(s) + CO2(g)

• Roasting:
• This is generally carried out for sulphide ores. The ore is heated to a temperature
below fusion point of the ore where the ore reacts with the oxygen present in air
and forms metal oxide and sulphur dioxide.

• Example:
• 2ZnS + 3O2 = 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
• 4FeS2(s) + 11O2 = 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)

• Smelting:
• The metal oxide formed after calcinations or roasting is converted into metal by
reduction. The method used for reduction of metal oxide depends upon the nature
and chemical reactivity of metals. Smelting is done in blast furnace. During
smelting either the metal oxide is smelted or reduced in to metal

• ZnO(s) + C(s) = Zn(s) + CO(g)

• Fe2O2(s) + 3C(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
• Flux
• In metallurgy, flux is a substance added to remove impurities from ores during
concentration. When subjected to heat, flux reacts with earthy impurities, called
gangue, to form a molten mass called slag. Slag is the leftover substance after pure
metal is separated from its ore.
• If an impurity in an ore is basic, the flux should be acidic. For example, acidic flux
is added to basic impurities to form slag, and basic flux is added to acidic
impurities to form slag.
• Limestone is commonly used for this purpose in smelting iron ores. Other
materials used as fluxes are silica, dolomite, lime, borax, and fluorite.
• Flux promotes fluidity and binds with easily removable impurities. Slag is formed
after the combination of impurities in the ore and flux and is lighter in weight than
molten metal

Slag

• Slag is the by-product of metal extraction especially iron. Iron is extracted from its
ore by a process called smelting.
• Slag is produced as a result of smelting and basically contains the non-metallic
impurities present in the ore.
• It is mainly used for laying roads and also used along with cement to form
concrete.
• A slag is a waste product formed by combination of a flux and gangue (impurity)
during the extraction of metals by smelting process.
Flux are classified as Acidic flux (SiO2, Borax) and Basic Flux (MgCO3, Fe2O3,
CaCO3)
Following four reactions can show slag formation process.
(i)SiO2 (Acidic flux) + CaO (gangue) → CaSiO3
(ii)FeO(gangue)+SiO2(Acidic flux)→FeSiO3
(iii)CaO (Basic flux)+P2O5(gangue)→Ca3(PO4)2
(iv)MgCO3(Basic flux)+SiO2(gangue)→MgSiO3+CO2

• PURIFICATION OR REFINING OF METAL

• The metal obtained by any of the above methods is usually impure and is known as
crude metal. The process of purifying the crude metal is called refining. Following
methods are used to refine the metal.

• Liquation:

• This method is used for refining metals having low melting points such as tin &
lead. The metals is placed on the sloping surface in a hearth on heating metals
flows down the surface and is collected. Impurities which have high melting points
remarks on the Earth.

• Distillation:

• More volatile metals like Zn, Hg are purified by this method. The impure metal is
heated in a retort. The pure metal distils over and is condensed in a reaction.
Impurities will be left in the retort
 • Electrolytic Refining:

• Electrolytic refining means is electolysis. It is the most important, most widely

used method by means of which a metal of high purity can be obtained. Many
metals like Cu, Zn, Sn, Pb, Cr, Hg, Ag, Au are refined electolytically.

• In this process a thick block of impure metal is taken as anode, a strip of pure
metal is taken as cathode, water soluble salt (of metal to be refined) is taken as
electrolyte. On passing electric current, impure metal dissolves from the anode and
goes into the solution, pure metal from the electrolyte deposits on the cathode.
Impurities will settle at the bottom as anode mud.

Pyrometallurgy
• Pyrometallurgy is a branch of extractive metallurgy. It consists of the thermal
treatment of minerals and metallurgical ores and concentrates to bring about
physical and chemical transformations in the materials to enable recovery of
valuable metals.
• Pyrometallurgy deals with the methods of extraction of metals from their ores and
their refining and is based on physical and chemical changes occurring at high
temperatures, i.e. 500-2000°C.
• Pyrometallurgical treatment may produce saleable products such as pure metals,
or intermediate compounds or alloys, suitable as feed for further processing.
• Examples of elements extracted by pyrometallurgical processes include the oxides
of less reactive elements like Fe, Cu, Zn, Chromium, Tin, Manganese.
• Most pyrometallurgical processes require energy input to sustain the temperature
at which the process takes place. The energy is usually provided in the form of
fossil fuel combustion, exothermic reaction of the material, or from electrical heat.
When enough material is present in the feed to sustain the process temperature
solely by exothermic reaction (i.e. without the addition of fuel or electrical heat),
the process is said to be “autogenous.”

Advantages of Pyrometallurgy

• Since Pyrometallurgy is a high-temperature technique, the reaction is quick. As a

result, more metal is produced.
• The cost of reducing agents and raw materials is cheap.
• The separation of liquid metal and slag aids in the metal extraction process.
• The pyrometallurgy process extracts metals such as Fe, Zn, Pb Al, and Mg.
• The pyrometallurgy technique uses less chemicals than other processes.
• it is compatible with ore cracking

Disadvantages of Pyrometallurgy
• Pyrometallurgy demands a lot of energy.
• Pyrometallurgy generates toxic substances.
• High demand for construction materials.
• It might be challenging to handle when Pyrometallurgy is combined with ore
cracking and metal reduction.

Hydrometallurgy
• Hydrometallurgy is part of the field of extractive metallurgy involving the use of
aqueous chemistry for the recovery of metals from ores, concentrates, and recycled
or residual materials. Hydrometallurgy is typically divided into three general areas:
• Leaching
• Solution concentration and purification
• Metal recovery

Leaching
• Leaching: Leaching is the chemical method of concentrating the ore. Leaching is
often used when the ore is soluble in some suitable solvent or chemical reagent
while the gangue particles are insoluble. Leaching is a widely used
extractive metallurgy technique which converts metals into soluble salts in
aqueous media. Compared to pyrometallurgical operations, leaching is easier to
perform and much less harmful, because no gaseous pollution occurs.

Solution concentration and purification

• After leaching, the leach liquor must normally undergo concentration of the metal
ions that are to be recovered. Additionally, some undesirable metals may have also
been taken into solution during the leach process. The solution is often purified to
eliminate the undesirable components. The processes employed for solution
concentration and purification include:
• Precipitation
• Cementation
• Solvent Extraction
• Ion Exchange

Metal Recovery
• Metal recovery is the final step in a hydrometallurgical process. Metals suitable for
sale as raw materials are often directly produced in the metal recovery step.
Sometimes, however, further refining is required if ultra-high purity metals are to
be produced. The primary types of metal recovery processes are electrolysis,
gaseous reduction, and precipitation.
Electrolysis
• Electrowinning and electrorefining respectively involve the recovery and
purification of metals using electrodeposition of metals at the cathode, and either
metal dissolution or a competing oxidation reaction at the anode.

Precipitation
• Precipitation in hydrometallurgy involves the chemical precipitation of either
metals and their compounds or of the contaminants from aqueous
solutions. Precipitation will proceed when, through reagent addition, evaporation,
pH change or temperature manipulation, any given species exceeds its limit of
solubility. In order to improve efficiency in downstream processes, seeding to
initiate crystallization is often used.
• Advantages of hydrometallurgy
• Hydrometallurgy is capable of extracting complicated and low-grade ores.
• Hydrometallurgy has a modest investment cost.
• Hydrometallurgy is significantly more environmentally friendly.
• Greater control over each stage of the process leads to the recovery of valuable by-
products. Material handling is also simplified.
• A hydrometallurgical method eliminates the need for coke, an increasingly
expensive reducing agent.
• Liquor waste from the last recovery process may be recycled
• Disadvantages of hydrometallurgy
• Hydrometallurgy uses a huge amount of water, which has a greater potential for
contamination.
• There are difficulties in solid-liquid separation;
• impurities problems may arise throughout the purification process during
hydrometallurgy.
• More time is required for high metal recovery.
• Handling of chemical need proper care.
 • Disposable of effluent is problamatic
•
• Advantages of hydrometallurgy over pyrometallurgy
• Low-temperature processing, low handling cost of leaching products, and the
ability to treat low-grade ores in hydrometallurgy make leaching superior to high-
temperature smelting.
• Sulfides are burned off in traditional pyrometallurgical smelting, releasing SO2 gas
into the atmosphere. In comparison to pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy releases
only a fraction of the gases into the atmosphere.
• Hydrometallurgy is more environmentally friendly than pyrometallurgy.
• Hydrometallurgy is suitable for lean and complicated ores. With the steady
depletion of rich ore resources, traditional pyrometallurgical processes for metal
extraction are becoming increasingly challenging in many instances.
• A hydrometallurgical process can begin on a modest scale and scale increase as
needed. Because of the need for process economy, pyrometallurgical processes
must typically be planned as large-scale operations.
Electrometallurgy
• Electrometallurgy is the science of producing metals from metallic ores through
the use of electricity.
• Electrometallurgy involves the use of electric and electrolytic processes to purify
metals and is commonly employed at the end of the metals extraction chain,
resulting in final product recovery. The two most common processes are
electrowinning and electrorefining.
• There are four categories of these processes :
• Electrowinning, the extraction of metal from ores
• Electrorefining, the purification of metals by electrolysis
• Electroplating, the deposition of a layer of one metal on another
• Electroforming, the manufacture of, usually thin, metal parts through
electroplating

• Electrowinning
• Electrowinning, also called electroextraction, is the electrodeposition of metals
from their ores that have been put in solution or liquefied. Electrorefining uses a
similar process to remove impurities from a metal.
• In electrowinning, a current is passed from an inert anode through a liquid leach
solution containing the metal so that the metal is extracted as it is deposited in an
electroplating process onto the cathode.
Electrorefining
• In electrorefining, the anodes consist of unrefined impure metal, and as the current
passes through the acidic electrolyte the anodes are corroded into the solution so
that the electroplating process deposits refined pure metal onto the cathodes.

Electroplating
• The process of obtaining a coating of one metal over another metal using
electrolysis is known as electroplating.
• This thin coating is helpful for improving the appearance of the metal and also in
preventing metallic corrosion.
• The metal to be plated is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the
article to be coated is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
A salt solution of the metal to be coated is taken as the electrolyte.
Electroforming
• Electroforming is a metal forming process that forms thin parts through the
electroplating process. The part is produced by plating a metal skin onto a base
form, known as a mandrel, which is removed after plating.This process differs
from electroplating in that the plating is much thicker and can exist as a self-
supporting structure when the mandrel is removed.
• In the basic electroforming process, an electrolytic bath is used to deposit nickel or
other electroplatable metal onto a conductive patterned surface, such as glass or
stainless steel. Once the plated material has been built up to the desired thickness,
the electroformed part is stripped off the master substrate. This process allows
high-quality duplication of the master and therefore permits quality production—at
low unit costs with high repeatability and excellent process control. The mandrel is
made of a non-conductive material it can be covered with a conductive coating.
• Technically, it is a process of synthesizing a metal object by controlling the
electrodeposition of metal passing through an electrolytic solution onto a metal or
metalized form. The object being electroformed can be a permanent part of the end
product or can be temporary (as in the case of wax), and removed later, leaving
only the metal form, the “electroform”. New technologies have made it possible
for mandrels to be very complex. In order to facilitate the removal of the
electroform from the mandrel, a mandrel is often made of aluminum. Because
aluminum can easily be chemically dissolved, a complex electroform can be
produced with near exactness.
•