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Introduction Factors affecting the surface roughness

• During machining, deviations are produced by the traces of edged cutting tool and • Material of tool and work piece
plastic flow • Type of machining
• The fine irregularities in the surface texture are termed as surface roughness • Cutting parameters such as feed, speed and depth of cut
• To describe the surface roughness, the height of the irregularities is measured in • Rigidity of the system consisting of machine tool, fixture, cutting tool and work
microns whereas its width is measured in mm
• Vibrations
• Type of coolant used

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Geometrical Irregularities Elements of Surface Texture

• First order irregularities:
These are the irregularities developed due to the inaccuracies in the machine tool
such as lack of straightness of guide ways on which the tool post moves
• Second order irregularities:
These irregularities are developed due to the vibrations and rigidity of the
machine tool
• Third order irregularities:
These irregularities are developed due to the cutting parameters such as cutting
speed, feed and depth of cut
• Fourth order irregularities:
These are the irregularities developed due to the rupture of the material during
the separation of the chip from the already finished surface of the work piece
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Roughness (Primary texture)

Terms used in surface roughness measurement
• The surface irregularities of small wavelength are called Primary texture or
Roughness
• These are caused by direct action of the cutting elements on the material such as
Surface Texture: cutting tool feed rate, other disturbances etc
• It is the repetitive or random deviation from the nominal surface which forms the • These include irregularities of third and fourth order and constitute the micro
pattern on the surface geometrical errors.
• Surface texture include roughness, waviness, lay, flaws, actual surface, nominal • Roughness height: It is the rate of arithmetical average deviation perpendicular to the
surface and sampling length
surface.
• Roughness width: It is the distance parallel to the normal surface between successive
peaks.

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Waviness (Secondary texture) Lay

• The surface irregularities of considerable wavelength are called secondary texture or • Lay is the direction of the
waviness predominant surface pattern
produced by tool marks or scratches
• These irregularities result due to inaccuracies of slides, wear of guides, misalignment
of centres, deformation of work under the action of cutting forces, vibrations etc • It is determined by the method of
production used
• These errors include irregularities of first and second order and constitute the macro‐
geometrical errors

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Flaws Sampling length

• Flaws are surface irregularities or imperfections which occur at infrequent intervals • It is the length of the profile
and at random intervals necessary for the evaluation of the
• Example‐ scratches, holes, cracks, porosity etc irregularities to be taken into account
• These may be observed directly with the aid of penetrating dye or other material • It is also known as cut‐off length
which make them visible for examination and evaluation • It is measured in a direction parallel
to the general direction of the profile

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Evaluation of Surface texture (roughness)

• PROFILE: It is defined as the contour of any section through a surface • Average roughness method
Center line average (C.L.A) index method
• NORMAL SURFACE: It is the theoretical, imaginary perfect surface obtained by Root mean square (RMS) average method
calculating the mean of peak and valleys on the surface. Ten point method

• Peak to valley height method

• ACTUAL SURFACE: the surface actually generated by a manufacturing process is
called as actual surface. • Form factor method

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Center line average (C.L.A) method Root mean square (RMS) method
• In this method also, the roughness is measured as the
• In this method surface roughness is measured as average deviation from the nominal surface.
the average deviation from the nominal surface. • RMS value is defined as the square root of the arithmetic
mean of the values of the squares of the ordinances of the
• Centre Line Average is defined as the average surface measured from a mean value
values of the ordinates from the mean line • If we consider h1, h2, h3,……., hn are the height of the
regardless of the arithmetic signs of the ordinates and n measurements are made from the mean
ordinates line above and below to the points on the surface profile
along the sampling length L, then the RMS value is given by
• CLA = (Summation of all the area above and the following formula:
below line)/ Sampling length
• R.M.S average= √[(h12+ h22+ h32+ …..+ hn2)/n]
• CLA = (A1+A2+A3+…+An)/L
= ∑A / L = √[∑hn2/n]

• Generally, R.M.S value is greater than C.L.A value for the

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Ten point height method

• Ten point height of irregularities (Rz) is defined as
the average difference between five highest
peaks and the five deepest valleys within the
sampling length measured from a line parallel to
the mean line and not crossing the profile.

Rz= (h1+h3+h5+h7+h9) – (h2+h4+h6+h8+h10)

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Peak to valley height method Form factor method

• Peak to valley height measures the maximum depth of
the surface irregularities over a given sample length • Form factor is obtained by measuring the area of
and the largest value of the depth is accepted for the material above the arbitrarily chosen base line in the
measurement. section and the area of the enveloping rectangle
• L1 and L2= Parallel lines which cut off peaks and valley
for the field of observation
• Degree of fullness (K)= Area of the metal
Rmax= Maximum peak to valley height in one sampling
Area of the enveloping rectangle
length.
Rt= Maximum peak to valley height within the
assessment length. • Degree of emptiness (Kp) = 1‐ k
V = Valley
P= Peak
h= Measure of peak to valley height
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Indication of surface finish or Texture in Engineering drawing Method of measuring surface finish / surface texture

• Direct instrument measurement

• Inspection by comparison

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Profilometer
Direct instrument measurement
• It is an indicating and recording instrument to measure the
roughness in microns
• These are the quantitative analysis methods • The main part of the instrument are a stylus and an
• These methods enable to determine the amplifier
numerical value of the surface finish of any • The stylus is attached to an induction coil located in the
surface by using instruments of stylus probe magnet
type operating on electrical principles
• When the stylus moved on the surface to be tested, it will
• Commonly used stylus probe instruments are
be displaced up and down due to irregularities in the
given below:
surface
 Profilometer
• This movement induces the induction coil to move in the
 Tomlinson surface meter
direction of a permanent magnet and it produces a voltage
• It is amplified further and operates an indicating device or
recorder.

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Inspection by comparison
• In this method the surface texture is assessed by the observation of surface.
• These are the qualitative analysis methods of the surface texture
• The surface to be tested is compared with the known value of roughness specimen.
• The various methods for comparison are given below
• Touch inspection
• Visual inspection
• Scratch inspection
• Microscopic inspection
• Micro‐ interferometer
• Surface photographs
• Reflected light intensity
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