ORGAN SYSTEMS IN REPRESENTATIVE ANIMALS

Animals are arguably the most complex organism on this planet. The body is made up of many,
many millions of cells which you cannot see unless you use a microscope. Special cells come together to
make an organ.

Figure 1. Cellular Organization

An organ is a complex structure within the body. It has a special job or jobs to do. The body
system is a group of parts that work together to serve a common purpose. Each individual body system
works in conjunction with other body system. It relies on the other systems to work well to maintain
internal stability and balance, otherwise known as homeostasis.

Tissues, Organs, & Systems

Multi-cellular organisms have many cells that work together in specific ways, each group
performing certain functions. When each group does its part, the organism gets everything that
it needs. A Tissue is a large group of cells that all have the same purpose or function. Each kind of
cell has unique characteristics such as shape, size, flexibility, color and texture. Nerve cell
combined with other nerve cell to make nerve tissue. Muscle cell combined with other muscle
cell to make muscle tissue. Bone cell combine with other bone cell to make bone tissue. An Organ
is a group of tissues that work together to do a certain job for the body. Some of the human body’s
organs include the stomach, lungs, heart, kidneys, brain and liver. Some of a plant’s organs include
roots, stems, fruit and leaves. When several different organs join to meet the organism’s needs,
they are working together in an organ system.
 The Animal Organ Systems

• Digestive System
Animal nutrition is the process of taking in, taking apart and taking up the nutrients from
the food source. Food processing has four main stages: Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, and
Elimination or Egestion. In animals with complete digestive system, where the entrance and exit
of food and waste are different, they have different kind of mechanisms of ingestion depending
on their evolutionary adaptation to their food. In other animals like cnidarians (jellyfish, anemone,
coral) where the entrance and exit of food and waste is the same, the region where this occurs is
called the gastrovascular cavity.

• Respiratory System
The respiratory system facilitates breathing. In the alveoli tissue of the lungs, the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules between the air and the bloodstream occurs
by passive transport, so that the oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide and water are removed.
Gas exchange is very important to animals, as they require oxygen in the production of higher
amount of energy compared to process of production of energy without oxygen. Air as a
respiratory medium- As air is lighter and has more oxygen content compared to the same volume
of water, ventilation is not much of a problem of terrestrial organisms. The tracheal system of
 insects- It has a branched network of tracheal tube which responds to the problem of decreased
surface area in the respiratory structure.
The tracheal system opens externally through the side of the insect through a structure
called a spiracle. Air enters and exit through the spiracles. As the respiratory system of insects are
independent from their circulatory system, gases are directly exchanged through tracheoles
which have extensions that are directly connected to the cells. Air sacs act like aspirator which
takes in and push out air out of the body of the insects.

The mammalian respiratory system- Compared to insects, mammals and other organisms
have respiratory system that work together with their circulatory system. Gases are transported
via bloodstream and are exchanged via diffusion.

• Circulatory System
There are different ways in which animals transport substances across their body. In
animals with closed circulatory system, the circulatory fluid does not go out of the vessel.
Exchange occurs through diffusion via thinner vessels called capillaries across the interstitial fluid.
Different animals, have adapted different mechanisms in transport such as in fishes where a single
circulation is enough. Compared to cnidarians, the gastrovascular cavity of flatworms have
extensions in order to reach areas of the body far from the axis. Without these extensions of the
gastrovascular cavity, diffusion might not be enough in the transport of substances. Amphibian
double circulation differs from mammalian, crocodilian and avian as blood is mixed. The presence
of one ventricle does not prevent the mixing of blood, unlike in the four-chambered heart of a
mammal, crocodilian and an avian where the ventricle is divided into two. Mixing of blood does
not have major implication on amphibians as:
1) They have low metabolic rate, thus, less need for energy.
2) They have the ability to respire through their skin, thus not needing to fully oxygenate
the blood through the lungs.

• Urinary System
In order to remove wastes, animals have the excretory system, which enables it to
remove excess salt or water in the body. Waste removal follows the following processes:
1.) Filtration- the mass movement of water and solutes from plasma to the renal tubule that
occurs in the renal corpuscles.
2.) Reabsorption- the movement of water and solutes from tubule back into the plasma.
3.) Secretion- the continuous secretion of additional substances into the tubular fluid, and
4.) Excretion- it is what goes to the urine, elimination of wastes
Organisms have different wastes in the form of nitrogenous wastes which they need to
excrete. Different organisms have different excretory systems, such as the protonephridia of
flatworms where a network of dead-end tubules lacking internal openings, metanephridia of
annelids which consist of ciliated funnel opening into the body cavity connected to a duct which
may be variously glandularised, folded or expanded and which typically opens to the organisms
exterior, malpighian tubules of insects, any of the excretory organs that lie in the abdominal body
cavity and empty into the junction between midgut and hindgut and the nephrons of humans and
 mammals which actually removing waste and excess substances from the blood through
urination.

• Immune System
The immune system is a complex network of cells and protein that defends the body
against infection. It defends the internal environment from invading microorganisms and viruses,
as well as cancerous cell growth. The immune system provides cells that aid in protection of the
body from disease via antigen/antibody response. A variety of general responses are also part of
this system.

• Endocrine System

The integral parts of the endocrine system include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal
body, thyroid and parathyroid gland, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas and ovary that make hormones.
Hormones are substances which can cause a reaction to a cell, in Greek it literally means to excite. It is
secreted into extracellular fluid such in blood or lymph and transported to target cells to elicit a specific
response, which can be rapid or slow. The growth and development of the body are examples of slow and
long- term effect of a hormone while circadian rhythm which is responsible for the sleep and-wake cycles
respond to a more rapid response to a hormone. In an endocrine pathway, the reaction involves an
endocrine cell, which releases the hormone to the bloodstream or the lymphatic system, which can attach
to receptors of a target cell.

• Nervous System

The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous
system is composed of corresponding structures outside of these two organs of the nervous system. The
central nervous system is responsible for data/information processing which is gathered by the peripheral
nervous system. Upon processing, the CNS transmit the message again to the PNS, which then convey the
message for the appropriate response. The nervous system has evolved in increasing complexity
throughout the different groups of animals. Connections among the neurons has increased, as seen in the
development of the nervous system from a simple nerve net to a system with ganglia (group of neuron)
to encephalized organisms where concentration of neurons are centered in a head. Below shows the
changes in the nervous system of organisms:

• Muscular System

The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal muscles which are composed of
muscle cells called the muscle fiber, the cardiac muscle or the heart muscle with involuntary kind of
movement, and the smooth muscle which is controlled directly by the autonomic nervous system. The
skeletal muscle is organized from its largest structure (the muscle tissue itself) to its functional unit (the
sarcomere) as a repeating longitudinal structure that is bound together. Contraction is possible because
of the structural organization of protein molecules that makes up the sarcomere. When contraction
occurs, the sarcomere shortens, and this is reflected in the contraction of a muscle (tell the students to
flex their biceps and ask them if their muscle shortened). In terms of the molecular and physiological
process of contraction, nerve impulse transmission is needed to depolarize the cell membrane of the
muscle to stimulate contraction.
• Skeletal System
It provides support and protection, and attachment points for muscles. The skeletal
system provides rigid framework for movement. It supports and protects the body and its parts,
produces blood cells, and stores minerals. A clam’s shell is an example of an exoskeleton and the
bones and cartilage in a human is an example of an endoskeleton. An endoskeleton should not be
misconceived to be only made up of bones, as even in humans, our skeletons are made up of
cartilage and bones, while shark’s endoskeleton is made up of cartilage. We have different bones
which our muscles can pull to create movement, and the different types of joints are responsible
for different movement that our body can create.

FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE DIFFERENT ORGAN SYSTEMS IN ENSURING ANIMAL

SURVIVAL

There are several different organ systems constantly working in most multi cellular
organisms. You are probably familiar with some of the human body systems. The respiratory
system includes the lungs and all the body parts that allow us to breathe in oxygen and exhale
carbon dioxide. The circulatory system includes the heart and all the body parts that help move
blood around the body. The blood, in turn, carries nutrients and oxygen to all the cells of the body.
The respiratory and circulatory systems work very closely together. The digestive system helps to
get nutrients from the food that we eaten and stored energy for future use. The excretory system
helps remove waste product that would otherwise harm the body. Each of the body’s systems is
necessary for the overall health of the body. As the body’s building blocks, cells join to make
tissues. Tissues join to make organs. Organs join to make systems. They are all arranged to ensure
the organism’s survival.

The body of an animal consist of various organ systems. Each contains several specific
organs. An organ is a unique anatomic structure consisting of groups of tissues that work in
concert to perform specific function. There are various systems in the animal’s body: muscular
system, respiratory system, digestive system, skeletal system, circulatory (or cardiovascular)
system, excretory (or urinary) system, reproductive system, nervous system, Immune system, and
endocrine system. Each system has a special job. All of the body systems have to work together
to keep them healthy. The bones and muscles work together to support and move the body. The
respiratory system takes in oxygen from the air. It also gets rid of carbon dioxide. The digestive
system absorbs water and nutrients from the food we eat. The circulatory system carries oxygen,
water, and nutrients to cells throughout the body. Wastes from the cells are eliminated by the
respiratory system, the excretory system, and the skin. The nervous system controls all these
activities with electrical impulses. If any system in the animals isn’t working properly, other
systems are affected.

Each Body System Works with the Others

Each individual body system works in conjunction with other body systems. The
circulatory system is a good example of how body systems interact with each other. The heart
pumps blood through a complex network of blood vessels. When the blood circulates through the
digestive system, for example, it picks up nutrients the body absorbed from the last meal. The
blood also carries oxygen inhaled by the lungs. The circulatory system delivers oxygen and
nutrients to the other cells of the body then picks up any waste products created by these cells,
including carbon dioxide, and delivers these waste products to the kidneys and lungs for disposal.
Meanwhile, the circulatory system carries hormones from the endocrine system, and the immune
system’s white blood cells that fight off infection.

Each of the body systems relies on the others to work well. The respiratory system relies
on the circulatory system to deliver the oxygen it gathers, while the muscles of the heart cannot
function without the oxygen they receive from the lungs. The bones of the skull and spine protect
the brain and spinal cord, but the brain regulates the position of the bones by controlling the
muscles. The circulatory system provides the brain with a constant supply of oxygen-rich blood
while the brain regulates the heart rate and blood pressure.

Even seemingly unrelated body systems are connected. The skeletal system relies on the
urinary system to remove waste produced by bone cells; in return, the bones of the skeleton
create structure that protects the bladder and other urinary system organs. The circulatory
system delivers oxygen rich blood to the bones. Meanwhile, the bones are busy making new
blood cells. Working together, these systems maintain internal stability and balance, otherwise
known as homeostasis.