POTENTIAL USE OF MICRO WOLLASTONITE AS AN EXTENDER IN UF-BASED

PARTICLE BOARD PREPARED FROM

EUCALYPTUS GRANDIS.

THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE (DEEMED TO BE) UNIVERSITY,

DEHRADUN, UTTARAKHAND

FOR

THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN WOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

BY

SHRAVYA P

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

DR. RANJANA YADAV

SCIENTIST E, COMPOSITE WOOD DISCIPLINE,

FOREST PRODUCTS DIVISON

ICFRE- FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE

DEHRADUN

2022 – 2024
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Potential use of Micro Wollastonite as an
extender in UF based particle board prepared from Eucalyptus grandis” Submitted to the
Forest Research Institute Deemed to be University, Dehradun for the fulfilment of the award
of the degree of M.Sc. Wood Science and Technology. The work was carried out at the
Composite Wood Discipline, Forest Product Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun.
No part of this work has been submitted for the award of any degree or equivalent.

Date: (SHRAVYA P)

Place: Dehradun. M.Sc. Wood Science and Technology

2022 – 2024

FRI (Deemed to be) University

Dr Ranjana Yadav Phone: 0135 222 4613(O)
Scientist-E +917307490743 (M)
Composite Wood Discipline, Email: [email protected]
ICFRE- Forest Products Division
Forest Research Institute Dehradun

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE

(INDIAN COUNCIL OF FORESTRY RESEARCH AND EDUCATION)
P.O.: I.P.E. KAULAGARH ROAD, DEHRADUN – 248006

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Potential use of Micro Wollastonite as an
extender in UF based particle board prepared from Eucalyptus grandis” was submitted
in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of M.Sc. Wood Science and
Technology programme (2022-2024) to the Forest Research Institute Deemed to be
University, Dehradun is a record of bonafide research work carried out by Ms Shravya P,
Enrolment no: 4196 under my supervision and guidance at Forest Research Institute,
Dehradun. No part of the thesis has been submitted for any other degree or diploma.

Date: (Dr Ranjana Yadav)

Place: Forest Research Institute, Dehradun Phone: 0135222 4445 (O)

+91- 7307490743 (M)

Dr Vineet Kumar Phone: 0135-2752682 (O)
Dean (Academics) Fax: 0135-2752682
Scientist-G EPABX: 0135222-4452
FRI (Deemed to be) University E-mail: [email protected]

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE (DEEMED TO BE) UNIVERSITY

(INDIAN COUNCIL OF FORESTRY RESEARCH AND EDUCATION)
P.O.: I.P.E. KAULAGARH ROAD, DEHRADUN – 248006

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Potential use of Micro Wollastonite as an
extender in UF based particle prepared from Eucalyptus grandis” is a record of bonafide
research work carried out by Ms Shravya P of M.Sc. Wood Science and Technology
(2022-2024) programme of Forest Research Institute Deemed to be University, Dehradun,
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of M.Sc. Wood Science and
Technology.

This thesis has been carried out under the supervision of Dr Ranjana Yadav, Scientist-E,
Forest Products Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun.

Date: ( Dr. Vineet

Kumar)

Place: Forest Research Institute, Dehradun

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The priceless gift is a difficult-to-pay debt. Only gratitude is possible. Words can never
express how grateful I am to those who helped me finish this manuscript. The task assigned
to me was completed successfully, and this success is a result of our combined efforts.

I acknowledge with profound gratitude, my indebtedness to my supervisor and guide

Dr Ranjana Yadav, Scientist E, Composite Wood Discipline, Forest Product Division,
Forest Research Institute, Dehradun for their continuous guidance and positive channelling
during the entire course of study. I would also like to thank Dr Sauradipta Ganguly and
Mrs Meena Verma for their support, cordial behaviour, and selfless help throughout the
thesis work.

I am extremely grateful to Dr Renu Singh, Director/Vice Chancellor, Forest Research

Institute (Deemed to be) University, Dehradun for providing me with the required facilities,
resources and general encouragement.

I am grateful to Dr Vineet Kumar, Dean (Academic) and Scientist G, FRI (Deemed to be)
University, Dehradun for providing me with an opportunity to work on this topic.

I also express my gratitude towards the National Forest Library and Information Centre,
ICFRE-FRI for providing the facility of research journals and adequate literature.

I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Mr D P Khali (Head of Discipline) and all
the staff members at the Composite Wood Discipline, especially Mr Sanjay Kumar
(ACTO), Mr N S Mehta (Technical Officer) and Mr Vishavnath (Technical Officer) who
patiently answered all my queries regarding the experimental procedures adopted during the
study. I'd like to thank Mrs. Vandana Bisht (Technical Assistant), Pratap (Technical
Officer) and Aman (Technical Assistant) for their input, valuable help and accessibility. Let
me also say thanks to Mr. Gaurav (Technician) and others for their help with sample cuttings
and various assistance.

I am thankful that I am privileged with all the blessings and support from my parents Smt.
Kamalamma N and Shri Parameshwara Y V.

I am indebted to my friends Ms Sanketh K V, Mr Abhisek Padhy, Mr Triratna Prakash

and Mr Sachin Lamba for ensuring the best supportive and enjoyable environment
throughout the course. Also, I’m grateful to my seniors Mr. Sanmitra Dan and Ms. Kshama
Koparde for their support.

Last but not least, I thank the almighty for making my endeavour a great success.

No acknowledgement is ever complete; if I have missed anyone, dear friends, it was not on
purpose, and I apologise.

Date: (Shravya P)
Place: Dehradun. M.Sc. Wood Science and Technology
2022 – 2024

FRI (Deemed to be) University

 ABSTRACT

This thesis explores the possibility of the development of particle

boards using Eucalyptus grandis, a fast-growing tree species with numerous applications
using urea-formaldehyde resin incorporated with the micro wollastonite particles. Eucalyptus
grandis being an alternative to traditional raw materials and it contributes to sustainable and
eco-friendly production practices. The particleboards were produced at a compression
temperature of 110-1200C; a pressure of 275 lbs was applied for 15 minutes. The quantity of
particles used for the core and face layer was 1560g and 1040g respectively. The urea-
formaldehyde resin was incorporated with micro wollastonite particles at 4 different ratios-
0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% to evaluate the strength properties of particle board and compare
the variations that occur by the potential use of micro wollastonite particles as an extender in
the binding agent. The samples were prepared and tested for their physical and mechanical
properties according to IS:2380, (1997). The values obtained were compared to the values in
IS:3087(2005). The particle boards demonstrated exceptional physical and mechanical
characteristics when formulated with 2% micro-wollastonite particles embodied in the urea-
formaldehyde resin. This particular concentration facilitated proper adhesion interaction and
spreading of the glue mixture onto the particles resulting in the desirable properties.
However, the particleboards made with 2% wollastonite particles have met the performance
requirements for water absorption, thickness swelling, and mechanical properties. The study
shows that even small amounts of micronized wollastonite can be added as an extender for a
resin to provide advantages such as cost-effectiveness, improved fire resistance, and potential
enhancements of the panel's properties. The versatility and strength make particle boards
ideal for various applications such as shelves, furniture, laminating doors, and cupboards.
Particleboard is commonly used for cabinetry, table tops, shelving, wall and floor panels,
doors, furniture, and other non-structural architectural applications.

TABLE OF Contents
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................15
1.1 The wood.......................................................................................................................15
1.2 Composite wood panels: an alternative to the solid wood utilization in India.......15
1.3 Particleboard................................................................................................................16
1.4 Importance of UF resin................................................................................................18
1.5 Suitability of Eucalyptus species.................................................................................18
1.6 Significance of micro-wollastonite..............................................................................19
REVIEW OF LITERATURE...................................................................................................21
2.1 WOOD: Vital role in global economy.........................................................................21
2.2 Evolution and Market Trends in the Composite Wood Sector................................21
2.3 Production of Particle Board using Urea formaldehyde resin.................................22
2.4 Eucalyptus grandis........................................................................................................24
2.5 Embodying the Wollastonite with urea-formaldehyde Resin: Significance and
Applications........................................................................................................................26
2.6 Evaluating the strength properties of Particle Board...............................................28
MATERIALS AND METHODS..............................................................................................31
3.1 Overview of the Experiment........................................................................................31
3.2 Materials........................................................................................................................32
3.2.1. Wood material.......................................................................................................32
3.2.2. Calculation of initial moisture content...............................................................32
3.2.3. Sample specification.............................................................................................32
3.2.4. Replicates used for physical and mechanical tests of particle board...............33
3.2.5. Urea- formaldehyde adhesive..............................................................................33
3.2.6. Micro-wollastonite particles................................................................................34
3.3 Methodology.................................................................................................................35
3.3.1. Preparation of particles.......................................................................................35
3.3.2 Preparation of urea-formaldehyde adhesive.......................................................35
3.3.3 Preparation of particle board...............................................................................36
3.3.5 Statistical analysis.................................................................................................53
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...............................................................................................55
4.1 Variation in characteristics of UF resins....................................................................55
4.2 RESULTS......................................................................................................................57
4.3 Discussion......................................................................................................................63
4.3.1 Physical properties................................................................................................63
 4.3.2 Mechanical properties...........................................................................................64
4.3.3. Statistical analysis of MOE, MOR, and IB........................................................65
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................69
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................70
 LIST OF TABLES

Sl. No Table Table Name Page No.

Number
01 3.1 Sample specifications for preparation of 32
different particle boards
02 3.2 Number of replicates used for each experiment 33
in the present study
03 3.3 Adhesive formulation for particle board 37
preparation
04 3.4 Specification of sample sizes for physical and 45
mechanical tests as per IS:2380-Part1(1977)
05 4.1 Data representing the properties of UF resin 56
with Extender and without Extender
06 4.2 Observations for calculation of Moisture 57
content and density
07 4.3 Observations for determination of water 58
absorption
08 4.4 Observations for determination of thickness 58
swelling due to general absorption
09 4.5 Observations for determination of thickness 59
swelling due to surface absorption
10 4.6 Observations for determination of Static 59
bending strength (MOE/MOR)
11 4.7 Observation for determination of tensile 59
strength perpendicular to the surface of the
sample (IB)
12 4.8 Observations for screw and nail withdrawal 60
strength.
13 4.9 ANOVA for MOE of the Particle boards 65
14 4.10 ANOVA for MOR of the Particle boards 65
15 4.11 ANOVA for IB of the Particle boards 66
16 4.12 DUNCAN subsets for mechanical properties 66
(MOE, MOR, & IB) of particle boards.
 LIST OF FIGURES
Sl. No Figure Figure Name Page No.
Number
01 3.1 Schematic representation of the overview of 31
experiments conducted in the present study
02 3.2 Flowchart representing the manufacturing of 42
particle board
03 4.1 The average water absorption values exhibited 60
by the samples
04 4.2 The average general absorption values 60
exhibited by the samples
05 4.3 The average surface absorption values 61
exhibited by the samples.
06 4.4 The average screw and nail withdrawal 61
strength values exhibited by the samples
07 4.5 The average MOE values exhibited by the 61
samples
08 4.6 The average MOR values exhibited by the 62
samples
09 4.7 The average internal bond strength values 62
exhibited by the samples
 LIST OF PLATES
Sl. No. Plate Plate Name Page No.
Number
01 3.1 Figure representing (a) Eucalyptus grandis logs 34
as raw material, (b) Industrial grade urea-
(a, b, &c)
formaldehyde adhesive in powder form, and (c)
micro-wollastonite particles.
02 3.2 Procurement of Eucalyptus grandis Logs for 39
particle board preparation
03 3.3 Representing the chips produced from 39
Eucalyptus grandis
04 3.4 Representing the core particles 39
05 3.5 Representing the face particles 39
06 3.6 Preparation of UF adhesive manually using a 39
pestle mortar
07 3.7 Blending of core particles with UF adhesive 39
08 3.8 Blending of face particles with UF adhesive 40
09 3.9 Spreading of the face particles on aluminium 40
caul sheet
10 3.10 Pouring the resin-blended Core particles 40
11 3.11 Covering with the resin blended Face particles 40
again on top
12 3.12 Compressing the resin-blended particles inside 40
the wooden frame
13 3.13 Preparation of square-shaped mattress 40
14 3.14 Pre-pressing of the prepared mattress 41
15 3.15 Hot pressing of the mattress at 110 – 120oC and 41
275lbs
16 3.16 Prepared boards are stacked upon weight to 41
undergo a cooling phase for about 5-6 hrs
17 3.17 Trimming of the particle boards to desired 41
dimensions
18 3.18 Weighing of the Petri dish with resin for the 44
determination of solid content
19 3.19 Representing the Precipitation that occurred 44
during the water tolerance test
20 3.20 Representing the pH of the resin by pH 44
 indicator paper
21 3.21 Experimenting to calculate the flow time of the 44
resin using a B-4 Ford cup
22 3.22 Cutting the samples according to the size as 46
prescribed in IS:2380 part 1 (1977)
23 3.23 Marking of the samples 46
24 3.24 Representing the cut samples for physical and 46
mechanical tests of particle board
25 3.25 Measuring the weight of the sample using a 50
weighing balance
26 3.26 Keeping the weighed samples inside the hot air 50
oven for 24 hrs at 103±20c
27 3.27 The samples submerged in the water for the 50
water absorption test
28 3.28 The samples undergoing general absorption 50
test
29 3.29 Measuring the thickness of the sample with the 50
help of a screw gauge for the surface
absorption test
30 3.30 Dipping the samples to a depth of 5mm into a 50
shallow bath of molten paraffin wax
31 3.31 Submerging the samples inside the water for 51
surface absorption test
32 3.32 Loading of the samples to the aluminium 54
blocks using epoxy adhesive
33 3.33 Testing the tensile strength perpendicular to 54
the surface of the sample using Universal
testing machine
34 3.34 Testing of the samples for MOE/MOR in the 54
universal testing machine
35 3.35 Loading of the sample at the centre of the span 54
36 3.36 The assembly of nail and screw withdrawal test 54
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

1. ANOVA – Analysis of variance

2. BOPP – Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene
3. b – Width of an experimental sample in mm
4. d – Depth of the specimen in mm
5. E0 – Control / Reference sample
6. E1 – Particle board prepared with 0.5% wollastonite incorporation in UF
7. E2 – Particle board prepared with 1 % wollastonite incorporation in UF
8. E3 – Particle board prepared with 1.5% wollastonite incorporation in UF
9. E4 – Particle board prepared with 2 % wollastonite incorporation in UF
10. EWP’s – Engineered Wood Products
11. FRI – Forest Research Institute
12. IB – Internal bond Strength (N/mm2)
13. IS – Bureau of Indian Standards
14. KgF – Kilogram Force
15. L – Length of an experimental sample
16. MDF – Medium Density Fibreboard
17. MDI – Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate
18. MOE – Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2)
19. MOR – Modulus of Rupture (N/mm2)
20. NTFPs – Nontimber Forest Products
21. P – Load in N
22. P’ – Maximum / Failure load in N
23. PB – Particle Board
24. RD Bottle – Relative Density Bottle
25. RS – Rice Straw
26. TS – Thickness swelling
27. UF – Urea Formaldehyde
28. WA – Water Absorption
29. WPC – Wood Plastic Composites
30. Δ - Central Deflection at the limit of Proportionality
 15

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

Forests are extremely important for maintaining biodiversity, sequestering carbon, and
promoting sustainability. They provide habitats, resources, and ecosystem services that are
essential for maintaining environmental balance and ensuring human survival (International
Journal for Multidisciplinary Research IJFMR, 2023). In India, forests play a critical role in
supporting rural livelihoods, food security, and economic development by providing valuable
resources such as timber, non-timber forest products (NTFPs), and a wide range of plant
resources (Horan, 2021).

1.1 The wood

Wood is a highly efficient, durable, and renewable material that has a low carbon impact and
embodied energy. Architects, designers, and homeowners prefer it as a sustainable building
material for its eco-friendly attributes (Falk, 2009). Wood has been used in various industries
since ancient times, from construction to furniture, domestic and industrial objects, tools,
artworks, fuel sources, paper production, and textiles (Hasanagić et al., 2021). This versatile
material is abundant and adaptable, making it valuable across different sectors. Recognizing
the value of wood and embracing its sustainable utilization can lead to a more balanced and
harmonious coexistence with our natural environment. Wood also plays a vital role in the
global economy, contributing to economic growth and providing livelihoods for countless
individuals (Ranacher et al., 2017).

1.2 Composite wood panels: an alternative to the solid wood utilization in India

Wood, while offering several benefits, is susceptible to damage from insects, fungi, and
moisture, which can reduce its life span. It is also flammable and requires regular
maintenance to prevent decay, warping, and other forms of damage. Additionally,
unsustainable logging practices can lead to deforestation and habitat loss. Due to these
challenges, researchers are exploring alternative materials to create environmentally friendly
products. One such material gaining popularity is engineered wood products, particularly in
the construction and automotive sectors.

Composite wood products like particle board, oriented strand board (OSB), parallel-strand
lumber (PSL), medium density fibreboard (MDF), hardboard, wood plastic composites, and
 16

wood cement composites are versatile materials that can be custom-made to acquire specific
properties for different product applications. These composites also offer good humidity
resistance, and high durability, and can be used in external applications without requiring
specific maintenance. They have a better shelf life than products made exclusively from
wood. They are lightweight and can be moulded into any shape and size, including arched or
bent shapes. They can also be treated like wood for final touches like drilling, brushing,
sanding, and dyeing. Using low-cost materials like vegetable fibre, and waste wood particles
that cannot be utilized further reduces environmental impact through low carbon footprint
and better product recyclability compared to using glass fibre as reinforcement (Najafi et
al.,2012).

Wood composite panels can be used in both home and industrial constructions. These are
often used to replace the applications of steel for joints and in building projects as beams.
The most widespread use of panels includes- door and window frames, railing, fencing,
outdoor deck flooring, and cladding due to their low manufacturing cost and lightweight
properties.

1.3 Particleboard

In recent years, there has been a growing trend towards recycling waste and using it to
produce composite wooden products like Particle boards. Particle board accounts for around
63% of the overall wood-based panel production (Rathke et al., 2012). This is due to the
depletion of forest resources and the increased demand for these kinds of products. Using
renewable materials for manufacturing particleboards could contribute to the solution of raw
material shortage for the particleboard industry.

Particle Board is made from different varieties of raw materials in the form of small particles
impregnated with resins or other appropriate binders, reinforced together with heat and
pressure. The main difference between Particle boards and other conventional wooden boards
is their material and the manufacturing process. They are produced from municipal solid
waste, and agro-waste materials such as rice husk, jute sticks, waste wood, sugarcane wastes,
and kitchen waste. It is recommended that Particle boards can also be produced from
watermelon peels as an alternative to wood-based boards. Particleboard produced from Fonio
husk, and bonded with gum Arabic as the resin adhesive and Chilli Pepper stalks, were used
as raw material for the manufacture of particle Board (Muruganandam et al., 2016).
 17

Moreover, Particle boards have many desirable properties such as high density, high surface
hardness, abrasion resistance, and high durability. The influence of board density and particle
sizes can obtain better physical and mechanical properties. Physical and mechanical
properties differ significantly according to the board types. Increasing the press time also
improves the physical and mechanical properties of the board (Muruganandam et al., 2016).
Various board densities and various kinds and combinations of wood species, raw material
forms, and processing methods complicated the relationships between board properties and
manufacturing variables. The uniform distribution of the particles and the binders in the
microstructure of the board composites is the major factor responsible for the improvement in
the properties. Particle Boards can be manufactured in different sizes, shapes, thicknesses,
and densities. Some of the applications of the particle board are shelves, furniture, laminating
doors, and cupboards. Particleboard is commonly used for cabinetry, table tops, shelving,
wall and floor panels, doors, furniture, and other non-structural architectural applications.

The global demand and production of Particle Board have seen an upward trend in recent
years. According to IMARC Group, the global market for Particle Board reached a total
value of 21 billion US dollars in 2020. The group anticipates a compound annual growth rate
(CAGR) of 4.4% during the next six years. In 2020, the production quantity of Particle Board
reached 96.01 million m3 worldwide, which represents a decrease of 4.7% compared to the
previous year (100.74 million m3) (Lee, S et al., 2022). In 2020, the total export volume of
Particle Board was estimated to be 21.97 million m3, where Thailand was the main exporter
worldwide with 2.55 million m3. European countries are the largest Particle Board exporters
(69.95%), followed by Asia (19.28%) (Lee, S et al., 2022).

The increased global demand for wood raw materials, growing environmental concerns, and
recent legislative regulations related to cascading wood use and prioritizing value-added
applications of wood resources have posed critical challenges to the wood-based panel
industry in terms of wood supply. Strategies to address these shortages may be vital,
particularly in countries with a low forest area. The optimization of available wood and
lignocellulosic raw materials, as well as the search for alternative natural feedstocks derived
from abundant and renewable agricultural residues and wood by-products to replace wood in
particleboard manufacturing, is a viable strategy for reducing the negative environmental
impact and improving the resource efficiency of the wood-based panel industry.
 18

1.4 Importance of UF resin

Urea formaldehyde resin was developed in the 1930s and is widely used in the composites
industry. 90% of the world's particleboard is produced using UF resin (Nuryawan et al.,
2020). While there has been a lot of research and development in creating new wood
adhesives or improving existing ones, the current trend in all industries is to "think green, go
green". The wood industry is no exception to this trend, and there is a lot of research activity
in the field to create environmentally friendly and human-friendly wood adhesives. One such
example is eliminating formaldehyde emissions from wood adhesives, and many alternate
options have been explored in this regard.

For centuries, wood was bonded using bio-based adhesives until synthetic adhesives took
over in the 20th century (International Journal for adhesion and adhesive-1998). Synthetic
adhesives were considered more effective, cost-efficient, and stable for use in humid
conditions. Today, the main classes of thermosetting adhesives are amino-based, phenolic,
and isocyanate resins. These adhesives have dominated the wood composite industry for
many decades, with urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins being the most widely used. UF-based
adhesives are almost exclusively used for producing wood-based materials, such as
particleboard or medium-density fibreboards for interior applications. The advantages of UF
resins include their hardness, low flammability, good thermal properties of resin, absence of
colour in the cured polymer, and the adaptability of the resin to a variety of curing conditions.
The other advantages of UF resin being used in wood sectors include its low cost, low cure
temperatures, water solubility, and resistance to microorganisms.
1.5 Suitability of Eucalyptus species
Forests cover 4.06 billion hectares and 31% of the world's land area. Of this, 93% (3.75
billion ha) are natural regenerating forests, while the remaining 7% (294 million ha) are
planted forests (Lee, S et al., 2022). Planted forests offer many benefits, including traditional
timber and fibre production, economic development, and employment in rural areas. They
have also been identified as a key means to fight climate change in the short to medium term,
restore degraded land, and maintain sustainable ecosystem functions and services (Antov et
al., 2022). Eucalyptus is one of the most important plantation species, and it has been planted
in 95 countries around the world, with an area of plantation exceeding 22.57 million ha.
Eucalyptus is typically managed on a short rotation to enhance economy with the production
 19

of timber, pulpwood, charcoal, and firewood. The tree is very adaptable and can tolerate low
soil fertility, acidic soils, and soils rich in aluminium. It can also tolerate periodic moisture
stress, diverse climates, and soil types, fire and insect damage, and low water availability.
Other favourable characteristics of Eucalyptus include its good efficiency at capturing CO 2
and producing oxygen, better efficiency in water consumption compared to other species,
increasing soil fertility, and restoring land degradation or unproductive land. This tree has the
potential to yield up to 30 tons of biomass on average per acre per annum of a 6-year-old
plantation (Lee, S et al., 2022). The genus Eucalyptus is incredibly diverse, comprising more
than 700 species and various varieties. Despite the vast number of Eucalyptus species, only a
limited number, typically referred to as the "big nine," are cultivated for industrial purposes.
These industrial plantations focus on a select few species that have been identified as
particularly suitable for commercial applications due to their growth characteristics, wood
quality, and market demand. The "big nine" species, including Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E.
grandis, E. tereticornis, E. globulus, E. nitens, E. urophylla, E. saligna, E. dunnii, and E.
pellita, along with their hybrids, play a significant role in the current Eucalyptus plantation
landscape. These species collectively dominate approximately 90% of the total Eucalyptus
plantation area worldwide (Lee, S et al., 2022).
1.6 Significance of micro-wollastonite
Wollastonite is a white mineral with needle-like crystals that occurs naturally. Its chemical
composition is β-CaSiO3. Wollastonite is categorized based on its particle size, with micro-
fibres ranging from 25 to 150 μm, powder less than 25 μm, and fibres more than 150 μm
(Sihag et al., 2017). Wollastonite is widely used in ceramics, friction products, paint fillers,
and plastics (Wahab et al., 2017), UF resins are primarily petroleum-based, which increases
their environmental footprint. To reduce the total amount of resin needed in panel production
without affecting panel properties, wollastonite, a mineral containing calcium and silica, can
be used as a resin extender (Tagihyari et al., 2020). Nanoscale wollastonite enhances panel
properties, but it is expensive. Micron-scale wollastonite is a less costly alternative. Medium-
density fibreboards were made by blending a hardwood furnish with UF alone, micron-sized
wollastonite alone, or a 9:1 ratio of UF to wollastonite. Panels with only wollastonite had
poor properties, but panels with a 9:1 UF to wollastonite ratio had similar properties to UF-
alone panels, except for internal bond strength. This suggests that small amounts of micron-
sized wollastonite could serve as a resin extender Adding low-cost fire retardants can further
improve panel properties (Taghiyari et al., 2020).
 20

OBJECTIVES

The present work has been conducted to investigate the potential of micro wollastonite
particles embodying urea-formaldehyde resin in improving the physical, chemical, and
mechanical properties of particle boards made by Eucalyptus grandis.

The following are the main objectives of the study,

1. Optimizing the adhesive formulation with the incorporation of micro wollastonite for
manufacturing the particle board.

2. Preparation and evaluation of physical, and mechanical properties of the particle

board as per the relevant standard.
 21

CHAPTER-2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Providing a continuous raw material supply at low raw material costs is an increasing
challenge for the forest products industry. Worldwide, a growing number of industrial plants
processing forest products are facing raw material shortages; some of them even operate
below 50 % of their capacity. Nowadays, approximately 95 % of the lignocellulosic material
that is used for particleboard (PB) production is wood from forests. The capacity extension
and parallel decreasing availability of forest-based wood material for PB production raises
the question of alternative resources. The list of tested raw materials for PB production is
widespread. Studies dealing with wood material from plantations (e.g. Eucalyptus, Pinus
radiata, poplar, willow, and locust) showed that these resources have favourable
characteristics such as rapid growth rates, short harvesting cycles, continuous availability,
and low cost.

2.1 WOOD: Vital role in global economy

As examined global wood consumption trends in forest policy and climate change by Ajani
et al., (2011), It finds that global wood consumption has been stagnant from 1980 to 2007,
despite steady increases in wood product consumption. This is due to wood-saving strategies,
such as recycling paper, using high-yielding pulp technologies, and substituting reconstituted
wood panels for sawn timber. The importance of forests, highlighting their significant
contribution to the global economy and their vital role in providing essential products,
services, and environmental benefits as studied by Wardle et al., (1999). Wood is a crucial
building material, used in the form of boards, planks, and other structural components. It also
serves as a primary material for packaging, contributing to various industries. forests cover
over one-quarter of the world's land area and play a crucial role in conservation, carbon
sequestration, and meeting humans' aesthetic and spiritual needs. The wood industry involves
significant international trade, with wood products contributing to the global export and
import market. The IRW (Industrial Roundwood) removals, indicating the amount of wood
harvested for industrial purposes, reached 2.07 billion m3 in 2018 but have since declined.
 22

2.2 Evolution and Market Trends in the Composite Wood Sector

The evolution of lightweight wood composites in the construction and furniture industry has
been thoroughly studied by Barbu, (2015). This study explores different strategies and
technologies used to reduce the density of wood-based panels and beams, including the use
of lightweight wood species, sandwich structures, and engineered core designs. The article
also highlights the challenges and advantages of lightweight wood composites, such as
reduced weight, improved functionality, and cost-effectiveness. The article also highlighted
that lightweight design has become an independent subject aimed at improving functionality,
reducing costs, and minimizing ecological impact.

Another option to overcome the main drawbacks of wood, namely susceptibility to

biodegradability by microorganisms and dimensional instability when subjected to varied
moisture content, perhaps a more alternative one has been investigated to assess the potential
of nanotechnology in the wooden sector are Composite wood products as explained by
Papadopoulos, (2019).

The comparison study conducted by Corus et al., (2008), of Wood-plastic composites

(WPCs) to thermoplastic recycled materials in terms of meeting technical and price
requirements, indicated their potential as new mass-produced materials in Europe. Injection
molding is highlighted as a technology with significant application potential for WPCs in
various industries including automotive. The importance of political frameworks like
packaging ordinances, end-of-life vehicle regulations, and global CO2 discussions was
emphasized as crucial factors influencing the market success of WPCs. The role of public
authorities in supporting the market introduction of WPC products through practice-oriented
promotion was highlighted as a strategy to overcome technical and marketing challenges.

2.3 Production of Particle Board using Urea formaldehyde resin

Particle board is a low-cost product that is generally made of wood forms, such as sawdust,
shavings, flakes, and chips, obtained as waste products during wood machining. Within the
Indian wood panel market, particle boards account for approximately 11.50% share. While
the plywood and laminate sectors are well-established in India, the particle board sector is
under-penetrated, and it occupies a minor share of 2% (India Particle Board Market Size &
Share Analysis - Growth Trends & Forecasts (2024 - 2029). A significant amount of
applied research was conducted to justify new technologies for the production of particle
boards (PB) by Vasiliev, (2022). As stated in this study, most of the attention in the known
 23

works has been paid to the influence of the particle size distribution on the strength of PB.
This article aims to examine the influence of the shape and size of particles on the tensile
strength perpendicular to the plane of the PB. A geometric analysis of the particle shape was
performed, and it was considered that the PB strength depends on the shape and size of the
particles, as well as on the number of adhesive contacts between particles.

The work by Atoyebi, (2019) presents the development of a composite matrix using sawdust
(SD) and recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) at different weight ratios, using the flat-
pressed method. Physical properties such as density, water absorption (WA), and thickness
swelling (TS), as well as mechanical properties such as modulus of elasticity (MOE) and
modulus of rupture (MOR), were determined based on the mixing ratios. The results
indicated that the fabrication of WPCs using sawdust and PET would be technically feasible
for indoor use in buildings due to the favourable physical properties exhibited.

Several studies were conducted to examine the physical and mechanical properties of particle
board by varying the amount of wood, and urea-formaldehyde resin concentrations. One
among these kinds of experiment was done by Kevin et al., (2018) to prepare particle boards
using sawdust and urea-formaldehyde resin (UFR) at 4 different concentrations- from 30 ml,
35 ml, 40 ml, and 45 ml through compression moulding, to assess the change in mechanical
properties with varied concentrations of UFR.

Another research was conducted on a newly developed particleboard (PB) that was bonded
with phenol-formaldehyde resin, containing carbon nanotubes (CNTs) by Lukawski et al.,
(2019). This research highlighted the potential of CNT surface modification to enhance the
performance and durability of particleboard in various applications. The main objective of
the study was to examine the impact of CNTs on the physical, mechanical, and combustion
properties of the particleboard. The research analysed the effects of CNT coating on the
combustion behavior, physical, and mechanical characteristics of the particleboard. The CNT-
modified particleboard also performed better in terms of fire retardancy compared to
untreated particleboard.

Additionally, different varieties of promising source of lignocellulosic materials of fast-

growing tree species were also used to prepare particle boards like Gliricidia as studied by
Sumthane et al., (2018). Gliricidia - also known as Gliricidia maculata, the suitability of
Gliricidia as a raw material for particle board manufacture has been evaluated and the results
 24

show that it is suitable for making particle board. The particle boards were prepared with
12% and 14% phenol formaldehyde resin content.

Furthermore, to promote the rescue of the waste materials Rezende et al., (2017)-
experimented to create wood particle boards that incorporate paper shavings, which are waste
materials from the production of labels and tags, and contain biaxially oriented
polypropylene (BOPP). The researchers conducted physical, chemical, and mechanical tests.
The density difference between the materials used in the production process and the amount
of waste added influenced the process. To reduce the costs of urea formaldehyde resin while
preparing wood-based particle board, a study was conducted by Basta et al., (2017) to focus
on the role of activated carbons (ACs), which were made from long-chain aldehyde-based
xerogels (Xs-AC), as beneficial additives to enhance the application of low-cost urea
formaldehyde (UF) adhesive for the production of rice straw (RS) composites that comply
with both the standard specifications of particle-board type and the board produced from
using conventional adhesive of RS fibres (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, MDI). The
results were supported by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis, which indicated
the curing and interaction of RS fibres with the adhesive systems.

A study was conducted to investigate the effects of formaldehyde to urea (F/U) mole ratio on
the thermal curing behaviour of UF resins and the properties of particle board (PB) bonded
with them by Park et al., (2006). The study aimed to reduce the formaldehyde emission
(FE) of urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin. UF resins were synthesized at different F/U mole
ratios (1.6, 1.4, 1.2, and 1.0) and used for the manufacture of particle boards. As the F/U
mole ratio decreased, the FE of PB was greatly reduced at the expense of the reactivity of UF
resin. However, the internal bond strength, thickness swelling, and water absorption of PB
showed slight deterioration with decreasing F/U mole ratio of UF resins used. These results
indicate that decreasing the F/U mole ratio of UF resins used can reduce the FE of PB but
may slightly affect the performance of PB prepared.

2.4 Eucalyptus grandis

A study was conducted to evaluate the quality of particleboard panels produced from wood
sourced from Eucalyptus urophylla stands at ages 7 and 12 by Mendes et al., (2008). The
findings revealed that the age of the trees had little impact on the properties of the
particleboard panels, while there was a slight difference in water absorption 2 hours after
immersion, the overall effect was minimal. The physical and mechanical properties of the
 25

panels were analyzed, Moreover, the age of the trees did not have a significant influence on
the mechanical properties such as modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture
(MOR) from static bending. However, panels made from wood at age 7 showed higher mean
values for internal bond and compression parallel properties than those made from wood at
age 12.

A study was to assess the quality of particleboards made from eucalyptus wood mixed with
waste from agricultural activities such as macadamia nut shells, coffee husks, and papaya
stalks, using two types of adhesives - urea-formaldehyde and tannin-urea-formaldehyde
explained by Martins et al., (2012)- The researchers evaluated properties such as the
particleboard's apparent density, water absorption, thickness swelling, and the emission of
formaldehyde. Most of the particleboards were of medium density. The addition of waste to
the composition and the use of tannic extract in the urea-formaldehyde adhesive led to a
reduction in the physical properties. However, the particleboards met the performance
requirements for water absorption and thickness swelling. This indicates that these waste
materials can be effectively used as raw materials in the production of particleboards that
meet the required technological properties.

Different genera of Eucalyptus species and other most used fast-growing tree species were
also tested and evaluated for the production of particle board. One of those studies was
conducted by Sanjaykrishnan et al., (2022) - to produce particleboard using two fast-
growing tree species, Eucalyptus tereticornis and Melia dubia, and Urea Formaldehyde as the
adhesive. The physical and mechanical properties of both tree species were evaluated for
their suitability for particleboard production. Based on their physical and mechanical
properties, particleboards were produced using Eucalyptus tereticornis (100%) and Melia
dubia (100%) as raw materials, and their properties were recorded. The particleboard made
from Eucalyptus tereticornis had a maximum density of 642 Kg/m 3, with a lower moisture
content of 5.08%. It also had the least amount of water absorption, Additionally, it had a
minimum thickness swelling. However, the Eucalyptus tereticornis particleboard had a
minimum Modulus of Rupture (MOR) of 12.30 N/mm 2, minimum screw withdrawal strength
with a maximum Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and an Internal Bonding. The results of the
study indicate that both fast-growing tree species have good physical and mechanical
properties for the production of particleboard. However, Eucalyptus tereticornis is highly
suitable for the production of high-quality particleboards compared to Melia dubia.
 26

Eucalyptus is the main fibre resource for the pulp and paper industries in developed
countries. Timber extracted from the planted eucalyptus trees has long been used for solid
wood and its fibres were used for manufacturing particle board and medium-density
fibreboard. In comparison to most softwood species, Eucalyptus timber is reported to have a
higher rigidity, making it ideal for manufacturing structural products. Therefore, this paper
presents a review and analysis of the recent state of research on the utilization of planted
eucalyptus for engineered wood products (EWPs) manufacturing. The feasibility of using
planted Eucalyptus in the production of EWPs, as well as the challenges encountered, was
also discussed by Lee et al., (2022).

Eucalyptus grandis is an alternative to traditional raw materials and it contributes to

sustainable and eco-friendly production practices. The physical properties of panels
manufactured by hot pressing using eucalyptus sawdust, chamotte, and polyurethane resin
based on castor oil as raw materials were evaluated by Perisse et al., (2023) results showed
that the incorporation of chamotte increased water absorption and swelling in thickness.

2.5 Embodying the Wollastonite with urea-formaldehyde Resin: Significance and

Applications
Identifying additives to reduce the total amount of resin needed without adversely affecting
the panel properties could reduce these impacts. Wollastonite is a mineral containing calcium
and silica that has been used as an additive in a variety of materials and may be useful as a
resin extender. Studies indicated that micron-sized wollastonite can serve as a resin extender,
reducing the total resin needed without compromising panel properties. Additionally,
incorporating wollastonite in resin can enhance the physical and mechanical properties of
wood-composite panels. Nanoscale wollastonite has been shown to enhance the panel
properties but is costly. Micron-scale wollastonite may be a less costly alternative. Taghiyari
et al., (2013) conducted a study to examine the impact of wollastonite nanofibers on the
physical and mechanical properties of particleboard. The researchers applied nano-
wollastonite to wood chips at varying levels, both internally and superficially. The results of
the study showed that nano-wollastonite improved the bonding between wood chips, which
in turn enhanced the particleboard's physical and mechanical properties.

Dey et al., (2015)- aimed to investigate how using wollastonite fibres of varying sizes and
morphology can affect the mechanical properties of cement-based systems. The study used
compressive strength and notched beam flexural tests to examine different blends of paste
 27

and mortar mixtures containing silica fume and wollastonite particles. The wollastonite fibres
used varied in size and shape, including four grades with average particle sizes ranging from
33 to 2000 μm, aspect ratios varying from 3:1 to 20:1, and cement replacement levels of 5%,
10%, and 15%, by mass. The study found that wollastonite reinforcement has a significant
impact on the fracture resistance of the cementitious matrix. The results showed that increase
in compressive strength due to 10% cement replacement with wollastonite and silica fume.
Additionally, the flexural strength was enhanced by 40%, and fracture toughness increased by
as much as 150% at the optimal dosage of wollastonite fibres.

A study was conducted to investigate how the mechanical properties of cement-bonded

particleboard (CBPB) are affected by the presence of Nano-Silica when mixed with reed and
bagasse particles by Nazerian et al., (2018). The study focused on several manufacturing
variables, including the weight ratio of bagasse to reed particles, the particle size of the
lignocellulosic materials, and the amount of Nano-Silica used. The results of the study
indicated that the addition of Nano-Silica particles to cement paste can increase or decrease
the hydration temperature, depending on the amount used. The setting time of the paste was
also influenced by the addition of Nano-Silica, with higher levels of replacement resulting in
shortened setting times. The study also evaluated the mechanical properties of the cement-
bonded particleboard, including the modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity
(MOE), and internal bonding (IB) of the CBPB. The weight ratio of bagasse/reed particles
was found to have the most significant effect on MOR, MOE, and IB, followed by Nano-
Silica content and particle size.

Taghiyari et al., (2020) – experimented to explore the potential use of wollastonite as a filler
in UF resin-based medium-density fibreboard (MDF). The researchers found that adding
micron-scale wollastonite as a filling agent to UF resin can improve the mechanical
properties, fire characteristics, water absorption, and thickness swelling of MDF panels. The
study shows that even small amounts of micronized wollastonite can be added as an extender
for a resin to provide advantages such as cost-effectiveness, improved fire resistance, and
potential enhancements of the panel's properties. The research highlights the significance of
wollastonite as a filler in wood composite production and as a potential additive material for
MDF manufacturing. An experiment was carried out to investigate the reduction of
formaldehyde emissions in particle board production by adding nanoparticles to urea-
formaldehyde resin by Yadav, (2021). Nano-wollastonite, silica, and montmorillonite ranging
from 25-100 nm were incorporated at a rate of 0.5-2.0% of the resin's weight. The resulting
 28

panels underwent evaluation for formaldehyde emissions and physical and mechanical
properties. The study showed that the addition of nanoparticles to particle board panels
reduced formaldehyde emissions while preserving the boards' strength properties. Potential
use of nano-silica particles in preparation of cement-bonded particle board to assess the effect
of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of cement-bonded particleboard (CBPB) when
mixed with reed and bagasse particles. The study looked at the weight ratio of bagasse to
reed particles, the particle size of the materials, and the amount of Nano-Silica used as
variables for CBPB production. The results showed by Pitukhin et al., (2022) were that the
addition of Nano-Silica particles to cement paste can increase or decrease the hydration
temperature, depending on the amount of Nano-Silica used.

2.6 Evaluating the strength properties of Particle Board

Evaluating the strength properties of particle boards involves various tests to assess their
physical and mechanical characteristics. Several studies have been conducted on testing of
strength properties of particle board made of different raw materials. Liiri et al., (1980)-
aimed to identify a simpler and more easily determinable strength property for measuring the
internal bond of particleboard and fibreboard. The study tested 124 particleboards and 95
fibreboards from Finnish factories and measured various board properties such as density,
moisture content, tensile strength perpendicular to the surface, shear strength, tension-shear
strength, torsion-shear strength, torsion strength, and modulus of rigidity. The results showed
that torsion strength and torsion-shear strength have the strongest correlation with the tensile
strength perpendicular to the surface. Therefore, further research should focus on developing
a suitable method for determining these strength properties.

The study investigated the tensile properties of particle boards bonded by urea-formaldehyde
(UF) and phenol-formaldehyde (PF) at varying moisture contents and temperatures by DeXin
(1983)- These conditions are particularly relevant for exterior use of the boards. The tensile
strength and the modulus of elasticity showed a slight decrease, while the strain at rupture
increased slightly between 1% and 7% moisture content, with similar effects for both UF and
PF-bonded boards. However, above 7% moisture content, the tensile strength and the
modulus of elasticity decrease significantly, whereas the stretch at rupture increases with
increasing moisture content, with UF-bonded boards showing more pronounced effects.
Overall, the effect of moisture is stronger than that of temperature within the studied range.
 29

Lin et al., (2004)- A study was conducted on Particleboard specimens with different particle
sizes that were conditioned into two ranges: low and high moisture content. One set was
analysed for internal bond (IB) strength and acoustic emission (AE) events during tensile
tests perpendicular to the plane, while the other was studied for ultrasonic wave transmission
characteristics in the thickness direction. The moisture content had a significant impact on the
particleboard's structural mechanics. Diaset et al., (2005)- also studied the relationship
between the compaction rate and various properties of particleboards made from Pinus
elliotti with urea-formaldehyde resin. Specifically, researchers analysed the tensile strength
perpendicular to the surface, as well as the Modulus of Rupture (MOR) and Modulus of
Elasticity (MOE) obtained from a static bending test, along with thickness swelling and water
absorption at 2 and 24 hours. The analysis indicated that there are statistically significant
effects of water absorption at 2 hours and MOR on the compaction rate of the particleboards.

A study by Que et al., (2007) provided a detailed account of how the mechanical and
physical properties of particleboard are affected by UF resins with different mole ratios of
formaldehyde: urea, ranging from 0.97 to 1.27. The mole ratio not only affected the thickness
swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA) but also the internal bond strength (IB) and
modulus of rupture (MOR), provided the manufacturing process was optimized. The
investigation revealed that particleboards with mole ratios of formaldehyde that fall under the
emission class El had deteriorated MOR, IB, TS, and WA. However, compensation for this
deterioration can be provided through the use of a higher resin dosage or modifying the UF
resin. Both options, however, would increase the cost of the product.

Baharoğlu et al., (2012)- This research aimed to investigate the effects of wood moisture
content on the surface characteristics, physical (thickness swelling), and mechanical
(modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, and internal bond strength) properties, as well as
formaldehyde emission of particleboard composite. The study involved manufacturing three-
layered particleboard panels from wood particles with five different moisture contents (20%,
40%, 60%, 80%, and 95%). The statistical analysis showed significant differences in the
surface roughness, contact angle, formaldehyde emission, and physical and mechanical
properties of the panels following moisture content. The findings indicate that an increase or
decrease in the moisture content of wood beyond a certain limit, before chipping operations,
negatively affected the wettability and smoothness of particles, as well as formaldehyde
emission, and physical and mechanical properties of particleboards.
 30

With the above literature survey, it can be seen that the impact of micro-wollastonite particles
mixed with urea formaldehyde adhesive is highly beneficial both commercially and
ecologically. However, it is imperative to mention that there was no study done on the
improvement of the physical and mechanical characteristics of Eucalyptus grandis panel
boards using micro-wollastonite. Identifying additives to reduce the total amount of resin
needed without adversely affecting the panel properties could reduce manufacturing costs
and increase demand. Wollastonite is a mineral containing calcium and silica that has been
used as an additive in a variety of materials and may be useful as a resin extender. Several
studies in the literature survey have proven that nanoscale wollastonite has been shown to
enhance the panel properties but is costly and instead, Micro-wollastonite may be a less
costly alternative. Most of the literature has shown that the potential of micro wollastonite
particles alone can impact poor panel properties but when embodying with urea-
formaldehyde resin could show great enhancement of internal bond strength. The results also
suggested that small amounts of micro wollastonite could serve as a resin extender in the
preparation of wood composite panels except in particle boards prepared by Eucalyptus
grandis.
 31

CHAPTER- 03

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Overview of the Experiment

To achieve the proposed objectives, the study on the potential use of micro wollastonite in
UF-based density particle board was conducted in the composite wood laboratory, ICFRE-
FRI, Dehradun. For all the experiments conducted in the composite wood laboratory, the
standard procedure as proposed in IS:2380 (1997) was considered.

The overview of experiments carried out is given in the form of a schematic representation in
Figure 3.1.
 32

Figure 3.1: Schematic representation of the overview of experiments conducted in the

present study.

3.2 Materials
3.2.1. Wood material
For the experiments conducted in the composite wood laboratory, FRI, Dehradun, the round
seasoned approximately 7-year-old Eucalyptus grandis logs (Mendes et al., (2008) were
purchased in Dehradun.

3.2.2. Calculation of initial moisture content

For the experiment conducted in the composite wood laboratory, FRI, Dehradun, the initial
moisture content of the procured logs was calculated based on OD weight as per IS:11215
(1991). Studies have shown that initial moisture content can range from 115% to 138% on a
dry basis (Wessels et al., 2016).

3.2.3. Sample specification

To evaluate the potential of micro-wollastonite particles incorporated in UF resin in
enhancing particle boards' physical and mechanical properties, a total of 10 particle boards
were prepared and used throughout the study. Among those, 8 boards were prepared with
micro-particles of wollastonite incorporated in UF adhesive in 4 different ratios- 0.5%, 1%,
1.5%, and 2%, and the remaining boards were prepared solely by UF adhesive without
using any extender particles. The sample specification of different particle boards is given in
Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Sample specifications for preparation of different particle boards

Sl.no Particle board samples Specification

01 E0 Controlled (UF resin only)

02 E1 UF resin + 0.5% extender used
03 E2 UF resin + 1% extender used
 33

04 E3 UF resin + 1.5% extender used

05 E4 UF resin + 2% extender used

3.2.4. Replicates used for physical and mechanical tests of particle board
The number of replicates used for the evaluation of moisture content and density,
determination of water absorption, thickness swelling due to general absorption, thickness
swelling due to surface absorption, tensile strength perpendicular to the surface of the board,
determination of static bending strength (MOE/MOR), screw and nail withdrawal strength
test is given in table:3.2.

Table 3.2 Number of replicates used for each experiment in the present study
Sl Name
. of the
Replicates used
n sampl
o e
Moistur Water General Surface MOE Interna Nail
e absorptio absorptio absorptio / l bond &Screw
content n n n strengt withdrawa
MOR
& h l test
Density
01 E0 5 5 5 5 6 6 5
02 E1 5 5 5 5 6 6 5
03 E2 5 5 5 5 6 6 5
04 E3 5 5 5 5 6 6 5
05 E4 5 5 5 5 6 6 5
 34

3.2.5. Urea- formaldehyde adhesive

Industrial grade, powder form of urea formaldehyde resin was purchased from KLS group of
companies, Sonipat, Haryana. Preparation of urea formaldehyde adhesive was carried out in
the Composite Wood Laboratory, ICFRE- FRI, Dehradun.

Testing and evaluating resin properties such as solid content, flow time, water tolerance, pH,
and the specific gravity of resin was also carried out in the Composite Wood laboratory,
ICFRE- FRI, Dehradun.

3.2.6. Micro-wollastonite particles

Microparticles of wollastonite (Kemolite KFB-1010) were provided as a free sample for the
study by M/s Wolkem India Limited, Rajasthan.

Incorporating these micro-particles in the resin was carried out in 4 different ratios- 0.5%,
1%, 1.5%, and 2%. Testing and evaluating the wollastonite incorporated resin properties was
also conducted in the Composite Wood laboratory, ICFRE- FRI, Dehradun.

(a) (b)
 35

(c)

Plate 3.1: Figure representing (a) Eucalyptus grandis logs as raw material, (b) Industrial
grade urea-formaldehyde adhesive in powder form, and (c) micro-wollastonite particles.

3.3 Methodology
3.3.1. Preparation of particles
The wood panel was carefully crafted using high-quality Eucalyptus grandis round woods
purchased, having varying moisture contents. The residue is sorted by geometry and moisture
content and stored under cover; the range of the moisture content of the residue was from
115% to 138% on a dry basis (Wessels et al., 2016).

The round seasoned wood was processed by using a precise four-knife laboratory chipper to
convert wood into chips. The chips were then converted into particles by using a Condex
mill. To create the perfect panel, the particles were then carefully sorted by size using a sieve
shaker, resulting in two distinct categories- core and face particles of size > 5 mm & 1.25 -
3.15mm respectively (Benthien et al., 2021). This allowed for the formation of distinct layers
within the panel, giving it a unique and striking appearance (Ana et al., 2020).

3.3.1.1 Particle sorting

There are two methods of sorting particles: mechanical sieves and air classifiers. There are
three types of mechanical sieves found: vibrating inclined screen, vibrating horizontal screen,
and gyratory screen. The mechanical sieving machine such as a vibrating horizontal screen
was preferred to sort the particles (Zhou et al., 2023).

3.3.1.2 Drying
The particles were collected from a mechanical sieve and underwent a crucial air-drying
process to reduce the moisture content by up to 8% (Veigel et al., 2012)
 36

3.3.2 Preparation of urea-formaldehyde adhesive

Two types of urea formaldehyde mixture were produced for the study- UF adhesive with
micro-wollastonite (extender) and UF adhesive without any extender. The properties of both
types of urea formaldehyde were tested to distinguish the variation in properties of resin by
adding an extender.

The pestle mortar used for the process was obtained from the composite wood laboratory,
ICFRE- FRI, to prepare two distinct urea formaldehyde mixtures. After ensuring that the
mortar was free of dirt and dust, water was gradually added to the solid urea-formaldehyde in
the mortar for 10 minutes to prevent the formation of coagulation (Yuan et al., 2008). To
fortify the resin, 2% melamine powder was added to the resin mixture. After completing the
mixing process in pestle mortar, a hardener comprising 0.5% and 0.7% Ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl) diluted in water based on the resin was added separately to the face and core
particles respectively, to increase the rate of bonding between the resin and the eucalyptus
particles. This particular urea mixture was used to make the controlled type of particle board.

On the other side, while mixing in the pestle mortar, the dispersion of Micro wollastonite
particles into to urea-formaldehyde mixture was done manually in pestle mortar (Yuan et al.,
2008) at four different ratios: 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% based on the resin. After completing
the mixing process in pestle mortar, a hardener comprising 0.5% Ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl) diluted in water based on the resin was added to increase the rate of bonding
between the resin and the eucalyptus particles. This particular urea mixture with an extender
was also used for preparing the particle board to find out the variation in UF-based panel
properties with an extender and without. Testing of both types of UF adhesive were tested for
their different properties like solid content, pH, flow time of resin in B4 Ford cup, and water
tolerance as per IS 354, Part 1 (1987).

3.3.3 Preparation of particle board

3.3.3.1 Blending particles with UF resin
After proper drying, the wood particles are mixed in a blending process to ensure a
homogeneous mixture of different particle sizes to achieve the desired board properties. The
urea formaldehyde resin acts as a binder, providing adhesive properties to bond the particles
together firmly.

The core and face particles were separated into 2 different trays according to their sizes.
Three layered particle boards were made with the adhesive used containing 12% urea
 37

formaldehyde resin based on the particle dry weight for the face and 8% urea formaldehyde
resin based on the particle dry weight for the core layer of the panel (Yadav, 2021). The
formulation of resin for the core and face layer of the particle board is given in Table 3.3.

Initially, the mixture of urea-formaldehyde resin without an extender was poured slowly into
the wood particles, and mixing continued manually to ensure the uniform distribution of
adhesive to all the particles until complete homogenization was achieved.

Table 3.3: Adhesive formulations for particle board preparation

Sl. No Particulars Particle Board
Core Face
01 Particles (gm) 1560 1040
02 Resin required (gm) 374.4 166.4
03 Melamine (2 % of resin) 7.49 3.33
04 Micro-wollastonite particles (gm) 0.5-2% of resin 0.5-2% of resin
05 Hardener (gm) 2.62 (0.7% of resin) 0.83 (0.5% of
resin)
6.86 (water) 4.99 (water)

3.3.3.2 Mat formation

To create a unique particle board mattress, the process began by using Aluminium coil sheets
of 3mm thickness, along with a square wooden frame with the same dimensions as the sheets
used (Zhou et al., 2023). The first step was to lay down one aluminium coil sheet on the
floor, followed by the wooden frame. Before that, the sheets were covered with melted wax,
let dry and then the resin-blended face particles were poured onto the sheet, followed by
resin-blended core particles, and then covered again with blended face particles on top. A
rectangular wooden leveller was used to compress and level the resin-blended particles inside
the frame, creating the square-shaped mattress. The mat's thickness was controlled by
adjusting the quantity of wood particles. After the particles were compacted firmly inside
 38

the wooden frame, the frame was carefully removed in such a manner that the shape of the
mattress was not disturbed.

3.3.3.3 Pre-pressing of mattress

Pre-pressing the mat was done in order to guarantee more resin distribution, boost mat
density, and shorten the duration of hot pressing before it went into the main pressing stage
(Onuorah et al, 2001)

3.3.3.4 Hot pressing

The pre-pressed mats were pressed in a hydraulic press which consists of two heated platens.
The mat was subjected to the hydraulic press for 15 minutes at a temperature of 110-120 0c
and a constant pressure of 275 lbs.

3.3.3.5 Cooling and trimming

Upon the completion of the hot-pressing process, the particleboards were carefully taken out
from the machine and subsequently arranged in a stack with weight on it to undergo a cooling
phase of approximately 5-6 hours at ambient temperature. After the requisite cooling time,
the boards underwent sanding with the help of a hand sanding machine to attain the desired
board thickness of 12mm.

For further analysis, the board was cut down to a specific size of 2 feet X 2 feet with the help
of a circular saw to eliminate the particles at the outer edges of the mattress. Each trimmed
particle board was controlled in terms of thickness. The thickness was measured continuously
at three or more traces over the whole panel board using a Digital Vernier calliper.
 39

Plate 3.2: Procurement of Eucalyptus Plate 3.3: Representing the chips

grandis logs for particle board preparation. produced from Eucalyptus grandis.

Plate 3.4: Representing the core Plate 3.5: Representing the face
particles. particles.
 40

Plate 3.6: Preparation of UF adhesive Plate 3.7: Blending of Core particles

manually using a Pestle mortar. with UF adhesive.

Plate 3.8: Blending of face particles with Plate 3.9: Spreading of Face
UF adhesive. particles on aluminum caul sheet.

Plate 3.10: Pouring the resin-blended Plate 3.11: Covering with resin blended
Core particles. face particle again on the top.
 41

Plate 3.12: Compressing the resin Plate 3.13: Preparation of square

blended particles inside the wooden shaped mattress.
frame.

Plate 3.14: Pre-pressing of the mattress Plate 3.15: Hot pressing of the
using the machine cold press. mattress at 110-120oC and
275lbs.

Plate 3.16: Prepared boards are Plate 3.17: Trimming of particle

stacked upon weight to undergo a boards to the desired dimension.
 42

Procurement of seasoned Eucalyptus grandis logs

Preparation of core and face particles

Sieving, sorting and drying of particles

Urea- formaldehyde resin preparation

Resin blending

Mat formation

Pre-pressing

Hot-pressing (110-1200C for 15 minutes)

Cooling and Trimming of particle board

Figure 3.2- Flowchart representing the manufacturing of particle

board
 43

3.3.4 Testing procedures

3.3.4.1 Testing of UF adhesive

Before the application of UF resin to prepare particle boards, both types of UF resin (with
extender and without) were tested according to IS:354, part-1(1987).

3.3.4.1.1 Solid content

Initially, a clean and dry Petri dish was taken and weighed empty and with resin. Later petri
dish with resin was kept inside the hot air oven at 100±20C for 4 hours. After 4 hours, the
petri dish was taken out from the oven and let it cool in desiccators up to room temperature
and weighed again.

The solid content of the resin was calculated by the formula,

Wt .of Oven dried resin

Solid content ( % )= X 100
Wt .of resin

3.3.4.1.2 Water Tolerance

10 ml of resin was taken in a beaker and water was in the burette. Water was poured into the
beaker containing resin drop by drop until the precipitation occurred. Noted down the reading
of the burette. The ratio of water with resin was called the water tolerance of that particular
resin.

The water tolerance as calculated by the formula,

Water used
Water tolerance=
Resintaken

3.3.4.1.3 pH value
pH of the resin was taken by the pH indicator paper directly.

3.3.4.1.4 Flow time of the resin

The flow time of the resin was measured by a B-4 Ford cup viscometer.
 44

3.3.4.1.5 Specific gravity

A clean and dry Relative density bottle was taken and weighed empty. Distilled water was
filled up to the cap and weighed again. After removing the water and drying of RD bottle, the
resin was poured inside and weighed again.

The specific gravity of the resin was calculated by the formula,

Weight of theresin
Specifica gravity=
Weight of the water

Plate 3.18: Weighing the Petri dish with Plate 3.19: Representing the
Resin for the determination of solid precipitation that occurred during water
content. tolerance test.

Plate 3.20 Representing the pH of the Plate 3.21 Experimenting to calculate

resin by pH indicator paper. the flow time of resin using B-4 Ford
cup.
 45

3.3.4.2 Preparation and conditioning of test specimens

The required test specimens were cut to the specified size with all edges cut square to the
surface with the help of a circular saw. The dimensions of each test piece, including length,
width, and thickness, were measured accurately to 0.02 mm since the dimension was less
than or equal to 15 cm. The test specimen was exposed to an atmosphere maintained at a
relative humidity of 65 ± 5 % and a temperature of 27± 2°C until their masses were constant.

Samples for physical and mechanical tests were prepared from the particle board according to
IS: 2380 (Part I)-1977 based on the sizes listed in Table 3.4. The obtained values were
compared with IS.3087(2005).

Table 3.4: Specification of sample sizes for physical and mechanical tests as per IS: 2380
(1997)
Sl.no Name of the test Sample size (mm)
Physical tests
01 Moisture Content and Density 150X75
02 Determination of water absorption 300X300
03 Thickness Swelling due to General absorption 200X100
04 Thickness swelling due to Surface absorption 125X100
Mechanical tests
05 Tensile strength perpendicular to the surface of 50X50X full thickness
the board
06 Determination of static bending strength L=(24XT) + 50mm
(MOE/MOR)
W= 50mm if T<6mm
75mm if T>6mm

07 Screw and Nail withdrawal strength test 150X75

 46

Plate 3.22: Cutting of samples according Plate 3.23: Marking of the

to the size as prescribed in IS:2380 (1977). samples

Plate 3.24: Representing the cut samples

for physical and mechanical tests for the
particle board.

3.3.4.3 Moisture Content and Density

The moisture content of the specimens was evaluated by preparing them with the full
thickness of the material, measuring 150mm in length and 75mm in width IS: 2380 (Part I)-
1977. The specimens were tested immediately after cutting. The length, width, and thickness
of the particle board were initially measured using a Vernier calliper, and their weights were
measured using a weighing balance. The specimens were then oven-dried in a hot air oven at
a temperature of 103 ± 2 0C for 24 hours. After drying, the specimens were placed in a
 47

desiccator to cool down to room temperature and prevent contamination. Once cooled, the
oven-dry weight of the specimens was measured using a weighing balance. This process was
repeated several times until it had a constant OD weight, and the final OD weight of the
samples was recorded.

The moisture content was calculated by the formula,

Initial weight−Oven dried weight

Moisture content ( % ) = X 100
Oven dried weight

The density of the specimens was calculated by the formula,

Oven dried weight

Density ( g /cm3 ) =
Length X Width X thickness

3.3.4.4 Determination of water absorption

A sample size of 300mm X 300mm was prepared and conditioned according to the
specifications in IS: 2380 (Part I) · 1977 for the determination of the water absorption test
from the particle board. Once conditioned, the specimens were weighed with an accuracy of
not less than ±0.2%, and width, length, and thickness were measured with an accuracy of not
less than ±0.3%. The volume of the specimen was calculated from these measurements.

The following is a description of how the specimens were tested: First, they were submerged
horizontally under 25mm of clean, fresh water at a temperature of 27 ± 2°C. The specimens
were arranged so that there was a minimum of 15mm distance between them, and also
between the specimens and the container's bottom and sides. After being submerged for 2
hours, the specimens were drained for 10 minutes before being weighed. Any excess surface
water was removed before weighing. After the first weighing, the specimens were submerged
again for an additional 24 hours, and the weighing procedure was repeated. Water absorption
(%) was calculated by the specimen after the submersion of 2 hours and 24 hours
respectively.
 48

The water absorption (%) was calculated by formula,

Water absorption (%)

Weight of the sample after water soaking−Initial weight of that sample

¿ X 100
Initial weight of that sample

3.3.4.5 Thickness Swelling due to General absorption

The test specimens were carefully prepared and conditioned in adherence to the IS: 2380
(Part I) · 1977 guidelines. Each test specimen had a precise length of 200mm, a width of
100mm, and full thickness of the board. The thickness at the edge of each test specimen was
measured with utmost accuracy of 0.01mm at three places, along one long edge,
approximately 50mm, 100mm, and 150mm from one end. The points where the thicknesses
were measured were clearly and indelibly marked for future reference.

The same long edge of the test specimens was then placed in a container, as shown in Figure
3.28, and the dial reading was recorded. Each test specimen was then immersed in fresh,
clean water with a temperature of 27 ± 2°C. To ensure accuracy and fairness, the water was
renewed for each test. The short edges of the test specimens were held vertical, with the
measured edges lowermost. The test specimens were carefully separated by at least 15mm
from each other and from the bottom and sides of the container. They were then covered by
approximately 25mm of water.

After precisely 2 hours and 24 hours, each test specimen was withdrawn from the water. A
damp cloth was used to wipe each test specimen to ensure no water droplets remained. They
were then allowed to stand under normal room conditions for some time, with their bottom
edges resting on a non-absorbent surface, such as a glass sheet. The thickness of each test
specimen was then re-measured at the same three points with utmost accuracy. The average
of all three thicknesses was calculated.

Thickness swelling due to general absorption was calculated by the formula,

Thickness swelling due to general absorption (%) =

Thickness after water soaking−Initial thickness

¿ X 100
Initial thickness
 49

3.3.4.6 Determination of thickness swelling due to surface absorption

The test specimens were carefully prepared and conditioned in adherence to the IS: 2380
(Part I) -1977 guidelines. Each test specimen had a precise length of 125mm, a width of
100mm, and a full thickness of the board.

The thickness of each test specimen was measured to an accuracy of ±O.03 mm at four
places, one in the centre of each side and approximately 20 mm from the edge. The points at
which the thickness arc was measured were clearly and indelibly marked. The average of the
four readings shall be recorded. The edges of each test specimen were then sealed by quickly
dipping them in turn to a depth of 5 mm into a shallow bath of molten paraffin wax having a
melting point of about 55°C, the temperature of the bath being about 90°C. The procedure
was repeated until the pick-up of wax for each test specimen was of the order of 5 g for each
10 mm thickness of the board. Each test specimen was then immersed in fresh clean water
having a temperature of 27 ± 2°C, the water being renewed for each test.

The face being tested was immersed to a depth of approximately 3 mm, Care was taken not to
wet the top surface of the test specimen. At the end of 2 hours, each test specimen was
withdrawn from water and the wet surface was wiped with a damp cloth. The test specimen
was then laid wet face down, for one hour on a non-absorbent surface, such as a glass sheet.
The thickness of each test specimen was remeasured at the same points as before and to the
same degree of accuracy and the increases in thickness shall be recorded. The average of the
four values of increase in thickness expressed as a percentage of the original average
thickness was reported as the surface swelling value.

Thickness swelling due to surface absorption was calculated by the formula,

Thickness due to surface absorption (%)

Thickness after water soaking−Initial thickness

¿ X 100
Initial thickness
 50

Plate 3.26:
Plate 3.25: Measuring Keepingof the
the weight the weighed
sample usingsample inside
a weighing the hot air oven for 24
balance.
hours at a temperature of 103 ± 20 C.

Plate 3.27: The samples submerged in Plate 3.28: The samples undergoing
the water bath for water absorption General absorption test.
test.

Plate 3.29: Measuring the thickness of Plate 3.30: Dipping of the sample to a depth
the sample with the help of screw of 5mm in to a shallow bath of molten
gauge for surface absorption test. paraffin wax.
 51

Plate 3.31: Submerging the samples inside

the water for surface absorption test.

3.3.4.7 Tensile strength perpendicular to the surface of the board

Tensile strength perpendicular to surface tests were performed on samples that were
conditioned according to IS: 2380 (Part I) - 1977. Each test piece was a 50 mm square and
had the same thickness as the finished board. Loading blocks made of steel or aluminium
alloy, 50 mm square and 25 mm thick, were bonded to the 50 mm square faces of the sample
using a suitable epoxy adhesive, as shown in Plate 3.32, which provides details of the sample
and loading fixtures. The cross-sectional dimensions of the sample were measured accurately
to within ±0.3 percent. Loading fixtures, as shown in Plate 3.33, were connected to the heads
of the universal testing machine and engaged with the blocks attached to the sample. The
sample was stressed by separating the heads of the testing machine until it failed. The
direction of loading was as perpendicular to the faces of the board as possible, and the centre
of load was passed through the centre of the sample. During the test, the load was applied
continuously at a uniform rate of motion of the movable crosshead of the testing machine of
0.08 mm per centimetre of thickness per minute. Maximum loads were determined from
which each sample's stress at failure was calculated. Strength values were calculated in
N/mm2 using the measured dimensions of the sample. The location of the line of failure, the
individual, and the average strength values were reported. The tensile strength
perpendicular to the surface of the sample was calculated by the formula,

Peak load ∨failure load

IB(N /mm 2)=
Cross sectional area of the sample
 52

3.3.4.8 Determination of static bending strength (MOE/MOR)

Test specimens with a thickness of greater than 6 mm and a width of 75 mm were used for
testing with the help of a Universal testing machine IS 2380 (Part I) · 1977. The length of
each specimen was 50 + 24t mm, where 't' was the nominal thickness of the board measured
in millimetres. The width, length, and thickness of each specimen were measured with an
accuracy of not less than ±0.3%.

The span between the supports for each test was 24 times the nominal thickness, and the
supports were set in such a way that there was no significant crushing of the specimen during
the test. The specimens were loaded at the centre of the span, with the load applied to the
finished face at a uniform rate through a loading block that was rounded as shown in Plate
3.35. The deflection of the centre of the specimen was shown automatically on the screen.
The test was carried out until the specimen completely failed, and the character of the failure
was also observed.

The modulus of rupture shall be calculated for each specimen by the following formula
(MOR)

3 p'l
R=
2 bd 2

Where,

R- modulus of rupture in N/mm2

P’- maximum load in N

L-length of span in mm

b- width of specimen in mm

and d- depth of specimen in mm.

The modulus of elasticity was calculated for each specimen by the following formula,
3 Pl 3
(MOE) E=
4 Δbd 3
 53

Where,

E- Apparent modulus of elasticity in N/mm2,

P- Load in N

Δ−¿central deflection at the limit of proportionality load in mm,

L- Length of span in mm

b- Width of specimen in mm

and d- Depth of specimen in mm

3.3.4.9 Screw and Nail withdrawal strength test

The length and width of the test specimen were taken as 150mm and 75mm respectively and
the test was carried out by the machine UTM, as per IS 2380 (Part I)- 1977. Two screws No.8
and 50 mm in length threaded into the specimen at a right angle to the face up to half of their
length in a pre-bore of 2.5 mm. The holes were preferably at mid-width at about 5cm from
the ends of the specimen. Care was taken that sample was not split during the driving of the
screws in the specimen. In the nail withdrawal resistance test, two nails 50 mm long and 2.5
mm shank were driven in the specimen in a similar way as a screw, but without any pre-bore.
Nails used for the test were bright, galvanized, diamond-pointed, and had plane heads. Each
screw or nail was used only once.

The assembly for the screw or nail withdrawal test is shown in Plate 3.36. The specimen
holding fixture was attached to the lower plate of the testing machine. The specimen was
inserted in the fixture with the head of the crew or nail up. The load-applying fixture which is
equipped with a slot for easy engagement of the head of the screw or nail was attached to the
upper plate of the testing machine. The load was applied to the specimen throughout the test
by a uniform motion of the movable head of the testing machine at a rate of 1.5 mm per
minute.

The maximum load required to withdraw the screw or nail was the measure of resistance of
the material to direct withdrawal of the screw or nail and was included in the report.

3.3.5 Statistical analysis

For statistical analysis of data, IBM® SPSS® Version 29 software was used. One-way
ANOVA was done on treatment means. After that, Duncan post hoc analysis at α=0.05 was
done to check the significant difference between treatments.
 54

Plate 3.32: Loading the square-shaped Plate 3.33: Testing the tensile strength
samples to the aluminum blocks using perpendicular to the surface of the
epoxy adhesive. sample using Universal testing machine

Plate 3.34: Testing of the samples for Plate 3.35: Loading of the sample at
MOE/MOR in the Universal testing the center of the span.
machine.
 55

CHAPTER- 04
Plate 3.36: The assembly of nail and
screw withdrawal test.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The particle boards were prepared using Eucalyptus grandis as a raw material with the
binding agent Urea formaldehyde resin with wollastonite and without wollastonite. A total of
10 boards were prepared with two boards as control and the remaining four with the UF resin
incorporated with micro wollastonite at four different concentrations – 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and
2% to evaluate the strength properties of particle board and compare the variation that occurs
by potential use of micro wollastonite particles in the binding agent. The samples were
prepared and tested for their physical and mechanical properties according to IS:2380,
(1997). The values obtained were compared to the values in IS:3087-(2005).

The methodology discussed in Chapter 3 was used to obtain results for the work entitled
“Potential use of micro-wollastonite in UF-based density particle board prepared from
Eucalyptus grandis”. These results were obtained in the Composite Wood Laboratory, Forest
Research Institute, Dehradun. The collected data were statistically analysed using SPSS
software at a confidence level of 95% to determine the variation between the types of boards
and within the boards at different urea-formaldehyde and wollastonite mixture concentrations
of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% respectively. ANOVA analysis was done and Duncan's test was
also used to compare the means of different sets.

4.1 Variation in characteristics of UF resins

Most the studies revealed that adding wollastonite improved the adhesive's mechanical
behaviour without changing the chemical properties (Bendary et al., 2020). Two types of
urea-formaldehyde resin- UF resin with an extender and without an extender were prepared
for the study in the composite wood laboratory, ICFRE-FRI, Dehradun for testing and
evaluating different resin properties such as solid content, flow time of resin in B4 Ford cup,
pH, water tolerance, and specific gravity of the resin according to IS: 354-1(1987).

After the experiments, the results showed that the resin prepared by incorporating the micro-
wollastonite particles had greater flowtime, specific gravity, and lesser pH than UF resin
without an extender. The data regarding evaluating the UF resin properties was tabulated as
follows,
 56

Table 4.1: Data representing the properties of UF resin with Extender and without
Extender

Sl. Properties Urea-formaldehyde resin with Urea formaldehyde resin

No. wollastonite
01 Solid content (%) 50.82 50.74
02 The flow time of resin in 30 25
B4 Ford
cup (sec)
03 pH of resin 7 7.5
04 The specific gravity of the 1.22 1.18
resin
05 Water tolerance of the - 0.61
resin (sec)

Studies have shown that adding micro wollastonite particles to the resin can increase
viscosity, which could lead to a longer flow time (Fadil et al., 2018). Micro-wollastonite
particles are known for their high aspect ratio and needle-like shape. These properties can
increase the surface area of the particles, leading to greater interaction with the resin and
potentially affecting its flow characteristics. Factors such as particle size, concentration, and
resin type likely affect the overall effect (Wong et al., 2020).

Based on existing research by Taghiyari et al., 2020, adding micro wollastonite particles to
urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin does not significantly affect the pH of the resin. Studies have
shown minimal changes in pH values after the addition of wollastonite. The present study
shows that adding micro-wollastonite particles to resin generally increases its specific
gravity. This is because wollastonite has a higher specific gravity than most resins (Ammar et
al., 2017). The specific gravity increase depends on the amount of wollastonite added. The
increase in specific gravity is due to the higher density of wollastonite compared to the resin.
When wollastonite particles are added to the resin, they displace some of the resin, resulting
in a denser mixture that intends to increase the specific gravity (Noor et al., 2018).
 57

4.2 RESULTS
The data obtained from all experiments in this study were tabulated from Table 4.2 to Table
4.7 and graphically represented from Figure 4.1 to Figure 4.7.

The results of each physical and mechanical test have diverse ranges irrespective of the
control and wollastonite-incorporated particle boards. The moisture content and density
varied from 7.87% - 9.28% and 692.86 kg/m3- 750.00 kg/m3 respectively. Water absorption
after 2hrs and 24 hrs ranged from 9.51% to 37.21% and 32.4% to 65.5%, respectively.
Results of thickness swelling due to general absorption after 2 hrs and 24 hrs ranged from
12.08%-23.11% and 18.8%- 25.79% respectively. Data obtained from thickness swelling due
to surface absorption ranged from 1.85% to 11.59%. While the Modulus of Rupture (MOR)
ranged from 9.24 N/mm² to 12.8 N/mm², indicating the strength, and the Modulus of
Elasticity (MOE) varied from 1872.25 N/mm² to 2332.55 N/mm², reflecting the stiffness of
the board. The results obtained from the physical and mechanical tests reveal that the
prepared board has a diverse character in terms of moisture content, density, water
absorption, thickness swelling due to general and surface absorption, and the mechanical
properties across the controlled and for different concentrations of wollastonite particles.

Table 4.2: - Observations for calculation of moisture content & density

Sample. L (m) W (m) T (m) V(m3) IW ODW MC D

No (kg/m3)
(kg) (kg) (%)

E0 0.150 0.074 0.011 0.00012 0.096 0.089 7.87 741.67

E1 0.150 0.076 0.013 0.00014 0.116 0.107 8.41 764.29

E2 0.151 0.076 0.013 0.00015 0.118 0.109 8.26 726.67

E3 0.149 0.076 0.013 0.00014 0.106 0.097 9.28 692.86

E4 0.150 0.076 0.013 0.00014 0.114 0.105 8.57 750.00

Sampl Avg. Avg. Weight Avg. Weight Avg. Water Avg. Water
e Initial after 2 after 24 hours absorption (%) absorption (%)
weight hours (gm) (gm)
No. After 2 hours After 24 hours
(gm)
 58

E0 526.5 722 860.7 37.21 65.5

E1 214.5 270 347.7 26.58 62.2
E2 266.5 301.5 404 13.14 51.6
E3 274.7 306.5 389 11.56 41.5
E4 266.7 292 353 9.51 32.4
Table 4.3: Observations for determination of water absorption

Table 4.4: Observation for determination of thickness swelling due to general

absorption

Sample no. Avg. initial Avg. Avg. Thickness Thickness

thickness thickness thickness swelling due swelling
swelling swelling after to general due to
(cm)
after 2 hrs 24 hrs absorption general
(%) after 2 absorption
(cm) (cm)
hrs. (%) after
24 hrs.
E0 15.09 18.58 18.96 23.11 25.79
E1 11.43 13.53 14.14 18.36 23.70
E2 15.19 17.6 18.55 15.8 22.15
E3 14.02 16.39 17.07 16.88 21.78
E4 15.89 17.81 16.07 12.08 18.8
.

Table 4.5: Observation of thickness swelling due to surface absorption

 59

Sample No. Avg. initial thickness Avg. thickness Thickness swelling

swelling after 2hrs due to surface
(cm)
(cm) absorption (%)
E0 14.44 16.11 11.59
E1 13.69 14.57 10.48
E2 10.19 11.04 8.26
E3 13.14 13.88 5.63
E4 13.18 13.43 1.85

Table 4.6: Observations for determination of static bending strength (MOE & MOR)

Sample No. Maximum load (N) Average MOE Average MOR

(N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
E0 181.43 1872.25 9.24
E1 186.64 1971.67 9.70
E2 206.96 2026.17 10.54
E3 251.93 2163.90 11.58
E4 291.81 2332.55 12.18

Table 4.7: Observations for determination of Tensile strength perpendicular to the

surface of the sample (IB)

Sample No. Load (N) Avg. IB (N/mm2)

E0 810.13 0.24
E1 924.46 0.35
E2 1148.23 0.42
E3 1180.90 0.43
E4 1453.66 0.53

Table 4.8: Observations for the determination of screw and nail withdrawal strength
 60

Sample No. Avg. surface value (kg) Avg. edge value

(kg)
E0 93.5 95.0
E1 117.5 126.5
E2 134.0 137.0
E3 183.5 187.5
E4 220.5 195.5

Water Absorption
70
60
Percentage (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
Samples

2 Hours 24 Hours

Figure 4.1: The average water absorption values exhibited by the samples.

General Absorption
30
Percentage (%)

25
20
15
10
5
0
E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
Samples

2 Hours 24 Hours

Figure 4.2: The average general absorption values exhibited by the samples.
 61

Surface absorption

12
Percentage (%)

10
8
6
4
2
0
E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
Samples
Figure 4.3: The average surface absorption values exhibited by the samples.

Nail & Screw withdrawl

2500

2000
Load (N)

1500

1000

500

0
E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
Samples

Surface (Avg) Edge (Avg)

Figure 4.4: The average nail and screw withdrawal strength values exhibited by
samples.

MOE
2500 2332.55
2163.9
1971.67 2026.17
2000 1872.25
MOE (N/mm2)

1500

1000

500

0
E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
Samples

Figure 4.5: The average MOE values exhibited by the samples.

 62

MOR
14
12.18
11.58
12 10.54
9.24 9.7
10
MOR (N/mm2)

8
6
4
2
0
E0 E1 E2 E3 E4

Samples

Figure 4.6: The average MOR values exhibited by the samples.

Internal Bonding
Internal Bonding
0.6
0.6 0.53 0.53
0.5
0.5
0.42 0.420.43 0.43
0.4
0.4 0.36 0.35
(N/mm2)
IB(N/mm2)

0.3
0.3
0.3 0.24
0.2
0.2
IB

0.1
0.1
0
0 E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
Samples
Samples

Figure 4.7: The average Internal bond strength values exhibited by the samples.
 63

4.3 Discussion
The particle boards were prepared with 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2% wollastonite based on resin,
and panels without wollastonite showed significant differences in moisture content, density
water absorption, and thickness swelling after 2 hours and 24 hours. The studies have proven
that the incorporation of micro wollastonite particles in UF resin to prepare particle boards
significantly contributes in making bonds between the wood strips and consequently
improves physical and mechanical properties, (Papadopoulos., 2019).

4.3.1 Physical properties

The particle boards for the water absorption test were prepared with UF resin alone having an
average water absorption (%) nearly 4 times higher (37.21%) than that found in the panels
made with UF resin with the addition of wollastonite (2% of resin) after 2 hours of
immersion (9.51%) and 2 times lesser than 24 hours of immersion in the water (65.5%). The
thickness swelling due to general absorption followed the same trends in the panels as the
one with only UF resin was nearly 2 times higher (23.11%) than that found in the panels
made with UF resin and wollastonite particles (2% of resin) after 2 hours of immersion
(12.08%) and 1.1. times lesser than after 24 hours of immersion in the water (25.79%). The
particle boards for the thickness swelling due to the surface absorption test were prepared
with UF resin alone having an average thickness swelling (%) nearly 11 times higher
(11.59%) than the boards with UF resin with wollastonite (2% of resin) after 2 hours of
immersion in the water (1.85%).

The water absorption and thickness swelling tests conducted in the present study can be
related to the similar work done by Papadopoulos., 2019, the lower values of the thickness
swelling and water absorption in the panel boards prepared with 2% wollastonite embodying
in the UF resin can be attributed to the wollastonite compounds that may develop active
bonds with the cellulose hydroxyl groups, putting them out of reach for the water molecules
to make bonds, and can also be related to the higher thermal conductivity coefficient of
wollastonite may improve the transfer of heat to different layers of particle board, facilitating
better and more complete resin curing. Moreover, the adsorption energy and adsorption
distance of wollastonite on cell wall polymers were in favour of better integrity in the
composite panels (Taghiyari et al., 2020).
 64

4.3.2 Mechanical properties

Bending strength is one of the most important mechanical properties of wood composite
panels since it influences their structural performance for applications. MOR showed
significant improvement with the addition of microparticles of wollastonite in the present
study (Table 4.6). Maximum value for MOR (12.18 N/mm 2) was obtained for particle board
with 2% incorporation of wollastonite with UF resin and showed an improvement of 131%
compared to the control board. Table 4.6 reveals a systematic improvement in the MOE
values. The maximum value of MOE (2332.55 N/mm 2) was obtained for the particle board
with 2% incorporation of micro wollastonite particles with UF resin and showed a significant
improvement of 124% compared to the reference board. The mean values of MOR and MOE
fall within the prescribed limits of IS 3087 (2005).

Generally, Internal bond strength gives information on the resistance of the face layer to the
separation from the core. IB values of reference and wollastonite incorporated boards are
within the values prescribed in IS 3087 (2005). The maximum value for IB (0.53 N/mm2)
was obtained for particle board with 2% wollastonite impregnated board which accounted for
an improvement of 122.8% compared to reference board (Table 4.7). The values obtained for
screw and nail withdrawal tests are within the values prescribed in IS: 3087 (2005). The
maximum average surface value (220.5kg) and edge value (195.5kg) were obtained for the
particleboards made with the 2% wollastonite-impregnated UF resin which accounted for an
improvement of 235% compared to the reference board on the surface and 205% compared
to reference board on edge of the sample (Table 4.8).

The significant improvement in the mechanical properties of particle board in this study was
obtained by embodying 2% micro-wollastonite particles with UF resin which may be
influenced by the factors explained in a similar study conducted by Chan et al., 2020. The
factors such as adhesion interaction between the wollastonite particles and the UF resin, as
well as the size and shape of the wollastonite particles, can also influence the improvement in
mechanical properties (MOR, MOE, IB, Screw, and nail withdrawal) in particle board.
Adding a small amount of micro wollastonite particles does not affect significantly, but when
the quantity of wollastonite increased from 0.5% to 2%, it was observed that prominent
increase in the values of MOE, MOR, IB, and screw and nail withdrawal. The improvement
in mechanical properties may be also due to the increase in the particle board and UF resin
contact and the removal of gaps in the wood by wollastonite particles can be linked to the
 65

increase in the board strength (Yadav, 2021). The MOE and MOR values of particleboard
may increase as the board-specific gravity is increased as explained by Onuorah et al., 2011.

4.3.3. Statistical analysis of MOE, MOR, and IB

The obtained results were again analyzed using ANOVA and post hoc analysis to distinguish
the variation between the types of boards and within the boards and the ANOVA table has
been given from Table 4.9 to Table 4.11. and the post hoc analysis using the Duncan test was
also conducted to compare the means of different sets of an experiment and tabulated in
Table 4.12.

Table 4.9: ANOVA for MOE of the particle boards.

Dependent Variable: MOE

Type III Sum of
Source Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
a
Corrected Model 772290.81 4 193072.70 98.61 <0.01
Intercept 128875934.44 1 128875934.44 65822.12 <0.01
Treatment 772290.81 4 193072.70 98.61 <0.01
Error 48948.56 25 1957.94
Total 129697173.81 30
Corrected Total 821239.37 29
a. R Squared = 0.94 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.93)

Table 4.10: ANOVA for MOR of particle boards.

Dependent Variable: MOR

Type III Sum of
Source Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
a
Corrected Model 278.48 4 69.62 103.49 <0.01
Intercept 1339.29 1 1339.29 1990.78 <0.01
Treatment 278.48 4 69.62 103.49 <0.01
Error 16.82 25 .67
Total 1634.59 30
Corrected Total 295.30 29
a. R Squared = 0.94 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.93)
 66

Table 4.11: ANOVA for IB of particle boards.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: IB
Type III Sum of
Source Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
a
Corrected Model 0.18 4 0.05 17.30 <0.01
Intercept 5.03 1 5.03 1913.19 <0.01
Treatment 0.18 4 0.05 17.30 <0.01
Error 0.07 25 0.01
Total 5.28 30
Corrected Total 0.25 29
a. R Squared = 0.90 (Adjusted R Squared =0 .85)

Table 4.12: DUNCAN subsets for mechanical properties (MOE, MOR, & IB) of particle
boards.

2 2
IB (N/mm2)
Treatment N MOE (N/mm ) MOR(N/mm )
E0 6 528.09 (a) 3.64 (a) 0.30 (a)
(±20.62) (±0.17) (±0.01)

E1 6 608.35 (a) 4.29 (ab) 0.36 (a)

(± 24.75) (±0.07) (±0.01)
E2 6 609.50 (a) 4.17 (b) 0.42 (b)
(±17.93) (±0.10) (±0.02)
E3 6 1930.57 (b) 10.08 (c) 0.44 (b)
(±7.72) (±0.15) (±0.02)

E4 6 2032.56 (b) 10.68 (c) 0.53 (c)

(±10.87) (±0.17) (±0.01)

 Note: Standard errors are presented within parenthesis. The body of the table shows the mean
values (at ± 95% confidence interval) of 6 replicates per treatment. Equal alphabets in
columns indicate no significant difference between treatments, and different alphabets
indicate a significant difference between treatments according to Duncan’s post hoc analysis
(α =0.05).
 67

From Table 4.12, it can be inferred that adding micro-particles of wollastonite significantly
impacts the mechanical properties of panel boards (MOR, MOE, and IB). In the present
study, all the particle boards that were prepared by incorporating the micro wollastonite
particles were exhibited statistically better (>0.05%) than the reference sample. From the
above data, it becomes clear that embodying the wollastonite particles can significantly
improve the mechanical properties (Kachala et al., 2015)

The present data highlights that the panel boards made by incorporating 2% wollastonite
micro-particles in UF resin perform better than those of 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% addition of
wollastonite micro-particles. Results obtained in both treatment sets conformed with the
findings of several previous researchers, this may be because the high interaction of
wollastonite particles with the cell wall polymer and an increase in the thermal conductivity
coefficient by wollastonite (Taghiyari et al., 2013) caused better curing of the resin in the
core section of the mat, resulting in higher internal bond strength.

4.3.3.1 MOE
The panel boards made with wollastonite (E1, E2) and reference sample (E0) exhibit
properties that are statistically similar in the case for the MOE(N/mm 2), suggesting that there
is no significant difference between the panel boards that were made with 0.5%, 1% of
wollastonite incorporating in UF resin and the controlled boards. From the data, it is also
predictable that the boards made with 1.5% and 2% concentrations of wollastonite particles
are statistically similar, which means there is no significant difference between each other
although the MOE values are different. Similarly, the boards with 1.5% and 2% wollastonite
(E3 &E4) are statistically different from other boards (E0, E1, and E2) which suggests that
there is a significant difference between the boards.

4.3.3.2 MOR
The panel board made with the incorporation of 0.5% wollastonite particles with UF resin
exhibits similar properties to the reference board and also with the board made with
embodying 1% of wollastonite micro-particles. Which signifies that all boards are
statistically similar to each other although the values are different. Consequently, the boards
prepared with the addition of 1.5% and 2% wollastonite with UF resin were statistically
similar, which can be explained as there is no significant difference between them although
both the boards have different MOR values, and these boards are statistically not similar to
the boards made with 0.5%, 1%, and control sample. From Table 4.12, it is predictable that
 68

there is a significant difference between the particle boards (E0, E1, E2) and the boards (E3,
E4).

4.3.3.3 IB:
From the data obtained from the Duncan test for internal bonding strength, it is expected that
there is no significant difference between the reference sample and panel board made with
0.5% wollastonite with UF resin, which means that E0 and E1 are statistically similar. The
data also shows that the panel boards made with 1% and 1.5% wollastonite-impregnated UF
resin are statistically similar. This means that the effect of wollastonite on the IB has no
significant difference on the boards made with 1%, and 1.5% wollastonite with UF resin.
Consequently, the boards made with 1% & 2% wollastonite are statistically different from the
reference board and 0.5% wollastonite incorporated board. The panel board made with 2%
wollastonite impregnation is statistically different from the boards made with 0.5%, 1%, and
1.5% wollastonite with UF resin.
 69

CHAPTER- 05
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the comprehensive investigation of the incorporation of amorphous micronized
wollastonite powder in the resin for the production of the particle board to improve its
physical and mechanical properties conducted, throughout this study has shed light on the
potential of micro-wollastonite in enhancing the strength and water resistance characteristics
of Eucalyptus grandis particle board. The incorporation of micro wollastonite in particle
board manufacturing can be expanded and employed in pilot studies at the industrial level to
help improve the moisture resistance and less-strength particle board wood species. As the
amount addition of wollastonite increased from 0.5% to 2% of the resin, the results showed a
significant improvement in physical and mechanical properties. A two- to four-fold increase
in the physical and mechanical properties was seen in 2% wollastonite treated samples with
pressure 275lbs. The increase in the improvement of physical and mechanical properties can
be attributed to the better binding properties between wood particles and wollastonite
particles, which in turn results in more denser boards. The findings suggested that, after
optimizing the parameters on a pilot scale, the incorporation of micro wollastonite with
underutilized or lesser resistance species may be investigated and further used in the wood
industries for the improvement of physical and mechanical properties to impart significant
service life. For non-durable and outdoor applications of particle boards, incorporating
wollastonite along with the resin may increase their binding nature and moisture resistance
which in turn extends their service life and reduces the need for frequent replacement. The
current investigation with a filler like micro wollastonite has proven that this technique also
ensures greater binding in comparison with controlled samples. The study’s findings
demonstrated that incorporating micro-wollastonite with a resin while manufacturing a
particle board of Eucalyptus grandis is an effective strategy for enhancing its binding
properties, panel strength properties, and moisture resistance and it is also a less cost
alternative which provides valuable insights for the industry.
 70

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