CHEMISTRY CLASSES BY ANKUR SIR 7983744732

STRUCTURE OF ATOM

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Atoms are the fundamental building

blocks of matter.
Word ‗atom‘ is derived from the
Greek word ‗a-tomio‘ which means
‗un-cutable‘ or ‗non-divisible‘.
The atomic theory of matter was first
proposed by John Dalton. His theory,
called Dalton‘s atomic theory.

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Atoms

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Major Problems for the Scientists are

To account for the stability of atom after the discovery of sub-atomic

particles

To compare the behaviour of one element from another in terms of

physical and chemical properties

To explain the formation of different molecules by the combination of

different atoms

To understand characteristics of electromagnetic radiation absorbed

and emitted by atoms.

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Sub-atomic Particles
Dalton‘s atomic theory was able to explain the law of conservation of
mass, law of constant composition and law of multiple proportion
very successfully.
Dalton‘s atomic theory failed to explain that substances like glass
when rubbed with silk generate electricity.
Many different kinds of sub-atomic particles were discovered in the
twentieth century.

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Discovery of Electron
A cathode ray tube is made of glass, contains two thin pieces of metal, called
electrodes.
The electrical discharge through the gases could be observed only at low
pressures and at high voltages.
The pressure of gases can be adjusted by evacuation.
When voltage is applied across the electrodes, current starts flowing
through a stream of particles moving in the tube from cathode to the anode.
These were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.

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The current flow from cathode to anode was detected by making a hole
in the anode. When these rays, after passing through anode, strike the
Zinc Sulphide coating behind the anode with a bright spot on the
coating.

The structure of atom was obtained from the experiments on electrical

discharge through gases.

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Results of the Experiment
The cathode rays move towards the anode.
These rays are not visible but observed with the fluorescent or phosphorescent
materials which glow when hit by rays.
In the absence of electrical or magnetic field, these rays travel in straight lines.
In the presence of electrical or magnetic field, the behaviour of cathode rays
are similar to that of negatively charged particles.
The characteristics of cathode rays (electrons) do not depend upon the material
of electrodes and nature of the gas present in the cathode ray tube.

Thus, the electrons are basic

constituent of all atoms.

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Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron

J.J. Thomson measured the ratio of electrical charge (e) to the mass of
electron(me) by using cathode ray tube on applying electrical and
magnetic field perpendicular to each other and to the path of electrons.

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According to Thomson, the amount of deviation of the particles from their

path in the presence of electrical or magnetic field depends upon:

The magnitude of the negative charge on the particle, greater the

magnitude of the charge on the particle, greater is the interaction with
the electric or magnetic field and thus greater is the deflection.

The mass of the particle — lighter the particle, greater the deflection.

The strength of the electrical or magnetic field — the deflection of

electrons from its original path increases with the increase in the
voltage across the electrodes, or the strength of the magnetic field.

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When only Electric Field is applied, the electrons deviate from their
path and hit the cathode ray tube at Point A.
Similarly when only magnetic field is applied, electron strikes the
cathode ray tube at point C.
In the absence of electric or magnetic field and they hit the screen at
point B.
By accurate measurements on the amount of deflections we can
𝑒
determine the value of
𝑚𝑒

𝐞
= 1.758820 X 1011C Kg-1
𝐦𝐞

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Charge on the Electron
A method called Oil drop experiment was devised by R.A. Millikan
to determine the charge on the electrons.
Hence the charge of electron is 1.6022 X 10-19 C

𝑒 1.6022 X 10−19 C
me = 𝑒 = 11 −1
( ) 1.758820 X 10 C Kg
𝑚𝑒
Thus, the mass of the electron is me = 9.1094 X 10–31kg

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Discovery of Protons and Neutrons

 The smallest and lightest positive ion was obtained from hydrogen
are called protons.
 The electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than
that of the protons are called neutrons.
 Cathode ray tube experiment led to the discovery of positive charge
carriers which are known as canal rays.

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Discovery of Protons and Neutrons
Electrical discharge carried out in the modified cathode ray tube led to the
discovery of particles carrying positive charge, also known as canal rays.

Characteristics of the positively charged particles are:

The positively charged particles depend upon the nature of gas present in
the cathode ray tube.
Charge to mass ratio of the particles depends on the gas.
Some of the positive charged particles carry a multiple of the fundamental
unit of electrical charge.
The behaviour of these particles in the magnetic or electrical field is
opposite to that observed for electron or cathode rays.

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Atomic Models
Different atomic models were proposed to explain the distributions of
the charged particles in an atom. They are:

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J. J. Thomson proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape of

radius 10−10 m in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed.

In this model the mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly

distributed over the atom.

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Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest

Marsden) bombarded very thin gold foil with α–particles.

–particle Scattering Experiment

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–particle Scattering Experiment

The stream of high energy α–

particles from a radioactive source
was directed to thin foil of gold
metal.
The thin gold foil had a circular
fluorescent zinc sulphide screen
around it.
Whenever α–particles struck the
screen, a tiny flash of light was
produced at that point.

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The Results of Scattering Experiment are:
Most of the α– particles passed through the gold foil undeflected.
A small fraction of the α–particles was deflected by small angles.
A very few α– particles (∼1 in 20,000) bounced back, that is, were
deflected by nearly 180°.

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Thus, according to Rutherford nuclear model :

The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom was densely
concentrated in extremely small region. This very small portion of
the atom was called Nucleus.
The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the
nucleus with a very high speed in circular paths called Orbits.
Electrons and the nucleus are held together by Electrostatic forces of
attraction.

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Limitations of Thomson’s model

According to Thomson model of

atom, the mass of each gold atom
in the foil should have been
spread evenly over the entire
atom, and α–particles had enough
energy to pass directly through
such a uniform distribution of
mass

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Drawbacks of Rutherford Model are

It could not explain about the Electronic Structure of atoms i.e.,

how the electrons are distributed around the nucleus and what are
the energies of these electrons.
The Rutherford model cannot explain the Stability of an atom.

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Atomic Number
The number of protons present in the nucleus is equal to atomic number
(Z )

Atomic number (Z) = no. of protons in the nucleus of an atom

= no. of electrons in a neutral atom

Eg:
The number of protons in the Hydrogen nucleus is 1.
Its atomic number is 1.
The number of protons in the Sodium nucleus is 11.
Its atomic number is 11.

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Mass Number
The total number of nucleons present in nucleus is termed as mass
number(A)
Protons and neutrons present in the nucleus is known as nucleons.
Mass number (A) = no. of protons (Z) + no. of neutrons (n)

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Isobars
Isobars are the atoms with same atomic mass number but different
atomic number.
14
Eg: 6𝐶 and 147𝑁

Isotopes
Isotopes are the atoms with same atomic number but different atomic
mass number.
All the isotopes of a given element show same chemical behaviour.
Eg: 11𝐻 and 21𝐻 and 31𝐻

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According to Bohr‘s model of atom:

Dual character of the electromagnetic

radiation in which radiations possess both
wave like and particle like properties

Experimental results regarding atomic

spectra which can be explained only by
assuming quantized electronic energy
levels in atoms.

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Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
James Maxwell stated that when electrically charged particle moves under
acceleration, alternating electrical and magnetic fields are produced and
transmitted. These fields are transmitted in the forms of waves called
Electromagnetic waves or Electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic waves do not require medium and can move in

vacuum.
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Different regions of the spectrum in electromagnetic spectrum are

Radio frequency region around 106 Hz, used for broadcasting

Microwave region around 1010 Hz used for radar
Infrared region around 1013 Hz used for heating
Ultraviolet region around 1016 Hz a component of sun‘s radiation
Visible region around 1015 Hz

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Electromagnetic radiations are characterized by the frequency (ν) and

wavelength (λ).

The number of waves that pass a given point in one second is known
as Frequency(ν). SI unit for frequency is Hertz or 𝑠 −1

In vacuum all the electromagnetic radiations regardless of

wavelength travel at the same speed called Speed of Light(c)

The frequency (ν), wavelength (λ) and velocity of light (c) are related
by the equation
c = ν. λ
Wavenumber (ν ) is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit
length. Its units are reciprocal of wavelength unit, i.e., 𝑚−1

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Planck’s Quantum Theory

The observations which could not be explained with the help of even
the Electromagentic theory are:
The nature of emission of radiation from hot bodies ( Black –
Body Radiation).
Ejection of electrons from metal surface when radiation strikes it
(photoelectric effect).
Variation of heat capacity of solids as function of temperature.
Line spectra of atoms with special reference to hydrogen.

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The atoms and molecules could emit or absorb energy only in discrete
quantities and not in a continuous manner.

The smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the

form of electromagnetic radiation is called QUANTUM.

The energy (E ) of a quantum of radiation is proportional to its

frequency (ν) and is expressed by equation
E = hν

Where ‗h‘ is Planck‘s constant and its value is 6.626 X 10-34 J s

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When solids are heated they emit radiation over a wide range of
wavelengths

Consider an iron rod which is heated in a furnace, it turns to dull red and
then becomes more and more red as the temperature increases. As this is
heated further, the radiation emitted becomes white and then becomes
blue as the temperature becomes very high.

The ideal body , which emits and absorbs radiations of all

frequencies is called a Black Body and the radiation emitted by
such TUTORIALS
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At a given temperature, intensity of radiation emitted increases with
decrease of wavelength, then reaches a maximum value at a given
wavelength and then starts decreasing with increase of wavelength.

Thus Planck in his theory explained about the distribution of intensity in

the radiation from black body as a function of frequency or wavelength at
different
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When UV light is ejected onto a piece of metal, a small current flows

through the metal.

The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam
of light strikes the surface
The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or
brightness of light.
Photoelectric effect is not observed below threshold frequency V0.
At a frequency ν>ν0 , the ejected electrons come out with certain
kinetic energy. The kinetic energies of these electrons increase with
the increase of frequency of the light used.
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At a frequency ν>ν0 , the ejected electrons come out with certain

kinetic energy.
The kinetic energies of these electrons increase with the increase of
frequency of the light.
The number of electrons ejected and kinetic energy of the beam of
light depends upon the brightness of the light.

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Einstein explained the photoelectric effect using Planck‘s quantum

theory of electromagnetic radiation

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The study of emission and absorption spectra is referred to as

spectroscopy
The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed
energy is called an Emission Spectrum
A continuous radiation is passed through a sample which absorbs
radiation of certain wavelengths, thus missing wavelength corresponds
to the radiation absorbed by the matter which leaves dark spaces in the
bright continuous spectrum. This is referred as Absorption Spectra

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The spectrum of white light, which ranges from violet at 7.5 𝑥1014 Hz to
red at 4 𝑥1014 Hz is called Continuous Spectrum.

The emission spectra of atoms in the gas phase, do not show a continuous
spread of wavelength from red to violet, rather they emit light only at
specific wavelengths with dark spaces between them. Such spectra are
called Line Spectra or Atomic Spectra

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Neils Bohr explained the general features of hydrogen atom structure and
its spectrum.
Bohr‘s model for hydrogen atom is based on the following postulates:
The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a
circular path of fixed radius and energy. These paths are called Orbits,
stationary states or allowed energy states. These orbits are
arranged concentrically around the nucleus.
The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time.
When electron moves from a lower stationary state to a higher
stationary state then required amount of energy is absorbed by the
electron or energy is emitted when electron moves from higher
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stationary state to lower stationary state .
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The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition

occurs between two stationary states that differ in energy by ΔE, is

where 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are the energies of the lower and higher allowed energy
states.

The angular momentum of an electron in a given stationary state can

be expressed as

Thus an electron can move only in those orbits for which angular
ℎ
momentum is integral multiple of
2𝜋
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Bohr‘s Model for Hydrogen Atom

A photon is emitted when the electron drops from a larger i.e., higher
energy orbit to a smaller i.e., lower energy orbit.

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Bohr‘s Theory for Hydrogen Atom
The stationary states for electron are numbered n = 1,2,3.......... These integral
numbers are known as Principal quantum numbers.
The radii of the stationary states are expressed as
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝑎0

Thus the radius of the first stationary state, called the Bohr radius is 52.9 pm
As n increases the value of r will increase .
The energy of stationary state of electron is given by the expression
1
𝐸𝑛 = −𝑅𝐻 ( )
𝑛2

where 𝑅𝐻 is called Rydberg constant and its value is 2.18𝑥10−18 𝐽 .

The energies and radius of the stationary states associated with the ions
𝐻𝑒 + ,𝐿𝑖 +2 , 𝐵𝑒 +3 known as hydrogen like species are given by
2
1 𝑛2
𝐸𝑛 = −𝑍 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 ) 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑎
𝑛 𝑍 0

where Z is the atomic number

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Line Spectrum of Hydrogen

When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen, the H2
molecules dissociate and the energetically excited hydrogen atoms
produced emit electromagnetic radiation of discrete frequencies.
The series of lines described by this formula are called the Balmer series.
where n is an integer equal to or greater than 3 (i.e., n = 3,4,5,....)

v = 1/λ = R (1/n12 - 1/n22)

where n1 and n2 are integers and R is now known as the Rydberg constant
(value = 10973731.534 m¯1)

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Spectral Lines for Atomic Hydrogen

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Limitations of Bohr’s Model

• It fails to account the finer details of the hydrogen atom spectrum
observed by using spectroscopic techniques.
• It is also unable to explain the spectrum of atoms other than
hydrogen i.e., helium atom which possesses only two electrons.
• It could not explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of
magnetic field or electric field.
• It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by
chemical bonds.

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Two important developments which contributed significantly in the

formulation of an effective model were :

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• De Broglie (a French physicist) proposed that matter also exhibit dual

behavior i.e., both particle and wavelike properties.
• As the photon has momentum as well as wavelength, electrons should
also have momentum as well as wavelength.
• Relation between wavelength (λ) and momentum (p) of a material
particle

where,
m is the mass of the particle
v its velocity
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p its momentum
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Werner Heisenberg a German physicist stated uncertainty principle .It is

the consequence of dual behavior of matter and radiation.
It states that it is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact
position and exact momentum (or velocity) of an electron.

Δx is the uncertainty in position

Δpx is the uncertainty in momentum of the particle
BALAJIΔv x is the uncertainity in
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Significance of Uncertainty Principle
The effect of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is significant only for
motion of microscopic objects and is negligible for that of
macroscopic objects

It rules out existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons and

other similar particles
Let us apply Uncertainty principle is applied to an object of mass(10-6
Kg)

Therefore in dealing with milligram-sized or heavier objects, the

associate uncertainties are hardly of any real significance.
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Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the study of

the motions of the microscopic objects that have both wave and
particle properties

The fundamental equation of quantum mechanics was developed by

Schrödinger

Where is mathematical operator called Hamiltonian

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Hydrogen Atom and the Schrödinger Equation

Schrödinger equation is solved for hydrogen atom, the solution gives the
possible energy levels that an electron can occupy and the corresponding
wave functions of the electron associated with each energy level

These quantized energy states with wave functions are characterized by a

set of three quantum numbers
• Principal Quantum Number
• Azimuthal Quantum Number l
• Magnetic Quantum Number ml

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When an electron is in any energy state, the wave function

corresponding to that energy state contains all information about the
electron.

The wave functions of hydrogen or hydrogen like species with one

electron are called atomic orbitals.

Probability of finding an electron at a point within an atom is

proportional to the

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Important features of the quantum-mechanical model of atom:

The energy of electrons in atoms is quantized

The existence of quantized electronic energy levels is a direct result of
the wave like properties of electrons and are allowed solutions of
Schrödinger wave equation.
Both the exact position and exact velocity of an electron in an atom
cannot be determined simultaneously.
An atomic orbital is the wave function ψ for an electron in an atom.

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Important features of the quantum-mechanical model of atom:

The probability of finding an electron at a point within an atom is

proportional to the square of the orbital wave function i.e., | ψ|2
| ψ|2 is known as probability density and is always positive.
From the value of | ψ |2 at different points within an atom, it is possible
to predict the region around the nucleus where electron will most
probably be found

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Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

Atomic orbitals are precisely distinguished by quantum numbers

The Principal Quantum number determines the size and to large

extent the energy of the orbital.
With the increase in the value of ‗n‘, the number of allowed orbital
increases and are given by n2

All the orbitals of a given value of ‗n‘ constitute a single shell of

atom and are represented by the letters
n = 1 2 3 4 ............
Shell = K L M N ............

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Azimuthal Quantum Number( l )
Azimuthal Quantum Number( l ) defines the three dimensional shape of
the orbital.
For a given value of n, l can have n values ranging from 0 to n – 1, that is,
for a given value of n, the possible value of l are : l= 0, 1, 2, .......... (n–1)

For n= 1, the value of ‗ l ’ is only 0

For n= 2, the value of ‘ l ’ is 0 and 1
For n= 3, the ‘ l ’ values are 0, 1 and 2

Value for l : 0 1 2 3 4 5......

Notation for sub-shell : s p d f g h......

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Magnetic Orbital Quantum(ml) number gives information about the
spatial orientation of the orbital with respect to standard set of co-ordinate
axis

For any sub-shell (defined by ‗l ‘ value) 2l+1 values ml are possible

ml = -l, -(l-1),-(l-2)….0,1,….(l-2),(l-1),l

For l = 1, ml can be –1, 0 and +1 [2(1)+1 = 3, three p orbitals]

Thus each orbital in an atom is defined by a set of values for n, l and ml

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Electron spin quantum number (ms) describes the spin (intrinsic angular
momentum) of the electron within that orbital, and gives the projection
of the spin angular momentum S along the specified axis.

The two orientations distinguished by the spin quantum numbers are

+1/2 or –1/2

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The four quantum numbers provide the following information:

n defines the shell, determines the size of the orbital and also to a
large extent the energy of the orbital.
l identifies the sub-shell and determines the shape of the orbital . l
also determines the energy of the orbital in a multi-electron atom.
ml designates the orientation of the orbital.
ms refers to orientation of the spin of the electron.

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Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

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The region where the probability density function reduces to zero is called nodal
surfaces or simply nodes and ns-orbital has (n – 1) nodes.

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Energies of Orbitals
The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is determined solely by the
principal quantum number.
The energy of the orbitals increases as follows :

1s< 2s= 2p < 3s= 3p = 3d <4s = 4p = 4d = 4f<

An electron has the same energy when it is in the 2s orbital and in 2p orbital. The
orbitals having the same energy are called degenerate.

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Energies of Orbitals
The 1s in a hydrogen atom, corresponds to the most stable condition and is
called the ground state and an electron residing in this orbital is most
strongly held by the nucleus. An electron in the 2s, 2p or higher orbitals in a
hydrogen atom is in excited state.

The lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital, the lower is its energy. If two
orbitals have the same value of (n + l), the orbital with lower value of n will
have the lower energy.

Energies of the orbitals in the same subshell decrease with increase in the
atomic number

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Filling of Orbitals in Atom

The filling takes place according to the aufbau principle which is based
on the
Pauli‘s exclusion principle,
the Hund‘s rule of maximum multiplicity
the relative energies of the orbital.

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This principle states that in the

ground state of the atoms, the orbitals
are filled in order of their increasing
energies
The order in which the orbitals are
filled is as follows
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d,
5p, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s…….

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According to this principle ―Only two electrons may exist in the same
orbital and these electrons must have opposite spin.‖

No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers.

The maximum number of electrons in the shell with principal quantum

number n is equal to 2𝑛2 .

This principle states that pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging

to the same sub shell (p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital
belonging to that sub shell has got one electron each.
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Electronic Configuration of Atoms
Distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called Electronic
Configuration

The electronic configuration of different atoms can be represented in

two ways.
sapbdc …………notation
Orbital diagram….

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Causes of Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled
Sub-shells
The completely filled and completely half filled sub-shells are stable
due to the following reasons:

The completely filled or half filled sub-shells have

symmetrical distribution of electrons in them.
Therefore more stable.

The electrons exchange their positions when two or

more electrons with same spin present in degenerate
orbitals of sub-shell and the energy released due to
this exchange is called exchange energy. The
exchange energy is maximum and so is the stability
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