Communication

Communication is used between people so as to send / receive information.

Communication is used to communicate each other.
Communication can be:
1- Communication media
2- Mobile communication

Examples of communication systems in ICT technology:

1- Newsletters and posters
2- Websites
3- Multimedia presentations
4- Media streaming
5- E-publications.
All these can be considered as a Communication media.
Communication media
1- Newsletters and posters
Newsletters and posters are produced using a word processor.
The newsletter or poster will have photos.
Photos are either: taken or downloaded from the internet.
Steps to produce a document on a computer system:
1- Open a word-processor application.
2- Take/get photos by:
a digital camera.
searching images/photos on the internet.
using hard copy photos.
3- Or upload images from a camera.
4- Save all Photos as files on the HDD or SSD.
5- Import the photos from the HDD/SSD.
6- Edit the photos: cropping, editing , resizing.
7- Type Text (by a keyboard or import a saved text).
8- Placed photos in the correct position and wrap the text.
9- Finally, proofreading the whole document for errors, save, then it’s ready
for printing.
We also use a spell checker to ensure no mistakes found.
Why do we use the spell checker?
We use a spell checker because of:

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1- Using a different language.
2- Names or proper nouns might be incorrect by the spell checker, but may be
acceptable.
3- Similar sounding words need to be checked (like: where, were or wear).
4- The (correct) highlighted word may not exist in the spell checker dictionary.

A newsletter is a useful method to get important information to a target group.

Newsletters are either:
1- printed out (papers).
2- or online (e-publication).

Advantages of newspapers (printed document):

1- Handed personally.
2- Target a group directly.

Disadvantages of newspapers:
1- Not sure that they have read it.
2- Easily dropped.
Attractive newsletter is important.
Features of an attractive newsletter:
1- Do not display much information onto one page.
2- Use: clear, easy-to-read, a suitable size font.
3- Use columns.
4- Avoid using capital letters (means be ‘shouting’).
5- Use bold text in headings.
6- Use real photos (not clip art).

Posters are a good way of publicising.

Features of Posters:
1- What and where the event is.
2- Date, time and place of event.
3- Fees.
4- Contact details.
5- Other information (like: facilities for people).

Example of a poster: A movie poster includes:

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 1- An image from the movie to give an idea of the movie type
2- Date of release.
3- List of main characters.

Posters are printed out using high-quality printers or posted online.

Posters must be placing in strategic positions to target certain people.
Advantages of printed Posters:
1- Can be any size
2- Large size
3- Are eye-catching (seen from anywhere)
4- Difficult to miss.

Disadvantages of printed Posters:

1- High cost.
2- Subject to weather conditions.
3- Limited life.
2- Websites
Websites are used for advertising. This method requires a company to:
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 1- Develop their own website
2- or pay to advertise on another company website.

The first option - Develop their own website - requires the company to:
1- Employ a team of web designers.
2- or go to a specialist company.
The company may also need to:
1- Buy hardware and software to develop / store the website.
2- Use programmers (to be from hackers and attacks).
This method is expensive, but the cost does not stop there.
It has, however, become much easier and cheaper for individuals or small
organisations to create and host their own website, using off-the-shelf content
management systems to organise content, and pay hosting fees to rent space
on a web server.

The big advantage to websites is:

1- Offering worldwide advertising capability
2- No need to buy paper and other consumables
3- No need to pay people to deliver newsletters or flyers.
Before deciding which is the best way to advertise their goods or services,
companies have to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of both
methods.
Websites are used to advertise goods or services for national or international
coverage.
Advantages and disadvantages of using websites for communication
(The main reasons for using websites, rather than newsletters or posters for
advertising products and services)

1- Adding sound/video/animation.
2- Using: links, hyperlinks and hot spots to navigate.
3- Using buttons to navigate/move around.
Advantages 4- Using counters to know people who visited the website.
5- Seen by a global audience.
6- Cannot be dropped.
7- Easier to update a website information.
Disadvantages 1- can be hacked or attacked by viruses.

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 2- Risk of potential pharming.
3- Customers should have a computer and internet
connection.
4- Not portable (can be taken)
5- Customers can go to undesirable websites.
6- Needs to maintain the website (expensive).
7- Hard to target the correct audience.
8- People need to find out about the website.

3- Multimedia presentations
Presentations are produced using a software package then used with a
multimedia projector so the audience can see the presentation.

Presentations are:
1- Interesting Presentations: uses animation, video and sound or music.
2- Static presentations: are without them.

Advantages of multimedia presentations

1) Uses sound – animation-video effects.
2) Have hyperlinks in the presentation.
3) Uses transition effects.
4) Can be interactive.
5) More flexible (because of the links).

Disadvantages of multimedia presentations

1) Needs special equipment (can be expensive).
2) Danger of equipment fail while presenting.
3) May need internet access.
4) Danger of focusing on the medium rather than the message.
5) very easy to make a bad presentation with many animations.

4- Media streaming

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Streaming is a continuous transmission of video or audio files from a remote
server using the internet.
Media streaming is watching movies/videos or listen to music (media files) on
devices connected to the internet.
When using media streaming no need to download and save the video or audio
files (media files).This means data is transmitted and played in real time.
When downloading the user needs to store the file on the computer’s HDD or
SSD, so to watch the video or listen to the music later.
This uses up valuable storage space and download times for a two-hour video
can be up to one hour, depending on the internet speed and the video quality.
With streaming, the file is sent as a series of packets of data.Each packet is
interpreted by the web browser. Streaming only works well if the internet speed
is stable.

Data packets are buffered in the computer, because the playback of the media
files is faster than the rate of data that received over the internet.
Buffering ensure that the video plays back smoothly without freezing.
While the buffer is receiving data packets, it will send the data from the previous
data packets to the playback device. So, it appears with no gaps in the received
data. When having a large buffer will reduce the freezing of the play back.

5- E-publications

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Most material which is published on paper is also available in an electronic
format. For example:
 e-books
 digital magazines
 digital newspapers
 digital libraries.

The publication can be downloaded to a device connected to the internet or it

can be read. E-publications are cheaper than paper-based, because of no
printing costs. Swiping a finger across the screen to move between pages.

Advantages:
1- Pages can be expanded in size
2- Can includes media (not in traditional paper-based).

Specific devices are developed to allow a library of e-books to be stored on the

device (like: The Kindle).

Mobile communication
Mobile phones communicate by using towers inside many cells (distance is to
cover), these cells networked together to cover large areas.
The towers allow the transmission of data throughout the mobile phone network.

Each tower transmits within its own cell (distance is to cover). If you are driving
a car and get to the edge of a cell, the mobile phone signal starts to weaken.

This is recognized by the network and the mobile phone then picks up the signal
in one of the adjacent cells.

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If a person is making a call or sending a text to somebody in a different country,
then satellite technology is used to enable the communication to take place.
Mobile devices either use:
1- a SIM (subscriber identity module) card to allow it to connect to the
mobile phone cellular network
2- or use wireless internet connectivity.

Mobile devices have the following features:

 SMS (short message service) messaging
 phone calls
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) communication
 video calling
 internet access.

SMS (text) messaging:

SMS or text messaging allows a very quick communicating with another
person by typing on a virtual keyboard.

Its advantage is:

1- The receiver does not need to be available
2- can pick up the message when he wants.
SMS/text messaging between phones using the same cellular network may be
free-of-charge.
SMS/text messaging features:
1) Quicker and less expensive than phone calls.
2) Sent at any time (even if the recipient’s phone is switched off).``
3) Predictive texting (system completes a word from the first few letters).
Phone calls
Used to make a phone call.
Mobile phone used anywhere (are so small and have their own power source),
provided by a network signal.
Landline systems are still not as stable more than Mobile phone networks.
Using mobile phones to make phone calls has the following advantages:
1) No need for an operational public telephone in an emergency.
2) Conducting business or personal phone calls on the move.
3) Contact with co-workers no matter where you are.

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Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and video calling
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a method used to make phone calls using
the internet (a form of internet telephony).
VoIP converts sound, picked up by the mobile internal microphone, into discrete
digital data packets to be sent to their destination via the internet.
The internet can be accessed by:
1- a mobile phone network
2- or a broadband network.
The voice calls are sent over the internet using VoIP technology.

Advantages:
1) Free.
2) Using cameras make video call
3) VoIP uses built-in microphones, speakers and cameras to build a sample of
video conference.
This when users can dial into a virtual meeting room which makes it cheaper
than video conferencing (like using Zoom).
This relies on good broadband or mobile phone network coverage.
Zoom is a cloud-based video calling service that allows live video chatting on
any device

Disadvantages:
1) Sound quality.
2) Security issues (viruses, malware,
spamming and phishing attacks).

Video calls permit:

1) Live video and audio chat
2) Screen-sharing during the call
3) Recording during sessions

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Internet access
Accessing internet from a mobile device is another valuable feature.
Mobile device can connect to the internet by:
1- a wireless broadband connection
2- or the mobile phone network.

Internet pages that displayed on mobile phones are often different to those on
desktop or laptop computers (because of the use of smaller screens).
Mobile devices can also automatically select wireless broadband connectivity
when connecting to the internet.

The advantages of Internet access:

1) Less expensive.
2) Lower power consumption.
3) Quality of service (Wi-Fi usually offers greater bandwidth than the mobile
phone network).

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 Computer controlled systems
Robotics in manufacturing

Robots are used in many areas of manufacturing (like: paint spraying of car
bodies).
Controlling robots is either by:
1- Embedded (built-in) microprocessors
2- or linked to a computer system.

Programming of the robot (to do a series of tasks) is done in two ways:

1) Programming The robot with a sequence of instructions to carry out the series of
tasks (like: spraying a car body).
2) Human operator manually carries out the series of tasks.

Human operator manually carries out the series of tasks in two ways:
1) The robot arm is guided by a worker (movement of the arm is stored as an
instruction in the computer).
OR
2) The worker straps sensors to his own arm and sprays the object (movement is
stored as a set of instructions in a computer)

Once the instructions are saved, each series of tasks can be performed by a robot
arm automatically. Each instruction will be carried out identically every time giving a
consistent product.
Robots are equipped with sensors to gather information about their surroundings
and prevent them from doing ‘stupid things’.
Robots are very good at repetitive tasks, but not in different tasks to carry out.
human operators are better in different tasks to carry out, but not in repetitive tasks.
Advantages in using robots
1) Working in harmful environments to human.
2) Non-stop working (24/7).
3) Less expensive in the long term.
4) Have higher productivity (no holidays, etc.).
5) Provide greater consistency.
6) Doing boring, repetitive tasks (leaving humans free to do other more skilled
work).

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 7) Can carry out different tasks by fitting them with different end-effectors.

Disadvantages in using robots

1) Difficult to do ‘unusual’ tasks.
2) Cause unemployment.
3) A risk of certain skills can be lost, because robots do many of the tasks.
4) Factories can be moved anywhere in the world.
5) Expensive in initial set-up and maintenance.

Production line control

Production line control using robots is used extensively in industry.
The production line will be continuous, with various robots at each station given a
specific task.

For example:
 filling bottles with a liquid.
 filling metal cans with baked beans.

Using robots in this way (Production line) leads to:

1) Faster operations.
2) Greater productivity.
3) Greater consistency.
4) Built-in quality control.
5) Reduced cost to the consumer.

Example:
How robots used in a bottling plant:
1) Sensor 1 (a pressure sensor, light sensor or camera) used to detect a bottle;
then, it sends signals back to the computer.
2) The computer sends a signal to an actuator to open a valve to fill the bottle.
3) Sensor 2 (a level sensor) is used to detect the correct liquid height in the
bottle. It sends continuous signals back to the computer.

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4) When sensor 2 indicates the bottle is full, the computer sends a signal to an
actuator to close the valve.
5) Then the computer sends another signal to a second actuator which operates
a motor to move the conveyer belt to allow the next empty bottle to take its
correct position.
6) The whole process is continuous until stopped for maintenance, errors
occurring or a change in the process.

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 School management systems
Schools manage a number of daily different tasks like:
a) Registration and attendance records of students
b) Student performance
c) Computer-aided learning.

a) Registration and attendance records of students

Completing registers at schools is to record the registration and attendance of a
student every day.

Disadvantages of this method:

1- A very time consuming.
2- Makes errors (like: when student’s name missed at some point during the
registration process).

Recently the ways of registration process using hardware and software are:
1) Method 1: Using ID card
2) Method 2: using biometrics

Method 1: Using ID card

Issue each student with an ID card.

It contains a magnetic stripe at the back.
The magnetic stripe contains information about the
student like: the name of the school, the name of the
student, the student’s data of birth and their unique ID
(registration) number.

Using ID Cards:
1- Every morning the student arrives at school and swipe the ID card through a
magnetic card reader.
2- The data read from ID Card to match and to identify the student record.
3- Entered the time and date.
4- Stored data on the database.
5- On leaving the school, the ID card would again be swiped.

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Recording the leaving time and date on the database give a detailed record of
when the student attended the school and the number of hours they attended.
It would also be a more secure method in the event of, for example, a fire.
Using the paper-based system, a student could register then just go home, but with
an ID card system, the student’s attendance would be known at all times.
The school would now be able to account for every student on the school premises.
At the end of a semester (or school year), the database could be interrogated and it
would give an accurate attendance record for the student.
This attendance record could then be sent out to parents or checked by teachers
on a regular basis.

There are many functions that could be used using ID Cards such as:
1) using of a PIN (stops another student swiping in with the wrong card).
2) using of GPS tracking (requires to add a chip in the ID card to use the
tracking system).

Method 2: using biometrics

Each student must record their fingerprints.

Their personal details and fingerprints will be stored on a database.
When a student entered the school, they will put their hand on a scanner to read
their fingerprints.
This system is very secure, because each student has unique fingerprints
The date and time of entering or leaving the school are accurately recorded on the
database.

Advantages of using biometrics compared to use of magnetic ID cards:

1) Fingerprints are unique, so it is impossible to sign in pretending to be
someone else (with magnetic cards, a student may give their card to a friend
and ask them to sign in for them) – this gives more accurate data and
improved security.
2) ID cards can be lost – fingerprints cannot be lost.
3) ID cards can be affected by magnetic fields (may not working properly).
4) Easier to ‘clone’ ID cards (make copies of) - but cannot copy fingerprints.

Disadvantages using biometrics compared to use of magnetic ID cards:

1) Takes a long time to collect the fingerprints.

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 2) The fingerprints devices are more expensive than magnetic stripe readers.
3) Losing a finger.
4) Privacy issues (students and parents may object to having fingerprints stored
on a database).

b) Student performance

Teachers use spreadsheets to record the test results of each student over a
term/year so, as to monitor the performance of their students.
spreadsheets can import data into a report.
School management systems are used to record the performance of students.
Performance can consist of both academic and behavior data.
To produce report (end-of-term or end-of-year), the system has to access to the
following data:

1) Student’s exam and test results in all subjects.

2) Behavioural data.
3) CAT scores (are standardisation test results).

After processing this data, the system could produce:

 The average grades for all students in a class
 Class and year group reports (showing academic and behavioural
performance).

c) Computer-aided learning
Computer-aided learning (CAL) is using of computer-based systems in teaching
students.
They are designed to enhance (but and not replace) traditional classroom teaching.
Students use computers for their learning and complete online tests to monitor their
performance. If a student encounters a problem CAL cannot always help the
student, so students have to get additional help.

Advantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process

1) Students can learn when they want to and at their own pace.
2) Allows using of virtual reality (VR).
3) The student can stop at any point and return later to continue where they left
off.
4) Re-take tests until the student reaches the required skills level.
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5) Makes learning more interactive.
6) using various multimedia (for example, short video clips, animation, music and
interactive learning methods).
7) Stimulate student learning but not replace teacher-based learning.
8) Making use of multiple-choice questions (MCQs) which can be marked
immediately by the computer system
9) Delivers micro-learning (topic is broken down into small modules to make it
easy to learn)

Disadvantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process

1) Cannot give students the experience of handling laboratory equipment
2) Expensive and time consuming.
3) Students can easily be distracted while online.
4) Leads to the isolation of a student.
5) CAL cannot answer unusual questions.

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Booking systems (Online booking systems)
Is a system that uses the internet to make booking.
Online booking systems rely on the updates of files immediately, to prevent
double-booking.

Online booking systems are used in:

 Travel industry
 For concerts (theatre and music events)
 Cinema tickets
 Sporting events.

Advantages
1) Prevent double-booking.
2) Getting immediate feedback about the booking (fail or success).
3) Made at any time.
4) Allows ‘special offers’ to customers through emails automatically.
5) Easier way to browse the seating plans (to choose the best seats).
6) Allows a customer to ensure before finalising the booking (reserve a seat
for a period of time).
7) No printed tickets (Low costs).
8) Allows using of modern smartphone and tablet Apps technology

Disadvantages
1) Expensive in setting up and maintaining the online booking systems.
2) Accessed by a computer or mobile phone and an internet connection.
3) More difficult in cancelling the booking.
4) The system breaks down If the server is down for maintenance.
5) Difficult to make the booking (mistakes) If the websites are not well
designed.
6) Cannot build a personal relationship with a travel agent.

Example of Online Booking for Events (such as concerts, theatres and

cinemas):
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1) The customer clicks on the event.
2) A date and time are typed in.
3) The required seats are entered.
4) The seating display on the screen.
5) The user selects their seat(s) on the screen display and then clicks
CONFIRM.
6) The database searches to check the selected seats.
7) If the seats are available, the total price is shown plus the seat numbers.
8) If the customer is happy with this, they select CONFIRM on the screen.
9) The seats are now temporarily held and set by the system as NO LONGER
AVAILABLE – this stops anyone else from booking them.

10) The customer then enters their personal details or indicates that they are a
returning customer (in which case the website being used will already have
their details).
11) Payment method is then selected and payment made.
12) The theatre seats are then booked in the customer’s name.
13) The final details are again shown on the screen.
14) An email is sent to the customer which may contain a QR code which
contains all their booking details (this acts as their e-ticket); the QR code is
then scanned at the venue.
15) The database is finally updated with the booking transaction and the seats
are permanently confirmed as no longer available.

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 Banking systems (Banking applications)
The use of computer technology for banking transactions, we will consider:
a) Automatic teller machines (ATMs)
b) Electronic funds transfer (EFT)
c) Credit/debit card transactions
d) Cheque clearing
e) Internet banking.

a) Automatic teller machines (ATMs)

Automatic teller machines (ATMs) allow the customer to:
1) withdraw cash
2) deposit cash
3) deposit cheques
4) check the balance of their account
5) see a mini bank statement
6) pay a bill
7) do a money transfer

Table 6.2 shows a typical ATM process; withdrawing cash.

▼ Table 6.2 Withdrawal of money from an ATM

Instructions sequence for Behind the scenes

withdrawing cash
Customer puts card into ATM Contact is made with bank’s

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 computer
PIN is entered using the keypad PIN is checked to see if it is correct;
if not
correct, customer is asked to retype
PIN
The card is checked to see if the
card
expiration date is exceeded or if the
card has
been stolen
If card is stolen or if number of PIN
attempts
exceeds three, card is retained and
transaction closed
A number of options are given:
» change PIN
» account balance
– on screen
– printed out
» pay in cheques
» get a mini statement
» pay a bill
» make a money transfer
» deposit cash
» withdraw cash
The customer selects to withdraw
cash
A number of cash amounts are
shown
The customer accepts one of the Customer’s account is checked to
cash see if they
options or types in a different have sufficient funds
amount A check is then made to see if the
daily cash
limit has been exceeded
If limit not exceeded and all other

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 checks are
OK, then the transaction is
authorised
The cash is then counted out by the
machine
The customer is asked if they want
a receipt
The card is returned
Money is dispensed Customer’s account is updated

Depositing cheques at an ATM:

1) The user inserts debit card and type the PIN.
2) A message asking about service they require.
3) The customer chooses to deposit a cheque.
4) The customer inserts the cheque.
5) The drawer an OCR device read the cheque details
6) The amount appears on the screen and the customer confirms the amount.
7) The customer’s account is updated with the amount on the cheque (pending
cheque clearance within 24 to 48 hours).
8) A printed receipt of the cheque is then given to the customer.
9) If they do not require another service, the card is returned to the customer.
Advantages Disadvantages
Withdraw cash at any time. Banks charge for using ATMs (pays).
No need to go into the bank Cash withdrawal is limited
Accessing accounts from anywhere faulty debit card causes No transaction
Provides quicker service No personal touch (Communication).

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b) Electronic funds transfer (EFT)

Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is a system that allows money transfer

instructions to be sent directly to a bank’s computer system. No actual money is
transferred.The system only relies on electronic transfer of money between
accounts.
When an EFT instruction is received, the computer system automatically
transfers the amount from one account to another.
Uses: payments - staff salaries.
Example (1):
To pay salaries: the company informs the bank to transfer money from their
account into the bank accounts of their employees.

Example (2):
Using a credit/debit card to pay for a purchase in a store, the payment is made
using a system called electronic fund transfer at point-of-sale (EFTPOS).

Advantages of EFT
1) A very secure payment method.
2) Very quick payment method.
3) Less expensive.
4) The customer has the right to dispute an EFT payment for up to 60 days.

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 Disadvantages of EFT

1) The bank cannot reverse a transaction (requires a full dispute

investigation).
2) The customer needs to have funds available immediately (unlike when
using a cheque).
3) It cannot guarantee the recipient (with a fake ID money could be
collected).

c) Credit/debit card transactions

Many credit/debit cards are consist of a chip and a magnetic stripe – the chip
contains key information like: the PIN. This system is designed to enhance
security because it is better than relying only on a signature. Paying using a chip
and PIN card is a form of electronic funds transfer (EFT).

Example:
A customer pays for a meal using a chip and PIN card in a restaurant:
1- Enter the PIN by a keypad.
2- Check the card if it is valid.
3- Compare entered PIN with the PIN stored in chip
4- If matches (the same), then proceed the transaction.
5- If different, terminate the transaction.
6- Then, the restaurant’s bank contacts the customer’s bank.
7- A check is made for the funds.

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 8- If the card is not valid or no enough funds available, then the transaction
will be terminated.
9- If checks out OK then the transaction is authorised.
10- An authorisation code is sent to the restaurant.
11- The price of the meal deducted from the customer’s account.
12- The same amount of money debited to the restaurant’s bank
account.
13- A receipt is produced as proof of purchase.

The advantages and disadvantages of credit cards and debit cards are shown in
Table:

Credit
Advantages Disadvantages
customer protection found if a Can be charged high interest rate
company stops trading or goods
do not arrive
international payment method Annual fees often apply
interest-free loan (money paid fully) Easy to end up with credit damage
Buy items online Security risks

Debit
Advantages Disadvantages
Money comes from customer’s Less customer protection
Current account
Safer than carrying cash No credit allowed
Can buy items online Security risks

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d) Cheques
Cheques are one of the oldest ways of paying somebody for services or goods.
Because it is a relatively expensive, slow and less secure way of making
payments, cheques are slowly being phased out. The advantages and
disadvantages of using cheques are shown in Table 6.4.
▼ Table 6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of using cheques

Advantages Disadvantages
More convenient and safer than cash Cheques can be refused
Ability to stop payments if necessary Slow method of payment
Cheque can be drawn any time Easier for fraudsters than cards
Cheques can be traced if they are 'lost' Expensive payment method

Centralised clearing of cheques

This method was first introduced around 2017 and has now been adopted by
many banks worldwide. It is a much quicker system than the previous method
used to clear cheques.

In this method, cheques are cleared using an image-based system that speeds
up the cheque clearing process considerably.

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When a cheque is paid in to a bank, an electronic image is made of the cheque
using OCR software. All of the bank details plus the sum of money to be paid
are read.

The central facility processes this file in the following way:

– It breaks the file down into individual payment messages.
– It does a payment validation.
– It creates and sends a ‘request to pay’ message to Hodder Bank. This
includes a copy of the cheque images as well as the encoded information (sort
code, account number and payment amount).
» Hodder Bank receives a stream of ‘request to pay’ images and carries out the
transactions. A ‘no pay’ decision will be made if the person paying has
insufficient funds, if their account is blocked, if the cheque has not been signed
or if there is suspected fraud.
» Once a ‘pay’ or ‘no pay’ message has been received, the central facility routes
the ‘pay/no pay’ response to Smith Bank.
» All of this happens usually in less than 24 hours; still slow compared to card
payments, but much faster than the older paper-based method.

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Computers in medicine
Computers are used in many areas of medicine, such as:
» keeping patient records and pharmacy records
» use of 3D printers in many areas of surgery and customised medicines.
Patient and pharmacy records
Doctors and hospitals need to keep accurate records of all their patients.
This is essential to ensure correct diagnosis and treatment. An up-to-
date medical history is part of the diagnosis process. Databases are kept
by doctors and hospitals so that data can be shared between medical
practitioners and pharmacies (for example, to ensure no drugs are
prescribed which interact with each other in an unsafe manner).
Databases also allow a quick and easy search for patient records – this
could be very important in an emergency, when accessing the patient’s
medical history could mean the difference between life and death. It also
means that medication can be prescribed without issuing paper
prescriptions – an email could be sent to the pharmacy instead.
The sort of data which would be required on a patient database is as
follows:
» a unique identification number
» name and address
» date of birth
» gender (male or female)
» medical history (for example, recent medicine/treatment)
» blood group
» any known allergies
» doctor
» any current treatment
» any current diagnosis
» important additional information such as X-rays, CT scans, and so on.
Use of 3D printers
3D printers were first introduced in Chapter 3. Their use in a number of
fields is rapidly progressing. One of the most innovative uses is in the
field of medicine. The following is just a small insight into the many
developments taking place across the world.
Surgical and diagnostic aids
It is possible to print out anatomical parts using 3D printers. These are
used as an aid towards diagnosis and surgical procedures. The patient is
scanned using:
» CT (computed tomography) – which involves producing images of
the internal parts of the body in a series of thin slices less than 0.1 mm
thick, or

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» MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) – this uses strong magnetic
fields and radio waves to produce a series of images of the internal
organs in the body.

A 3D printer can then produce a three-dimensional representation of a

patient’s internal organs, blood vessels, major arteries, tumours and so
on. The doctor or surgeon can use this to show the patient exactly what
is wrong and then show them what procedures are required. This allows
for patient engagement which would be missing from the more
traditional consultation methods. It can
also help the surgeons when planning surgical procedures because they
can see exactly what is required well in advance of the operation. In this
way, 3D printing systems can be used for diagnostic, pre-surgical aids.
Some 3D printers produce hard nylon objects which are used in certain
presurgical planning. If a patient has suffered a bone break, for example,
surgeons can physically test and position screws and plates in the ‘3D
bone nylon image’ prior to the surgery taking place. This reduces the
chance of any errors when the actual procedure is carried out.

Prosthetics
3D printers are now being used to print out prosthetics (false arms,
hands and legs). While state-of-the-art myoelectric prosthetics cost tens
of thousands of dollars, the price for 3D-printing a prosthetic arm or
hand can be as little as $100.

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There is still much research needed in this field. However, the results to
date are very encouraging, with many more people now having a chance
to replace missing limbs at a fraction of the cost compared to existing
methods.
Tissue engineering
Recent advances have allowed the 3D printing of bio-compatible
materials, cells and supporting structures. This has enabled the viability
of producing artificial cells and tissues within a 3D printed object. 3D bio-
printing (using bio-inks) is a very complex process and requires input
from biologists, medical engineers, physicists and other engineers. It has
already been used successfully to produce multi-layered skin tissue,
bone tissue, heart/artery grafts and tracheal splints.
There is still much research to do, but the goal of growing replacement
organs, using cells from the actual patient, is getting ever closer thanks
to 3D printing technology.
Artificial blood vessels
One particular type of tissue engineering is the 3D printing of artificial
blood vessels using human cells. These bio-printed tissues work in much
the same way as natural blood vessels. Biomimetic blood vessels can be
fabricated using 3D printing and bio-inks.

Advice
‘Biomimetic’ refers to the imitation of elements that occur in nature (such as
human cells) to create solutions to human anatomy problems.
‘Bio-inks’ are biological inks developed to work with 3D inkjet printers. By using
3D layering, they produce artificial live tissue. These biological inks are made up
of human cells and other materials (usually biopolymer gels).

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Figure 6.25 shows a photograph of artificial blood vessels created from a
3D printer.

Customised medicines
3D printing techniques now allow scientists to customise medicines to
suit the individual. This is known as patient-centric medicine. 3D printed
medicines are sometimes referred to as printlets (printed tablets). As
newly developed medicines are now very potent, and can have different
effects on different people, there is now a need to review the
manufacturing methods used to produce them.
3D printing offers the possibility of creating personalised medicine which
allows automatically controlled release of the medicine into the patient.
It even allows multiple medicines, within a single printlet, to make fixed-
dose combinations and allows for the optimum release of each medicine
into the body.
3D printing achieves all this by adopting a new 3D inkjet technology,
known as vapour printing. This is a new technique where layering of
multiple medicines can be done by spraying them as a fine gas. The
vapour printing process works by evaporating a powdered medicine and
then combining it with nitrogen gas. The resultant gas is then sprayed
onto a cooled surface where it crystallises to form a
thin film. The building up of several of these thin films (using 3D printing)
forms the desired tablet with a carefully controlled geometry. Traditional
medicines, in tablet form, are formed by compression of the powder;
each compressed tablet has the same shape. By exploring the
connection between geometry of the tablet and the release of the
medicine, it is possible to create the most effective medicine release
profile for each patient.

Advantages of this technology include:

» tailor-made medicines to suit the individual
» better control of medicine release into the body
» saves money (many modern medicines are very expensive)
» better targeting of the medicine so its effects can be optimised
» less chance of an overdose of the medicine, thus reducing harmful
side-effects (for

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32
 Expert systems
Expert systems have been developed to work as the expertise and knowledge
of an expert in a particular field.
Examples include:
» prospecting for oil and minerals
» diagnostics (finding faults in a car engine, finding faults on a circuit board, etc.)
» medical diagnosis
» strategy games (e.g. chess)
» tax and financial planning
» route scheduling for delivery vehicles
» identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds.

Advantages Disadvantages
High level of expertise Users need training
results are consistent High costs in set-up and
maintenance
Ability to store vast amounts of Users sometimes make the very
ideas and facts dangerous assumption
very fast response time Good as the information/facts
entered into the system

Main parts of Expert system:

1- User interface
2- Inference engine
3- Rules base
4- Knowledge base

User Interface
by which the expert system interacts with a user. It allows interaction through
dialogue boxes, command prompts or other input methods.
The questions being asked usually only have yes/no answers and are based on
the responses to previous questions.

Explanation system
This informs the user of the reasoning behind the expert system’s conclusions
and recommended actions.

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The expert system will supply a conclusion and any suggested actions to take

Inference engine
The main processing element of the expert system. Acts like a search engine
examining the knowledge base for information/data that matches the queries.
It is gathering information from the user by asking a series of questions and
applying responses where necessary
The inference engine is the problem-solving part of the expert system, which
makes use of inference rules in the rules base.

Knowledge base
A collection of objects and their attributes. It stores all the knowledge about an
area of expertise obtained from expert resources.

Rules base
The rules base is a set of inference rules. Inference rules are used by the
inference engine to draw conclusions.
They follow logical thinking.

Setting up an expert system

» Information needs to be gathered from human experts or from written sources
such as textbooks, research papers or the internet.
» Information gathered is used to populate the knowledge base, which needs to
be first created.
» A rules base needs to be created; this is made up of a series of inference
rules so that the inference engine can draw conclusions.
» The inference engine itself needs to be set up; it is a complex system since it
is the main processing element, making reasoned conclusions from data in the
knowledge base.
» The user interface needs to be developed to allow the user and the expert
system to communicate.
» Once the system is set up, it needs to be fully tested; this is done by running
the system with known outcomes so that results can be compared and any
changes to the expert system made.
We will now consider three examples which make use of expert systems.

Example 2: oil prospecting

» An interactive user screen appears (this is often made up of multiple-choice
questions or yes/no responses).
» Questions are asked about geological profiles.
» Answers to questions/geological profiles are typed in by the operator.
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» The next questions asked are based on the previous response(s) input by the
operator.
» The inference engine searches the knowledge base using the rules base.
» The system suggests the probability of finding oil as an output.
» It also indicates the probable depth of deposits (usually as a % probability).
» The explanation system will also explain how the expert system arrived at its
conclusions.
» It makes predictions about geological deposits above the soil.
» It produces contour maps showing concentration of minerals, rocks, oil,

is fairly simple, but some national and international routes can be very complex.
The inputs needed are:
» The number of drop-off points and their location
» The distance between the drop-off points
» The type of vehicle used
» Delivery times expected at each drop-off point
» Layout of the road network.

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Satellite systems
Satellites
In this final section, we will be considering:
» global positioning systems and satellite navigation
» geographic information systems (GIS)
» media communication systems (satellite television and satellite
phones).
Global positioning systems and satellite navigation

Global positioning systems (GPS) are used to determine the exact

location of a number of modes of transport (for example, aeroplanes,
cars, ships, etc.). Cars usually refer to GPS as satellite navigation
systems (i.e. ‘satnav’).
Advice
While the term GPS is often used generically, it actually refers to a specific global
navigation satellite system (GNSS) owned and run by the USA. There are other
GNSS that perform the same function, including the Russian GLONASS and the
EU’s Galileo.

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Satellites surrounding the Earth transmit signals to the surface.
Computers installed in the mode of transport receive and interpret these
signals. Each satellite transmits data indicating its position and time.
Satellites need very accurate timing in order to know their position
relative to the Earth. They
use atomic clocks, which are accurate to a billionth of a second per day.
The computer on board the mode of transport calculates its exact
position based on the information from at least three satellites.
In cars, the onboard satellite navigation system contains stored road
maps. When combined with satellite positioning data, the car’s exact
location can be shown on the map and the driver can also be given
verbal instructions such as: ‘After 100 metres, take the next left turn
onto the A1234’. A screen on the satnav device will also show the car’s
position in relation to the road network.

Advantages of GPS and satnav

» The driver does not have to consult paper maps, so it is far safer.
» It removes errors (can warn drivers about one-way streets, street
closures, etc.).

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» The system can estimate the time of arrival.
» It is also possible to program in the fastest route, route to avoid towns,
etc.
» The system can also give useful information such as location of petrol
stations.
Disadvantages of GPS and satnav
» If the maps are not kept up to date, they can give incorrect
instructions.
» Unless the system is sophisticated, road closures due to accidents or
roadworks, can cause problems.
» Loss of satellite signals can cause problems.
» If an incorrect start-point or end-point is keyed in the system will give
incorrect information.

Geographic information systems (GIS)

Geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system that
allows us to map, model, query and analyse large amounts of data
according to their location. GIS allows users to create interactive queries,
edit map data or analyse spatial information. (Spatial information refers
to how objects fit together in space.) The technology combines maps
with computer graphics and databases.

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Carrying out queries on GIS systems (in a method similar to internet
searches) will find data that matches the query. The data will be
displayed in the form of a diagram, map or set of tables. By zooming into
the map, it is possible to find finer details about the layering data used.

Examples of the use of GIS

» Emergency services use GIS to send the closest emergency personnel
to a location.
» Biologists and environmentalists use GIS to protect animal life and
plants in certain vulnerable areas (which meet a certain criterion after
carrying out a search on the database).
» Teachers can use GIS in their geography, science or engineering
lessons.
» It can be used for crime mapping in a region or in a country.
» It can be used for route monitoring (used in conjunction with route
scheduling software).
» It can be used for management of agricultural crop data.
» It can address public health issues – it was used in 2020 and 2021
during the Covid-19 pandemic to show how the virus spread in different
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parts of the world and allowed data to be combined (such as, age
groups, ethnic group, population density, and so on) to create a unique
insight into how it spread.
» It can map of wildfire risks (it was used in Australia in 2019 during the
wildfire outbreaks; it was possible to map out where and how the fire
was spreading).

Advantages of GIS
1) It allows geographical data of any kind to be combined.
2) It allows the handling and exploration of huge amounts of data
3) It allows data to be integrated from a wide range of very different
sources

Disadvantages of GIS
1) The curve on GIS software can be very long.
2) GIS software is very expensive.
3) GIS requires big amounts of data to be input
4) It is difficult to make GIS programs which are both fast and user-
friendly

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Media communication systems

Communication media refers to a method of delivering and receiving

data/information using telecommunications.
There are many types of media used to send and receive information (for
example, fibre optics, copper cable and Wi-Fi); we will concentrate on
the global communication method which makes use of satellites.
Satellites contain antennas, transponders (to allow receiving and sending
of data), solar panels (for power from the Sun) and propulsion (to ensure
the satellite is in the correct orbit at all times).
Signals are converted to analogue (if necessary) and then beamed to the
satellite from a satellite dish on the Earth. The signals are delivered by
carrier waves which consist of radio waves. Each signal has its own
frequency and bandwidth (the larger the bandwidth the more data can
be transmitted).
Once the data reaches the satellite, it is then re-sent to Earth. The
satellite usually ‘boosts’ the signal before sending it back. Often the
frequency of the signal is changed to prevent the signal received being
confused with the signal sent.
Satellite systems are used to transmit data from one part of the planet to
another. Due to the great distances involved, cables would be too costly
and there is also the problem of signal deterioration in cables over long
distances.
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Satellites systems are used to transmit television, telephone and internet
data around the world.

Advantages of media communication systems

1) They have good global coverage.
2) They are cheaper, faster and safer than.
3) Have a very high bandwidth.
4) Easy to expand the network.
5) Good Security in satellite transmission.

Disadvantages of media communication systems

1) There is a time delay in receipt of the signals.
2) The signals received can be affected by bad weather.
3) Sunspot activity can affect the performance of a satellite.
4) They must be in a fixed position

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