EE-313 Electronic Circuit Design

Lecture 4 part 2
Dr Zaki EE-313
Uddin Electronic Circuit Design
[email protected]
 Frequency Response of Amplifiers
 A linear voltage amplifier fed at its input with a sine-wave signal of amplitude Vi
and frequency ω.
 As the figure indicates, the signal measured at the amplifier output also is
sinusoidal with exactly the same frequency ω.
 This is an important point to note: Whenever a sine-wave signal is applied to a
linear circuit, the resulting output is sinusoidal with the same frequency as the
input.
 Observe, however, that the output sinusoid will in general have a different
amplitude and will be shifted in phase relative to the input.
 The ratio of the amplitude of the output sinusoid (Vo) to the amplitude of the input
These two plots together constitute
sinusoid (Vi) is the magnitude of the amplifier gain (or transmission) at the test
the frequency response of the
frequency ω.
amplifier; the first is known as the
 Also, the angle f is the phase of the amplifier transmission at the test frequency
magnitude or amplitude response,
ω.
and the second is the phase response.
 If we denote the amplifier transmission, or transfer function as it is more
commonly known, by T(ω), then
V
T ( )  o
Vi
T ( )  f
 Amplifier Bandwidth
 The gain is almost constant over a wide frequency range,
roughly between ω1 and ω2.
 Signals whose frequencies are below ω1 or above ω2 will
experience lower gain, with the gain decreasing as we move
farther away from ω1 and ω2.
 The band of frequencies over which the gain of the amplifier
is almost constant, to within a certain number of decibels
(usually 3 dB), is called the amplifier bandwidth.
 Normally the amplifier is designed so that its bandwidth
coincides with the spectrum of the signals it is required to
amplify.
 If this were not the case, the amplifier would distort the
frequency spectrum of the input signal, with different
components of the input signal being amplified by different Magnitude response of an amplifier.
amounts.
 Evaluating the Frequency Response of Amplifiers

 To evaluate the frequency response of an amplifier, one has to analyze the amplifier equivalent
circuit model, taking into account all reactive components. Note that in the models considered
in previous sections no reactive components were included. These were simplified models
and cannot be used alone to predict the amplifier frequency response.

 In the analysis of a circuit to determine its frequency response, the algebraic manipulations can
be considerably simplified by using the complex frequency variable s. In terms of s, the
impedance of an inductance L is sL and that of a capacitance C is 1/sC. Replacing the reactive
elements with their impedances and performing standard circuit analysis, we obtain the transfer
function T(s) as

Vo ( s)
T (s) 
Vi ( s)
 Single-Time-Constant (STC) Networks

 An STC network is one that is composed of, or can be reduced to, one reactive
component (inductance or capacitance) and one resistance.

Low-pass network High-pass network

 An STC network formed of an inductance L and a resistance R has a time

constant τ = L/R. The time constant τ of an STC network composed of a
capacitance C and a resistance R is given by τ = CR
 Magnitude and Phase Response of STC Network (Low pass)

T/Fr function of all STC N/W 1

o    Time - constant
K 
T (s)  (1) The magnitude response is given by
1   s 
 o  T ( j ) 
K
(3)
For Physical freq; put s  j  
2
1   
T ( j ) 
K
(2)  o 
1   j  The Phase response is given by
 o 
1 
where K is the magnitude of the transfer f ( )   tan   (4)
 o 
function at  = 0 (dc)
 Magnitude Response of STC Network (Low pass)
 The magnitude response shown in Figure is
simply a graph of the function in Eq. (3).
 The magnitude is normalized with respect to the
dc gain K and is expressed in decibels; that is,
the plot is for 20 log|T(jω)/K|, with a logarithmic
scale used for the frequency axis.
 Furthermore, the frequency variable has been
normalized with respect to ω0. As shown, the
magnitude curve is closely defined by two
straight-line asymptotes.
 The low-frequency asymptote is a horizontal
straight line at 0 dB.
 To find the slope of the high-frequency
asymptote, consider Eq. (3) and let ω/ω0 >>1,
resulting in
 
T ( j )  K  o 
 
 Magnitude Response of STC Network (Low pass)
 It follows that if ω doubles in value, the magnitude is halved. On a logarithmic frequency axis, doublings of ω
represent equally spaced points, with each interval called an octave.
 Halving the magnitude function corresponds to a 6-dB reduction in transmission (20 log 0.5 = –6 dB).
 Thus the slope of the high-frequency asymptote is –6 dB/octave. This can be equivalently expressed as –20
dB/decade, where “decade” indicates an increase in frequency by a factor of 10.
 The two straight-line asymptotes of the magnitude–response curve meet at the “corner frequency” or “break
frequency” ω0.
 The difference between the actual magnitude–response curve and the asymptotic response is largest at the corner
frequency, where its value is 3 dB.
 To verify that this value is correct, simply substitute ω = ω0 in Eq. (3) to obtain
K
T ( j ) 
2

 Thus at ω = ω0, the gain drops by a factor of √ 2 relative to the dc gain, which corresponds to a 3-dB reduction in
gain.
 The corner frequency ω0 is appropriately referred to as the 3-dB frequency
 Phase Response of STC Network (Low pass)

 Similar to the magnitude response, the

phase–response curve, shown in Figure is
closely defined by straight-line asymptotes.
 Note that at the corner frequency the phase
is –45°, and that for ω >> ω0 the phase
approaches –90°.
 Also note that the –45°/decade straight line
approximates the phase function, with a
maximum error of 5.7°, over the frequency
range 0.1ω0 to 10ω0.
 Magnitude and Phase Response of STC Network (High pass)
T/Fr function of all STC (High pass)
Ks
T (s) 
s  o
For Physical freq; put s  j
K
T ( j ) 
j o
1

where K is the magnitude of the transfer
function at  = 
1
o 

Magnitude Response
K
T ( j ) 
2
 o 
1  
  
 
T ( j )  tan 1  o 
  
 Example
The Figure shows a voltage amplifier having an input resistance Ri , an input capacitance Ci, a gain factor μ , and an
output resistance Ro. The amplifier is fed with a voltage source Vs having a source resistance Rs, and a load of
resistance RL is connected to the output.
(a) Derive an expression for the amplifier voltage gain Vo/Vs as a function of frequency. From this find expressions for
the dc gain and the 3-dB frequency.
(b) Calculate the values of the dc gain, the 3-dB frequency, and the frequency at which the gain becomes 0 dB (i.e.,
unity) for the case Rs = 20 kΩ, Ri = 100 k Ω , Ci = 60 pF, μ = 144 V/V, Ro = 200, and RL = 1 k Ω .
(c) Find vo(t) for each of the following inputs:
(i) vi = 0.1sin 102t,
(ii) vi = 0.1sin 105t
(iii) vi = 0.1sin 106t
(iv) vi = 0.1sin 108t
 Example
(a) Using voltage divider rule, we have Using voltage divider rule at the output DC gain (K) is given by
Zi RL 1
Vi  Vs Vo  Vi  Vi V
Z i  Rs 1 1
RL  Ro R
1 o K o   (4)
Zi V s s 0 R R
Vi  Vs RL 1 s 1 o
 R  Ri RL
Z i 1  s  1  Ro 
 Vi  Vo 1  
 Zi 
  RL  3dB frequency ( o ) is given by
1 1
Vi  Vs Yi  Putting Vi in Eq (1), we have
1  Rs Yi  Zi o 
1

1
(5)
1
Vo

1

1

1 (2)  C i R s Ri 
1  s 1  o 1  sCi  Rs Ri  
Yi   sC i Vs R R
Ri
 Rs  Ri 
Ri RL
1
 Vi  V s
 1 
1  Rs   sC i  Time constant is given by
 Ri    Ci Rs Ri 
Vi 1 (3)
 R s Ri
Vs  1    Ci
1  Rs   sC i  Rs  Ri
 Ri 
Vi 1

Vs R Since the frequency response of this amplifier is of the low-pass STC type, the Bode plots
1  s  sC i Rs
Ri for the gain magnitude and phase will take the form shown in previous figure (low pass),
Vi 1 1 (1) where K is given by Eq. (4) and ω0 is given by Eq. (5)
 
1  s 1  sC i  Rs Ri  
Vs R  
Ri  Rs  Ri 
 Example
(b) Substituting the numerical values given into Eq. (4) results in
1 1
K  144 .  100 V/V
 20   20 
1   1  
 100   100 
Thus the amplifier has a dc gain of 40 dB
Substituting the numerical values into Eq. (5) gives the 3-dB frequency

1
o   10 6 rad/s
 20 k 
60 pF   
 100 k 
10 6
fo   159 .2 kHz
2
Since the gain falls off at the rate of –20 dB/decade, starting at ω0 (see
magnitude plot of low pass STC) the gain will reach 0 dB in two decades
(a factor of 100); thus we have
Unity-gain frequency = 100 ×ω0 = 108 rad/s or 15.92 MHz
 Example
(c) To find vo(t) we need to determine the gain magnitude and phase at 102, 105, 106, and 108 rad/s. This can be done either
approximately utilizing the Bode plots of Figure or exactly utilizing the expression for the amplifier transfer function
V 100
T ( j )  o ( j ) 
Vi   
1  j  
6
 10 

(i) For ω = 102 rad/s, which is (ω0/104 ), the Bode plots of Figure suggest that |T| =
K = 100 and φ = 0°. The transfer function expression gives |T|≈100 and φ = −tan−1
10−4 ≈0°. Thus, vo(t) = 10 sin 102 t, V
(ii) For ω = 105 rad/s, which is (ω0/10), the Bode plots of Figure suggest that |T|
=K = 100 and φ = −5.7°. The transfer function expression gives |T| = 99.5 and φ
= −tan−1 0.1 = −5.7°. Thus, vo(t) = 9.95 sin(105t −5.7°), V
(iii) For ω = 106 rad/s = ω0, |T| = 100/√2 = 70.7 V/V or 37 dB and φ = −45°.
Thus, vo(t) = 7.07 sin(106t −45°), V

(iv) For ω = 108 rad/s, which is (100 ω0), the Bode plots suggest that |T| = 1 and
φ = −90°. The transfer function expression gives |T|=1 and φ = −tan−1
100 = −89.4°. Thus, vo(t) = 0.1 sin(108t −89.4°), V
 Classification of Amplifiers Based on Frequency Response

Amplifiers can be classified based on the shape of their magnitude-response curve. Figure
shows typical frequency-response curves for various amplifier types. In Figure (a) the gain
remains constant over a wide frequency range, but falls off at low and high frequencies. This
type of frequency response is common in audio amplifiers.

Frequency response for (a) a capacitively coupled amplifier, (b) a direct-coupled amplifier, and (c) a tuned or bandpass amplifier.