ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

College of Biological & Chemical Engineering

Department of Environmental Engineering

Environmental Engineering-EnEng4105

Compiled by Beka Benti (MSc)

October 2024
UNIT -1
 General Introduction
What is Environment?
 Environment is the totality of the surrounding's.
• “The ‘environment’ is where we live.
• Environment is all external conditions, circumstances, and influences
surrounding and affecting the growth and development of an organism or
community of organisms.
 It has two main categories. i.e.
1. Biotic
– Biosphere (plants, animals & micro-organisms)

2. Abiotic
– Atmosphere(air)
– Lithosphere (soil)
– Hydrosphere (water) and the dynamic interactions inherent in these components.

 Therefore, the env‟t is the main source of human beings and it should be
studied systematically.
 What is Environmental Engineering?

o Environmental engineering:-is the integration of science and engineering

principles to improve the natural environment to provide
• healthy water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and
to

• clean up pollution sites

o Can also be described as a branch of applied science and technology that

address the issue of energy preservation, production asset and control of
waste from human and animal activities

o Furthermore, it is concerned with finding plausible solutions in the field

of public health, such as implementing law which promote adequate
sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas.
 What is Environmental Engineering Cont…

 Environmental engineering is a branch of engineering

concerned with the application of scientific and engineering
principles for protection of human populations from the effect
of adverse environmental factors and improvement of
environmental quality.

 Environmental engineers also design municipal waste supply

and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as
address local and worldwide environmental issues such as
the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion,
water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts
and industrial sources.
 What is Environmental Engineering Cont…
 It involves:
 Wastewater management,

 Air pollution control,

 recycling,

 Waste disposal

 Radiation protection,

 Industrial hygiene,

 Environmental sustainability, and

 Public health issues as well as a

 knowledge of environmental engineering law.

 It also includes studies on the environmental impact of

proposed construction projects.
 What is Environmental Engineering Cont…
 Environmental engineers study the effect of technological
advances on the environment.
 To do so, they conduct hazardous waste management studies to evaluate

– the significance of such hazards,

– advise on treatment and containment, and

– develop regulations to prevent mishaps (accidents).

 Environmental engineers also design municipal waste supply and

industrial wastewater treatment systems

 as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such

as the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water
pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and
industrial sources.
 What is Environmental Engineering Cont…

Therefore, Environmental Engineering was born to:

1 Design and implement systems that will maximize the

efficient use of ecological resources

2 Design and implement pollution control and rehabilitation

technologies for the polluted ecological components

Propose an appropriate perspective for future industrialization

3 processes and renewable energy technologies
 Human activities and Environmental problems
 Environmental impacts are changes in the natural or built
environment, resulting directly from an activity, that can have
adverse effects on the air, land, water, fish, and wildlife or the
inhabitants of the ecosystem.

 The increasing human population, per capita consumption and

complexity of the urban centers promoted the expansion and
intensification of agriculture.

 Pollution, contamination, or destruction that occurs as a

consequence of an action, that can have short-term or long-
term ramifications is considered an environmental impact.
 Human activities and environmental problems cont…

 These changes generated global environmental problems

such as the alteration of:

– the biogeochemical cycles, (the pathways that elements and

compounds move through the Earth's systems, from living

organisms to the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere)

– the land use,

– the biodiversity at all levels, and

– the dispersion of the biota beyond natural geographical limits.

 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Effects of Urbanization on environment

 Through most of history, the human population has lived a rural

lifestyle, dependent on agriculture and hunting for survival

 In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in urban areas

 By 1900, almost 14% were urbanites, although only 12 cities had

1 million or more inhabitants

 In 1950, 30% of the world's population resided in urban centers.

 The number of cities with over 1 million people had grown to 83.
 Urbanization in perspective

 In May 2007 for the first time in history over 50% of the world's
population lived in urban areas. There are 411 cities over 1 million

 It is expected that 60 percent of the world population will be urban

by 2030, and that most urban growth will occur in less developed
countries
 Urbanization is characterized by:

 Urban populations consume much more food, energy, and

durable goods than rural populations.

 Urban dwellers produce more waste than rural dwellers.

 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Urbanization in perspective

 68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas

by 2050, says UN
Urbanization: Extreme cases due to uncontrolled urbanization
in the world
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Effects of Industrialization on environment

 Industrialization entails:

 Use of natural resources for raw materials (over exploitation of

natural resources)

 Production of diverse products and generation of corresponding

wastes (polluting environment): air pollution, noise pollution,
ozone depletion (CFCs), water pollution, soil pollution, solid waste,
hazardous waste, global warming, acid rain, acidification of soil)

 Migration of rural people (Rural downsizing)

 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Industrialization in perspective

 These are the effects of industrialization on the environmental

degradation:

o pollution (added pollutant's to air, water and soil due to

waste products produces)

o extraction (makes use resources from lands, water, perhaps

wood and plants, fossil fuels etc.

o urbanization (need people to work in factories)

o waste material (directly as a result of production of goods or

disposal of those goods once their purpose has been served).
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Industrialization, resource consumption and waste generation

 There are three economic types that the world passing through:

These are:

Economic types

Linear Circular Real Economy

 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Material flow and resource efficiency

 Products are made from primary (raw or

1. Linear economy
virgin) materials,

 Resources become waste after passing once

through economy,

 Large amounts of waste,

 ‘From cradle to grave'
 Low resource-efficiency,

 High consumption of resources,

 High risk for depletion of resource, increase
of commodity.
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Material flow and resource efficiency

 Products are made from secondary
2. Circular Economy
materials,
 No use of resources,
 Waste is selectively collected and reused or
recycled (Recycling = production of
secondary materials, which will replace
primary materials),
 Only high quality recycling = unlimited
number of cycles, by: eco-design,
o ‘From cradle to cradle’  Zero land filling,
 High resource-efficiency
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Material flow and resource efficiency

3. Real Economy
 In each step of production-
consumption-recycling chain

• Resources are consumed

• Waste is generated

• Emissions and losses are

generated
 Resource efficiency strongly
dependent on GDP and waste
management policy.
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Material flow and resource efficiency

 Contamination of Fresh water bodies

(lakes, streams, aquifers) and oceans

 A global crisis of waste disposal, as

a result of over consumption of
resources. . .

 Climate Change, Global worming ,

 Air pollution: Fossil fuel (non frequent occurrence of floods, melting
renewable natural resources);
Ozone Layer Depletion; Acid Rain . . . of polar iceand overall weather scenario.
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Effects of Agricultural on Environment

 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Agricultural in perspective

 These are the effects of agricultural on the environmental

degradation:

 Pollution (widely used of pesticide and fertilizers)

Eutrophication
Application of pesticide
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…
Agricultural in perspective

 These are the effects of agricultural on the environmental degradation:

 Soil degradation (due to poor farming practices results water

logging and salting, soil erosion leads to loss of soil fertility and
structure etc.).
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Agricultural in perspective

 These are the effects of agricultural on the environmental degradation:

• Deforestation (cases of forests being cleared for agriculture
reasons… deforestation enhances the effects of climate
change. How?)
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

Impacts

 But they unfortunately

create a lot of pollution and
waste to the Env’t which
has an effect in different
scale and magnitude:
• Local
• Regional
• Global
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

 How pollution will be occurs in the environment?

 What do we mean by the assimilative capacity of the environment?

Environment
 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

 Assimilative capacity of the environment refers to the ability of the

environment or a portion of the environment such as:

• stream,

• lake,

• air mass, or

• soil layer to carry waste material without adverse effects on the

environment or on users of its resources.

 Pollution occurs only when the assimilative capacity is exceeded.

 Rationale of Environmental Engineering Cont…

 Pollution may be defined as addition of undesirable material into the

environment as a result of human activities.
 The agents which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants.

 A pollutants may be defined as a physical, chemical or biological substance

unintentionally released into the environment which is directly or indirectly

harmful to humans and other living organisms.

 A new concept on green building and urban agriculture

 The construction industry is responsible for 39% of the

world’s greenhouse gas emissions, with 44% of those
emissions coming from residential buildings, 28% from
non-residential buildings, and 28% from other projects

 For example, according to the UK Green Building Council,

buildings contributed about 50% of the UK’s
CO2 emissions and another 7% due to new building
construction.
 Green building and urban agriculture Cont…

 According to researches, green building is a technique that

makes use of designs and materials to better
• utilize natural resources,

• improve indoor air quality,

• increase the productivity and well-being of building

occupants, and

• reduce waste, emissions, and environmental deterioration

 Additionally, according to Khoshnava et al., the concept helps

to reduce the consumption of energy, water, and recycled or
even recyclable non-toxic materials with low toxic emissions.
Green building and urban agriculture Cont…
Green building and urban agriculture Cont…
 Legal Frame Work for Protection of Environment
 The legal framework is a tool for identification and prevention of
environmental threats to the health of the population and the
improvement of the quality of life of people in general.
 Some examples of legal enactments designed to consciously
preserve the environment are:
 Primary protection was found in the law of nuisance (early 18th )
• allowed for private actions for damages or injunctions if there was harm to
land.

 Metropolitan commission of sewer Act 1848

• sewers to close cesspits around the city in an attempt to "clean up" but this
simply led people to pollute the river.

 Clean Air Act 1956

• after smog 1952 in London
• which set limits on emissions for households and business (particularly
burning coal).
 Legal Acts in Ethiopia

 The proclamation No1/1995 to pronounce the coming into effect of

the constitution of FDRE (Article 43, 44 and 92)
 Article 44: Environmental Right

• All persons have the right to live in a clean and healthy

environment

• All persons who have been displaced or whose livelihoods

have been adversely affected as a result of state programs
have the right to commensurate monetary or alternative
means of compensation, including relocation with adequate
state assistance.
 Legal Frame Work for Protection of Environment Cont…

 Article 43: The Right to Development

 The peoples of Ethiopia as a whole have the right

– To improve living standards and to sustainable development.

– Participate in national development and, in particular, to be

consulted with respect to policies and projects affecting their
community

– All international Agreements and relations concluded, established

or conducted by the state shall protect and ensure Ethiopia’s right
to sustainable development.
 Legal Frame Work for Protection of Environment Cont…

 Article 92: Environmental Objective

• Government shall endeavor to ensure that all Ethiopians live in a clean
and healthy environment.

• The design and implementation of programs and projects of

development shall not damage or destroy the Environment.

• People have the right to full consultation and the expression of views
in the planning and implementation of environmental policies and
projects that affect them directly

• Government and citizens shall have the due to protect the

environment.
 Legal Frame Work for Protection of Environment Cont…

 Proclamation No.295/2002”

 Deals with Environmental Protection organs Establishment

 Proclamation (Proc. No. 299/2002)

 Deals with the Environmental Impact Assessment

 Proclamation No. 300/2002"

 Deals with the "Environmental Pollution Control

CHAPTER-2

WATER & WASTEWATER

TREATMENT

39
 Water Treatment
General Introduction

 For the existence of all living beings (human, animals and plants),
water is very crucial

 Water is the universal solvent and in nature, it is never totally

pure

 Water is an essential commodity for anybody or any living thing

so we have to supply adequate quality and quantity of water

 Every cell in our body contains about 90% of water

 In other words we can tell that in water supply engineering the

major objective is to supply potable and palatable water.
40
 General introduction to WWT Cont…
 Air, water and food are very essential for human existence

 These materials which are so important for human existence

if they are polluted they can create problems
– For example, if air is polluted there will be respiratory diseases;
if the water is contaminated it can cause waterborne diseases; if
food is contaminated then it could cause food poisoning

 These three components which are so essential for foreman

human existence can also become scourge, can also become
harmful for the human life.
 Objectives of water treatment
 The principal objective of water treatment is to provide potable
water that is physically, chemically and biologically safe for
human consumption

 It should also be free from unpleasant tastes and odors

 Water treatment objective is to produce both "potable" and

"palatable"

 Potable:- Water that can be consumed in any desired amount

without concern for adverse health effects.

 Potable dose not necessarily mean that the water tastes good

 Palatable: - it is a water that is pleasing to drink but not

necessarily safe.
a) Water Characteristics

43
 Properties of Water
Physical, Chemical & Biological Examination of Water

 Water which is absolutely pure is not found in nature

 Because as it passes through the hydrologic cycle & it may

acquire many impurities as it comes in contact with materials:

 in the air
 on the surface and

 beneath the surface of the earth

 Human activities contribute further impurities in the form of

industrial and domestic wastes, agricultural chemicals and
other, less obvious contaminants.
44
 a) Physical Characteristics of Water

 This is the characteristics of water that respond to the sense of

sight, touch or smell that includes suspended solids, Color, Taste,
Odour, temperature and etc.

 Turbidity:- is a measure of the extent to which light is either

absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water

 It measures the presence of suspended solid materials in water.

 Unit of measurement is NTU (nephelometry turbidity unit).

45
 Physical Characteristics of Water Cont…

 Color-: Pure water is colorless, but water in nature is often colored

by foreign substances

 Taste and Odour:- This is due to

 Minerals, Metals, Salts from the soil, End products from

biological reactions, Constituents of wastewater and etc

 Drinking water shall be tasteless and odourless

 Temperature:- governs to a large extent the biological species

present and their rates of activity

 It affects most chemical reactions that occur in natural water

systems and solubility of gases in water.
46
 b) Chemical Characteristics of Water
 Water has been called the universal solvent, and chemical
parameters are related to the solvent capabilities of water

 Chemical parameters concerned in water quality management

include:
 Total dissolved solids,

 Alkalinity,

 Hardness

 Fluorides

 Metals

 Organic
47
 Nutrients and so on
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…

 Total Dissolved Solids: is the material remaining in the water

after filtration for suspended solids

 Alkalinity: Alkalinity is defined as quantity of ions in water that

will react to neutralize hydrogen ions.

 It is a measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids

 Most constituents of alkalinity of natural water include:

Bicarbonate (HCO3), Carbonate (CO3-2), Hydroxide (OH-)

 In large quantity it imparts a bitter taste to water.

 Hardness: is defined as the concentration of multivalent metallic

cations in solution.
48
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…
 Two types of hardness can be identified- carbonate and non-
carbonate hardness

 Carbonate hardness:-is sometimes called temporary hardness

because it can be removed by boiling water

 Non-carbonate hardness:-cannot be broken down by boiling the

water, so it is also known as permanent hardness

 In general, it is important to distinguish between the two types of

hardness because the removal method differs for the two.

49
Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…

50
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…
 Fluoride: is seldom found in surface waters and appears in
ground water in only few geographical regions

 It is toxic to humans and other animals in large quantities,

while small concentrations can be beneficial

 Concentrations of approximately 1.0mg/l in drinking water

help to prevent dental cavities in children

 During formation of permanent teeth, fluoride combines

chemically with tooth enamel, resulting in harder, stronger
teeth that are more resistant to decay

51
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…
 Metals: are soluble to some extent in water
 Excessive amounts of any metal may present health hazards
 Sources of metals in natural waters include dissolution from
natural deposits and discharges of domestic, industrial, or
agricultural wastewaters
i. Nontoxic Metals:- commonly found in water include
sodium, iron, magnesium, aluminium, copper and zinc
 Excessive concentration of sodium can cause a bitter taste in
water and are health hazard to cardiac and kidney patients
 Iron and manganese in very small quantities 0.3 mg/l and
0.05 mg/l, respectively may cause color problems.
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…
ii. Toxic Metals:- These include arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead,
mercury, and silver.

 These are toxic substances and are extremely dangerous from

public health viewpoint

 The presence of lead in excess of 0.05 mg/l or arsenic in excess

of 0.05, selenium in excess of 0.01 mg/l or hexavalent
chromium in excess of 0.05mg/l shall constitute grounds for
rejection of the supply.

53
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…
 Organics: Many organic materials are soluble in water

 Organic in natural water systems may come from natural

sources or may result from human activities

 Dissolved organics in water are usually divided into two broad

categories: Biodegradable and non biodegradable.

 Biodegradable material consists of organics that can be

utilized for food by naturally occurring microorganisms
within a reasonable length of time

 The amount of oxygen consumed during microbial utilization

of organics is called the biological oxygen demand (BOD). 54
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…
 BOD is the most commonly used parameter for determining
the oxygen demand on the receiving water of a municipal or
industrial discharge

 BOD can also be used to evaluate the efficiency of treatment

processes, and is an indirect measure of biodegradable organic
compounds in water

 The BOD is measured by determining the oxygen consumed

from a sample placed in an air-tight container and kept in a
controlled environment for a preselected period of time.

55
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…
 In the standard test, a 300 ml BOD bottle is used and the
sample is incubated at 20oC for 5 days

 Because the saturation concentration for oxygen in water at

20oC is approximately 9mg/L, dilution of the sample with
BOD-free, oxygen-saturated water is necessary to measure
BOD values greater than just a few milligrams per litre

 Non-biodegradable Organics: are common organic materials

in natural water systems which are resistant to biological
degradation

 They include tannic and lignic acids, cellulose, and phenols.

56
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…

 Some non biodegradable organics are toxic to organisms.

 These include the organic pesticides, some industrial chemicals,

and hydrocarbon compounds that have combined with chlorine.

 Measurement of non-biodegradable organics is usually by the

chemical oxygen demand (COD) test

 Nutrients : are elements essential to the growth and

reproduction of plants and animals and aquatic species on the
surrounding water to provide their nutrients.

 Nutrients that are required in most abundance by aquatic species

are carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
57
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…
i. Nitrogen

 The presence of nitrogenous compounds in surface waters usually indicates

pollution

 Excessive amount of ammonia and organic nitrogen may result from recent
sewage discharges or runoff contamination by relatively fresh pollution

 Therefore, waters containing high organic Nitrogen and ammonia- N levels

are considered to be potentially dangerous

ii. Phosphorus

 Phosphorus appears exclusively as phosphate (PO43-) in aquatic

environments

 Phosphate is a constituent of soils and is used extensively in fertilizer to

replace and/or supplement natural quantities on agricultural lands. 58
 Chemical Characteristics of Water Cont…

 Runoff from agricultural areas is a major contributor to phosphate

in surface waters

 Municipal wastewater is another major source of phosphate in

surface water.

 Other sources include industrial waste in which phosphate

compounds are used for such purposes as boiler-water
conditioning.

 If they are available in large quantity, they can be used as a

nutrient and result rapid growth of aquatic plants.

 Phosphate, concentration as low as 0.2 mg/l, can also interfere

with the treatment processes (chemical coagulation of turbidity). 59
 c) Biological Characteristics of Water
 The presence or absence of living organisms in water can be
one of the most useful indicators of its quality

 A wide variety of different species of organisms usually

indicates that stream or lake is unpolluted

Pathogens: are organisms capable of infecting, or of

transmitting diseases to, humans.

 These organisms are not native to aquatic systems and usually

require an animal host for growth and reproduction.

 These waterborne pathogens include species of bacteria,

viruses, protozoa, and helminthes (parasitic worms). 60
 Biological Characteristics of Water Cont…
 Pathogen Indicators: Testing water for the presence of pathogens
would be a very time-consuming and expensive proposition

 Tests for specific pathogens are usually made only when there is a
reason to suspect that those particular organisms are present

 At other times, the purity of water is checked using indicator

organisms

 An indicator organism is one whose presence signals that

contamination has occurred and suggests the nature and extent of
the contaminant(s).

 Coliforms: the most important biological indicator of water quality

and pollution used in public health technology is the group of
61
bacteria called coliforms.
 Biological Characteristics of Water Cont…

 Public water suppliers are obliged to provide a supply of

wholesome water, which is suitable and safe for drinking purposes.

 A standard is a set of norms established by authorized legal body

(regional, national, or international bodies), which would be
implemented under legal framework.

 Guideline is somewhat flexible & designed to be more supportive

to specific quality control activities.

 WHO Drinking Water Quality Guideline can be used as a general

framework of UN member countries.

 Member countries are free to use their own standards or adopt this
guideline. 62
 Biological Characteristics of Water Cont…

Microorganisms
Bacteria:- may cause disease, taste and odors, pipe corrosion,
pipe blockage

Viruses:- are more resistant to disinfection than bacteria

Fungi and molds:- frequently form dense, slimy mats that

clog filters and other units; they can produce musty taste and
filters and other units; they can produce musty taste and
odors as well as color and turbidity

63
 Microorganism Cont…
Algae:- may cause turbidity and color interferes with
coagulation and sedimentation causing filter clogging

 Chemicals produced by algae are precursors of and are

associated with different taste and odor problems

Protozoa: most of them cause disease

Helminths (parasitic worms):- cause many diseases

 Nuisance-causing organisms:- many organisms, snails,

crustaceans, and slime growth cause serious problems in raw
water conveyance

64
 Waterborne diseases

Microorganism Diseases

Virus Hepatitis, poliomyelitis

Bacteria Cholera, Gastroenteritis, Leptospirosis,

Paratyphoid fever, Salmonellosis, Shigellosis,
Typhoid fever

Protozoa Amebiasis, Giardiasis, Crptosporidiosis

Worms Ascariasis, Guinea worm, Lung fluke,

Schistosomiasis
65
Comparison between ground and surface water characteristics

Ground Surface

Constant composition Varying composition

High mineralization Low mineralization

Little turbidity High turbidity

Low or no color Color, taste and odour

Bacteriologically safe Microorganisms present

No dissolved oxygen Dissolved oxygen

High hardness Low hardness

66

H S, Fe, Mn Possible chemical toxicity

 Drinking water quality Criteria and Guidelines
 There are many lists of quality criteria, standards and guidelines

according to which the quality of drinking water is assessed.

 The most prominent include the Safe Drinking Water Act in the

USA with its National Primary Drinking Water Regulations,

the World Health Organization’s Guidelines for Drinking

Water Quality and the European Union’s Directive related to

the quality of drinking water intended for human consumption.

 Each of these includes lists of many substances with different

maximum contaminant levels. 67

 Basic quality requirements of drinking water
 Free from diseases causing pathogenic organisms

 Contain no compounds that have adverse effect on human

health

 Fairly clear (i.e., of low turbidity, little color)

 Contain no compounds that cause offensive taste and odor

 Free of substances and organisms that cause corrosion or

encrustation of the water supply system, staining of clothes
washed in it or food items cooked with it.

68
 Table : Drinking Water Standards
Concentration in mg/l
Chemical WHO Ethiopia
constituents Maximum
Permissible unit Maximum limit Highest Desirable
Permissible
Color (TCU) 15 50 5 50
Turbidity <5NTU 25 5 25
pH 7-8.5 6.5-9.2 7-8.5 6.5-9.2
Hardness 75 110 100 500
Ammonia 1.5 0.05 0.1
Arsenic 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.05
Calcium 75 200 75 200
Chloride 200 600 200 600
Copper 1.0 1.5 0.05 1.5
Iron 0.3 1.0 0.1 1.0
Magnesium 50 150 50 150
Manganese 0.1 0.5 0.05 0.5
Phenol 0.001 0.002 0 0
Sulfate 200 400 200 400
Zinc 5.0 15 5.0 15
Total solids 500 1500 500 1500
69
Coliform bacteria nil 1 per 100ml nil 10
 Typical Raw Water Quality

Parameter Upland catchment Lowland

catchment

pH 6.0 7.5

Total solids, mg/L 50 400

Alkalinity 20 175

Hardness 10 200

Color 70 40

Turbidity 5 50

Coliforms, MPN/100ml 20 20 x 103

70
 Location of treatment plant
 The treatment plant should be located at:
– Near to the town to which water is to be supplied and near to
the source of supply

– This will prevent the water quality to depreciate after

treatment

– Away from any source of pollution

– Away from the border of other countries and should be

announced as a protected area

– During war time, a neighbor country may play foul game by

damaging the plant, poisoning the water

– At higher elevation if the natural topography permit. 71

 Conventional Surface Water Treatment Process
Introduction
 Water withdrawn directly from rivers, lakes, or reservoirs is
rarely clean enough for human consumption if it is not treated
to purify it

 Even water pumped from underground aquifers often requires

some degree of treatment to render it potable, that is, suitable
for drinking

 Conventional surface water treatment plants are still being used

throughout the world.

73
 Conventional surface water treatment process Cont…
 Typically consist of several steps in the treatment process

 These include:
(1) Collection;

(2) Screening and Straining;

(3) Chemical Addition (Coagulation and Flocculation);

(4) Sedimentation and Clarification;

(5) Filtration;

(6) Disinfection;

(7) Storage and

(8) Distribution.
 Factors for selection of treatment processes
 Raw water quality;

 Availability and reliability of water supply;

 Site suitability;

 Land availability;

 Proximity (near) to consumers;

 Economics;

 Environmental impact assessment.

75
76
 Preliminary Treatment cont…

 Surface water supplies generally require more extensive

treatment than groundwater supplies do

 The amount of treatment required depends on:

• Quantity and quality of raw water

• Required standards of purified water

 River quality is largely influenced by pollution from

municipalities, industries, and agricultural practices.

77
 Preliminary Treatment cont…

Preliminary Water Treatment Process

 Unit operations provided for water treatment process
depends on the source of water (Ground water and Surface
water)
i. Ground Water
Raw water Aeration Softening Filtration

Disinfection Supply
ii. Surface Water

Raw water Screening Plain sedimentation

Coagulation Filtration Disinfection Supply
&
78
Flocculation
 Preliminary Treatment cont…
Unit operation and its Function
1. Aeration Removal of color, odor, taste

2. Screening Floating material removal

3. Softening Hardness (Fe, Mn) removal using chemicals

4. Sedimentation Suspended matter removal

5. Coagulation Suspended matter, flocculants & colloidal

matter & bacterial removal

6. Filtration Remaining colloidal, dissolved matter, bacterial

removal

7. Disinfection killing pathogenic bacteria, organic matter &

reducing substances 79
 Preliminary Treatment cont…

 The following items will be considered in choosing a plant site

 Proximity to the source of raw water

 Proximity to the area to be served

 Land availability and costs

 Potential for flooding of the site

 Availability and reliability of electric power

 Geology and topography of the site

 Availability of transportation facilities

 Legal obligations or restrictions 80

 Definition & Processes of screening
 Screening is any physical, chemical or mechanical processes
used before main water treatment processes. May include the
following processes:
– Removal of debris

– Destratification of reservoirs to prevent anaerobic

decomposition

– Control of algal growth

– Pre-sedimentation

– Aeration to remove dissolved gases or to enhance oxidation

– Chemical oxidation of iron and manganese and other taste-

and odor producing gases. 81
 Preliminary Treatment cont…
Screening
 Screens remove course material (such as wood, leaves and
plant debris) and some other solid wastes from the water

 Screens are usually placed at the intake and thereby protect

the subsequent installations from blockage and damage

 Screens can be classified as course screens and fine screens

 Water usually flows through a bar screens

 The distance between single bars varies from 10 to 30 cm for

course screen and 0.5 to 5cm for fine screen

 Solid matter is retained by the bar.

82
 Preliminary Treatment cont…

 Course Screens or Racks: often termed as bar screens and must

provided to intercept large, suspended or floating

 Fine Screens: surface water requires fine screens for removal of

material too small to be intercepted by the course rack

 These may be basket- type in line strainers, manually or

hydraulically cleaned by backwashing, which are cleaned by
water jets

 The velocity of water in the screen openings should be less than

1m/s at maximum design flow through the screen & at
minimum screen submergences which occur at minimum
anticipated flows. 83
 Preliminary Treatment cont…

 Design: Fixed screens are usually constructed of parallel bars

which are rectangular in x- section

 The use of course screens followed by a fine screen is advised

for a step by step separation of floating materials

 The velocity (Va) of water u/s from screen should not be

lower than 0.3 to 0.5 m/s

 This will prevent sedimentation of suspended matter

 The velocity (vs) of water following through the screen bars

should not exceed 0.7 to 1.0m/s, to prevent soft, deformable
floating materials from passing through the screen.
84
 Preliminary Treatment cont…

 The relationship b/n the size of the opening (o) & the bars
(b) determine the ratio of the two velocities, Va & Vs

 This ratio can be reduced by installing the screens at a lower

angle (a) to the floor.

85
 Screening Cont…
 Screening is a unit operations that remove floating or
suspended matters

 Types
– Coarse (Trash rack)

– Fine

– Microstrainer

 Location
– Intake structure

– Raw water pump station

– Water treatment plant 86

 Screening type cont…
a) Coarse screen
 Purpose: to prevent large objects
from entering the conveyance system
 Design considerations
– Design flow: Q max-day
– Layout: located slightly projected
away from intake ports, on the
water side
– Bar arrangement: 5-8 cm of clear
opening
– Velocity of flow: < 8.0 cm/s
87
 Screening type cont…
b) Fine screen
 To remove smaller objects that may

damage pumps or other equipment

 Heavy wire mesh with 0.5 cm

openings

 Design velocity 0.4-0.8 m/s

 Automatic cleaning may be required

88
 c) Microstrainer Screening type cont…

 To remove plankton and algae

 Before pre-chlorination and

coagulation

 Consists of a rotating cylinder

covered with fine wire mesh

 Operational problems due to

biofilms

89
90
 i) Coagulation
 A large portion of the suspended particle in water are
sufficiently small and their removal in a plain sedimentation
alone is impossible at reasonable surface overflow rates and
detention time

 In addition to the suspended solids, water also contains

colloidal particles (colloids), which are midway in size
between suspended solids and dissolved solids, which will be
in continuous motion but never settle

 Coagulation is the process of removing such fine particle

from water by adding certain chemicals called coagulants.
 Coagulation Cont…
 Fine particles + Water + Chemical/Coagulant = Coagulation

 Purpose of coagulation: to alter the colloids so that they can

adhere to each other

 Properties of coagulant
 Trivalent

 Non-toxic

 Insoluble in the neutral pH range

 Flocculation: is a slow mixing process which promotes the

agglomeration of destabilized particle

 Agglomeration: bringing together of particle in to groups (flocs)

increases the effective size and the settling velocities.
 There are three main processes which can ensure the removal
of the fine particles from raw water
• Coagulation and flocculation
• Sedimentation
• Filtration
 Commonly used coagulants are:
 Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
 Ferric chloride: FeCl3
 Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
 Polyelectrolytes (Polymers)
Optimum Coagulant Dosage
 Two important factors in coagulant addition are pH and dose
 The optimum dose and pH must be determined from
laboratory tests
 The optimal pH range for alum is approximately 5.5 to 6.5
with adequate coagulation possible between pH 5 to pH 8
under some conditions.
 Coagulation Cont…
 In laboratory, jar test is used to determine optimum dosage and
pH value

 The jar test has to be performed on each water that is to be

coagulated and must be repeated with each significant change on
the quality of a given water.

Fig. Jar Test

 Jar Tests Coagulation Cont…
 The jar test– a laboratory procedure to determine
the optimum pH and the optimum coagulant dose

 A jar test simulates the coagulation and

flocculation processes

Determination of optimum pH
 Fill the jars with raw water sample (500 or 1000
mL)– usually 6 jars

 Adjust pH of the jars while mixing using H2SO4 or Fig. Jar Test
NaOH/lime (pH: 5.0; 5.5; 6.0; 6.5; 7.0; 7.5)

 Add same dose of the selected coagulant (alum or

iron) to each jar (Coagulant dose: 5 or 10 mg/L)
95
 Jar Tests – determining optimum pH Coagulation Cont…

 Rapid mix each jar at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute. The

rapid mix helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each

container

 Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 30 rpm and continue

mixing for 15 to 20 mins

 This slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation

by enhancing particle collisions, which lead to larger flocs

Fig. Jar Test Set-Up
 Turn off the mixers and allow flocs to settle for 30 to 45

mins

 Measure the final residual turbidity in each jar

 Plot residual turbidity against pH. 96

 Coagulation Cont…

Optimum pH: 6.3

97
 Coagulation Cont…
Optimum coagulant dose
 Repeat all the previous steps

 This time adjust pH of all jars at optimum

(6.3 found from first test) while mixing using

H2SO4 or NaOH/lime

 Add different doses of the selected coagulant (alum

or iron) to each jar (Coagulant dose: 5; 7; 10; 12; 15;
20 mg/L)

 Rapid mix each jar at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute

 The rapid mix helps to disperse the coagulant

throughout each container

 Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 30 rpm for 15 to

20 mins. 98
 Optimum coagulant dose cont…
 Turn off the mixers and
Optimum coagulant dose: 12.5 mg/L
allow flocs to settle for 30 to
45 mins

 Then measure the final

residual turbidity in each jar

 Plot residual turbidity

against coagulant dose

 The coagulant dose with the

lowest residual turbidity will
be the optimum coagulant
99
dose.
 Coagulation Cont…
Recommended values for coagulants
 Dosage

– Alum: 10-150 mg/L

– Ferric sulfate: 10-250 mg/L

– Ferric chloride: 5-150 mg/L

 pH

– Alum: 5.5-7.7

– Fe3+: 5-8.5

 Initial mixing time (Al3+and Fe3+)

– 1 s and preferably less than 0.5 s

100
 Factors affecting coagulation
 Type of coagulant

 Dose of coagulant

 Characteristic of water

– Type and quantity of suspended matter

– Temperature of water

– pH of water

 Time and method of mixing

101
 Coagulation cont…
Design of rapid mix
Dimensions of the tank
– Determine the tank volume for given detention time

– Assume a depth

– Calculate the tank diameter/width

Power requirements
– Calculate water horsepower
– Calculate electric horsepower

– Estimate power costs

– Calculate impeller size and speed. 102

 Geometry of rapid-mix basin & Detention time
 Should provide uniform mixing

 Should minimize dead areas and short-circuiting

 Usually square basins for mechanical mixers

 Depth-to width ratio: about 2:1m

 Detention time should provide sufficient time for homogenization

of the chemicals with water

 Typical detention time: 10 s to 5 min

 Average detention time: is the average theoretical time required for

the water to flow through the tank length; td = V/Q

Where: td: detention time, min; V: volume of tank, m3; Q: flow

rate, m3/min. 103
 Coagulation cont…
Agitation requirements
G = dv/dy =[ p/(v)]1/2

Where,

G: velocity gradient, s-1 (100 to 1000s-1)

p: power imparted to the water, watt

V : tank volume, m3

µ: absolute viscosity, Pa-s

 The motor power can be calculated if the motor efficiency is

known (motor efficiency = 80-90%)

104
 Coagulation Cont…
Power imparted to the water, P
 It can be calculated by

P = 2nT

P = Npn2d3 (for laminar flow, NR < 10)

P = Npρn3d5 (for turbulent flow, NR < 10,000)

 Where,

n: impeller speed, rps

T: impeller shaft torque, N-m

Np: power number of the impeller (given for different impellers)

d: impeller diameter

ρ: density of fluid, kg/m3 105

 ii) Flocculation?
 Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into a
large size particles known as flocs which can be effectively
removed by sedimentation or flotation.

 Flocculation: is stimulation by mechanical means to agglomerate

destabilized particles into compact, fast settleable particles flocs

 Objective: to bring the particles into contact so that they will

collide, stick together, and grow to a size that will readily settle

 The flocculation process relies on turbulence to promote collisions

 Velocity gradients are also a convenient way of measuring this

turbulence. 106
 Flocculation Cont…

Coagulation aim
 Introduction
 Sedimentation is removal of particulate materials suspended
in water by quiescent settling due to gravity

 It is the process of removing solid particles heavier than

water by gravity force

 Particles that will settle within a reasonable period of time

can be removed using a sedimentation tank (also called
clarifiers)

 It is a commonly used unit operation in water and

wastewater treatment plants.
 Water Treatment: Introduction cont…
• Plain Sedimentation
• Sedimentation after Flocculation
• Sedimentation after Softening

 Wastewater Treatment:
• Grit Removal
• Primary Sedimentation
• Biomass Sedimentation

 Settling particles can be discrete or flocculating in terms of

their change in size

 Discrete particles do not change in size, shape or weight during

sedimentation.

 Flocculating particles show a change in size, shape and weight

during sedimentation.
 Types of sedimentation
 Four types of sedimentation depending on the degree of
interaction between settling particles can be identified
1. Type I: Discrete particle settling
– No interaction between particles
– Settling velocity is constant for individual particles
– Dilute solid’s concentration
– Examples: pre-sedimentation in water treatment, grit removal in
wastewater
2. Type II: Flocculent settling
– Particles collide and adhere to each other resulting in particle growth
– Dilute solid’s concentration
– Examples: coagulation/flocculation settling in water treatment and
primary sedimentation in wastewater treatment.
 Types of sedimentation Cont…

3. Type III: Hindered or zone settling

 Particles are so close together, movement is restricted

 Intermediate solids concentration

 Solids move as a block rather than individual particles

 Fluidic interference causes a reduction in settling velocity

 Distinguishable solids liquid interface

 Intermediate solids concentration

 Example: settling of secondary effluents

 Types of sedimentation Cont…
4. Type IV: Compression settling

 Particles physically in contact

 Water is squeezed out of interstitial spaces

 Volume of solids may decrease

 High concentration of solids (sludges)

 Type I settling and Type II settling are the common

sedimentation processes found in water treatment.

 Settling of Discrete Particles (Type 1 sedimentation)
 Discrete particles in this type of sedimentation settle freely
without interference from adjacent particles.

 The settling of discrete particles in a dilute suspension is

influenced by the following parameters
 Characteristics of the particles
• Size and shape
• Specific gravity
 Properties of the water
• Specific gravity
• Viscosity
 Physical environment of the particle
• Velocity of the water
• Inlet and outlet arrangements of the structure.
 Type I Sedimentation Cont…
 When a particle settles in a fluid it accelerates until the drag
force due to its motion is equal to the submerged weight of the
particle

 At this point, the particle will have reached its terminal

velocity (constant velocity), vs, which can be calculated as:
4 (  s   w ) gd
vs  Where, Vs = settling velocity
3 w CD
ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)

ρw = density of water (kg/m3)

Sg = specific gravity of particle

g = gravitational constant (m/s2)

d = particle diameter (m)

CD = drag coefficient
 Type I Sedimentation Cont…
 In practice, it is found that CD is a function of the Reynolds
Number, Re, and, for spherical particles, it can be represented
by the following expressions:
24
 Re < 1, CD = (Laminar flow)
Re 3
 1 < Re < 104, CD = 24 + 1
2
+ 0.34 (Transition)
Re (Re )
 103 < Re < 105, CD Substituting the above expression for Re
< 1 (laminar flow) in above equation and noting that

Re = wvsd/ (for perfect sphere), Stoke’s law can be obtained:

  0.4 (Turbulent)
 Type I Sedimentation Cont…
 For laminar flow range substituting the value of CD into equation
above, gives:

gd 2 ( S g  1) This equation is called Stokes’ law

gd (  s   w ) = v 
2
vs  s
18
18

Where,
μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)

ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s) =µ/ρw

 Type II Flocculent settling
 Type 2 settling involves flocculating particles in dilute
suspension

 The Stock’s Equation cannot be used because flocculating

particles are continually changing in size, shape, and specific
gravity

 Settling column analysis is with some alteration to that of type-

1 settling can be used for settleability analysis of flocculating
suspension

 Particles collide and adhere to each other resulting in particle

growth

 Examples: coagulation/flocculation settling in water treatment.

 Type II Flocculent settling Cont...

 It is characterized by particles that flocculate during

sedimentation
 Addition of chemicals promotes these particles to exhibit a
natural tendency to agglomerate and their size and settling
velocity will increase
 The trajectory traced by a settling particle will be curvilinear
because of the increase in its settling velocity
 The instantaneous settling velocity is the tangent to the curve
 The average settling velocity for the particle is:
 Type II Flocculent settling Cont...
 The average velocity distribution for the suspension is continually
changing with time

 In water treatment these types of particles occur in Alum or Iron

coagulation

 To design a basin for the flocculent settling, the average settling

velocity distribution variation with time must be found to calculate
the total removal.
 Type II Flocculent settling Cont...
 The design of sedimentation basins is generally based on the
concept of ideal sedimentation basin

 A particle entering the basin will have a horizontal velocity equal to

the velocity of the fluid

 And a vertical velocity, Vs, equal to its terminal settling velocity

defined by Stoke’s or Newton’s law

 If a particle is to be removed, its settling velocity & horizontal

velocity must be such that their resultant V will carry it to the
bottom of the tank before the outlet zone is reached

 If a particle entering at the top of the basin (point a) is so removed,

all particles with the same settling velocity will be removed.
Type II Flocculent settling Cont...
 Type II Flocculent settling Cont...
 Considering the slope of the vector from a to f and the dimensions of the
basin itself, one may write

 This defines the surface over flow rate (SOR) which is numerically equal to the
flow divided by the plan area of the basin (Q/A in m3/s/m)

 SOR represents the settling velocity of the lowest settling particle which is 100%
removed

 Those particles which settle at velocities equal to or greater than the SOR will be
entirely removed, while those which settle at lower velocities will be removed in
direct proportion to the ratio of their settling velocity to Vs.
 Types of Sedimentation Basins and their Design
 Sedimentation tanks are designed in different shapes including
Rectangular, Square, or Circular

 They can be operated continuously or by batch in a horizontal or

vertical direction of flow

 The most appropriate sedimentation tank is the rectangular,

operated with horizontal flow and a continuous basis

 The flow condition in a circular tank is more complicated & the

operation of vertical-flow settling tank is very difficult

 The intermittent tanks sometimes called quiescent type tanks are

simple settling basins, which store the raw water for a certain
period & keep it in complete rest.
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank

 It is assumed that sediment is uniformly distributed as the

water enters the basin.
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…

 Let the water containing uniformly distributed sediment enters a

rectangular tank with a uniform flow velocity of V and the
particle of silt entering the tank will have a vertical falling
velocity of Vs
 Now every discrete particle is moving with a horizontal velocity
V & a downward vertical velocity Vs
 The horizontal velocity is given by:

 And time of horizontal flow is given by:

 The time for falling distance is given by:

 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…

 For the particle to reach the bottom before the water leaves the
tank the time of fall must equal the time of horizontal flow,

i.e. from which;

Where A is the surface area of the tank

 This is the limiting velocity of all to enable the particle to

reach the bottom of the tank

 All particles whose speed greater than Q/A will reach the
bottom before the outlet end of the tank

 In other words, no particles having a settling velocity more

than or equal to Q/A will remain in suspended in such a tank.
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…

 Particles with velocity less than Q/A will be removed in the same
proportion with their velocity to Q/A

 The quantity Q/A = Q/BL (discharge per unit plan area) is

known as the overflow rate or the surface loading or overflow
velocity

 Its normal value ranges between 500-750 litres/hr/m2 for plain

sedimentation & b/n 1000-1250litres/hr/m2 for chemically aid
sedimentation tank

 Decreasing the overflow rate will lead to the settlement of

particles which are having lower values of their settling velocities.
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…

 Detention Time: is the average theoretical time required for the

water to flow through the tank length.

 It is the time which would be required by the flow of water to fill

the tank, if there were no outflows & it is given by:

 The detention time usually ranges b/n 4 to 8 hours for plain

sedimentation, and from 2 to 4 hours when coagulants are used.

 The main features of a horizontal flow rectangular sedimentation

tank can be divided into different areas comprising an inlet,
settling, outlet and sludge accumulation zone.
Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…

 The inlet zone serves to provide even distribution over the full
cross-section

 The outlet zone collects the clarified water uniformly over the full
tank width

 Sludge is accumulated at the bottom, where it is stored and

removed periodically

 The most important area is the settling zone, where solid

separation takes place

 Given a specified raw water quality, the efficiency of a

sedimentation tank is mainly dependent on the surface loading,
the tank depth and detention time.
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…

 Low surface loads should be applied for raw water with poor
settling properties

 Adequate weir loads will prevent formation of undesirable

turbulence in the outlet zone

 An appropriate length to width ratio is important to maintain

laminar flow conditions and to prevent short circuits

 Shallow sedimentation tanks with a depth of approximately 1.5

to 2m will ease manual removal of accumulated sludge

 Other parameters such as the horizontal velocity Vh and the

weir overflow rate (weir loading, qw) also have to be considered
 Design of Continuous flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…

 Excessive horizontal velocity may move some of the previously settled

particles toward the outlet zone

 Horizontal flow velocity should no exceed 9m/hr (0.0025m/sec) for light

flocculent suspensions or about 36m/hr (0.01m/sec) for heavier discrete
particle suspension

 Large weir overflow rates results in excessive velocities at the outlet,

which then extend backward into the settling zone, causing particles &
flocs which would otherwise be removed as sludge to be drawn into the
outlet.

 Overflow rate ranging from 6m3/h per meter of weir for light flocs to
about 14m3/h per meter of weir for heavier discrete particle suspension
are commonly used
 Introduction
 About 5 percent of the suspended solids may still remain as
non settleable floc particles

 These remaining flocs can cause noticeable turbidity and may

shield microorganisms from the subsequent disinfection
process

 Filtration involves the removal of suspended particles from

the water by passing it through a layer or bed of a porous
granular material, such as sand

 As the water flows through the filter bed, the suspended

particles become trapped within the pore spaces of the filter
material, or filter media.
 Filtration Cont…
 Filtration: Removal of colloidal (usually destabilized) and
suspended material from water by passage through layers of
porous media

136
 Filtration Cont…
Types of Granular Filters
 Based on filter media
– Slow sand filtration
– Rapid filtration
– High-rate filters
 Based on driving force
– Gravity filters
– Pressure filters
 Based on flow direction
– Downflow filters
– Upflow filters. 137
 Filtration Cont…

a) Schematic diagram of the b) Schematic diagram of the

filtration process backwash or cleaning cycle of a rapid
filter
 Filtration Cont…
Slow Sand Filters (SSF)
 In slow sand filters, water is allowed at a slow rate through a bed
of sand, so that coarse suspended solids are retained on or near
the surface of the bed.

Fig. Typical slow sand filter

 Slow Sand Filter Cleaning
 Periodic raking and cleaning of the
filter by removing the top two inches
of sand
 After a few cleanings, new sand must
be added to replace the removed sand
 After a cleaning, the filter must be
operated for two weeks, with the
filtered water sent to waste, to allow
the schmutzdecke layer to rebuild.

140
 Filtration Cont…
Advantages of SSF
 Simple to construct and supervise

 Suitable where sand is readily available

 Effective in bacterial removal

 Preferable for uniform quality of treated water

Disadvantages of SSF
 Large area is required

 Unsuitable for treating highly turbid water

 Less flexibility in operation due to seasonal variations in raw

water quality.
 Filtration Cont…

Rapid Sand Filters (RSF)

 The most common type of filter for treating municipal water
supplies

 Water passes downwards through the filter media and the

filters are cleaned by backwashing

 As the name implies, the water flows through the filter bed
much faster (about 100 times as fast) than it flows through the
slow sand filter

 During filtration, the water flows downward through the bed

under the force of gravity.
 Rapid Sand Filters Con…
 When the filter is washed, clean water is forced upward,
expanding the filter bed slightly and carrying away the
accumulated impurities
 This process is called backwashing
 Cleaning by backwash operation is a key characteristic of a
rapid filter

Advantages of RSF
 Turbid water may be treated
 Land required is less compared to slow sand filter
 Operation is continuous.
 Disadvantages
 Requires skilled personnel for operation and maintenance

 Less effective in bacteria removal

 Operational troubles

 Based on filter material, rapid filters may be of three types:

 Single-media filters: these have one type of media, usually

sand or crushed anthracite coal

 Dual-media filters: these have two types of media, usually

crushed anthracite coal and sand

 Multi-media filters: have three types of media, usually

crushed anthracite coal, sand, and garnet.
 Backwashing
 Involves passing water upward through the filter media at a
velocity sufficient to expand (fluidize) the bed and wash out the
accumulated solids

 Done when:
– The head loss through the filter exceeds the design value

– Turbidity breakthrough causes the effluent quality to be less than

a minimum acceptable level

– A pre-selected maximum filter run time has passed since it was last
cleaned

 Filtered water is used which consumes 1-5% of the product water

 Bed expansions are achieved in backwashing. 145

 Duration of backwash and quantity of water
Backwash duration:

 Should be long enough to clean the media bed

 It is a function of:

– Nature of the floc

– Whether air-scour (or surface wash) is used

– The geometry of the filter bed and the wash water troughs

 Usually lasts from 8 to 15 minutes

Quantity of backwash water:

 Depends on wash water flow rate and the duration of the

backwash cycle
146
 Must also include water used to operate the surface wash systems.
 Disinfection Cont…
 Disinfection is the process of killing all pathogens

 Disinfection is treatment used for destruction or removal of

pathogens

 Safe water means water which is

 free from pathogenic bacteria,

 aesthetically acceptable, and

 free from excessive minerals, and poisonous matter

 The purpose of disinfection is to kill all pathogens remaining

after conventional treatment

 The substance used for disinfection is called disinfectant.

 Disinfection Cont…
 Disinfectants must effectively reduce all types of pathogens
without being toxic to humans or domestic animals.

 Additionally, it must not drastically change the taste or color of

water and it must be persistent.

Factors affecting the efficiency of disinfection

 Nature and concentration of organisms

 Nature and concentration of disinfectant

 Nature of water to be disinfected (interfering substances like

NH3, iron, Mn, organic matter)

 Temperature of water and Time of contact.

 Disinfection Cont…
Disinfection methods include:

 Heat

 Mechanical (ultrasonic vibration, membrane filtration)

 Radiation (Gamma, Ultraviolet radiation)

 Chemical

 Halogens (chlorine, bromine, iodine)

 Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)

 Chloramines (ClNH2, Cl2NH, Cl3N)

 Ozone.
 Disinfection Cont…

 Chlorine and its compounds are widely used for the Disinfection
of water because:
 It is available as gas, liquid or powder

 It is cheap

 It is easy to apply due to relatively high solubility (7000mg/l).

 It leaves as a residual in distribution system but not harmful to

man

 It is very toxic to most microorganisms, stopping metabolic

activities

 It uses to oxidize iron, manganese, taste and odour.

 Disinfection Cont…
Chlorination
 The chlorine dosage required is a function of the water's organic
content (including the microorganisms) and the water's reduced
inorganic content

 Reduced inorganics include species such as Fe2+, Mn 2+, NH3,

etc which will be oxidized by chlorine.

 Chlorine is added to the water supply in two ways:

a) It is most often added as a gas, Cl2(g),

b) generated from the vaporization liquid chlorine

 However, it also can be added as a salt, such as sodium

hypochlorite (NaOCl) or bleach.
 Disinfection Cont…
Points of chlorination
1. Pre-chlorination: It is the application of chlorine to water
prior to any unit treatment process.

2. Post chlorination: This is the application of chlorine to

treated water before it enter the distribution system.

3. Re-chlorination: when the distribution system is long and

complex, post-chlorination dosages are not sufficient to get
required Cl2 residuals at consumers end.

 So, stage wise application of chlorine in distribution system is

carried out and is called re-chlorination.
 Wastewater Treatment
General Introduction
 Wastewater or sewage is basically the flow of used water from a

community

 Wastewater is typically over 99% water by weight

 The remainder is solid material either dissolved or in the water or

suspended as particulates

 Sewer systems receive both domestic sewage and storm water runoff

 Sewerage: the system that is used for collecting sewage

 Sewer: individual pipe line used to collect sewage

 Sewage: municipal wastewater and storm runoff.

 Wastewater Treatment Cont…
 It is also essential to collect wastewater generated and treat it

properly and dispose it of properly

 The generated WW should be properly collected, transported,

treated and disposed that is very essential for any community

 Gases or minerals in the air, soil, or rock are dissolved by the water

 Some dissolved materials give water its characteristic taste, and

“pure water” is generally considered to be flat and tasteless.

 So, we have to dispose of the wastewater in an environmentally

friendly manner.
 Wastewater Treatment Cont…

 Now we have to have development; in order to have that

development we have got many industries

 These industries produce pollutants of gaseous in nature,

gaseous pollutants, they produce liquid waste, they also
produce solid waste which may be hazardous

 All these pollutants like gaseous waste, liquid waste and solid
waste are to be treated before they are discharged into the
environment

 This is the responsibility of the industry and government.

 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment
 Before discharged to the environment, WW needs to be treated

 The objective of wastewater treatment are:

• Removes larger particles

• Reduce organic content (reduction of BOD, COD)

• Removal/reduction of nutrients, i..e N, P

• Removal/inactivation of pathogenic microbes and so on.

 Minimum goals of wastewater treatment plants in most countries

(USA given example) are:
• BOD5 = 5mg/L

• Suspended Solids = 30mg/L

• Fecal Coliforms = 200CFU/100mL

• pH = 6-9
 Why do we need to treat Wastewater?
 To prevent groundwater pollution

 To prevent sea shore from being polluted

 To prevent soil pollution

 To prevent marine life

 Protection of public health from different diseases

 To reuse the treated effluent for:

– Agriculture

– Ground water recharge

– Industrial recycle

 Solving social problems caused by the accumulation of

wastewater.
 Wastewater Treatment Cont…

 Raw wastewater is rich with nitrogen and phosphorus (N, P)

and leads to the phenomena of ‘Eutrophication’

 Raw wastewater is rich with organic matter which consumes

oxygen in aquatic environment

 Raw wastewater may contains toxic gases and volatile

organic matter.
 Wastewater Treatment Cont…

 Note that many pollutants fall into several categories:

 For example, some biodegradable organic matter (one category) is

in the form of suspended solids (another category), so removal of
SS sometimes results in the removal of organic matter

 As an example consider the content of typical municipal

wastewater as represented by its solids content

 Each solids “type” may require a different type of treatment

process

 We generally try to remove large very Settleable or screenable

particles first and then proceed to the smallest and finally to the
soluble species.
 Wastewater Treatment Cont…
 In general, the goal of wastewater treatment is to transform raw
sewage into water clean enough to be discharged into a lake or
stream without causing harmful environmental or ecological
consequences

 Effective sewage treatment combines physical, chemical, and

biological processes to accomplish several goals:
1) to reduce “aesthetic pollution”- unsightly or smelly organic
matter;

2) to kill pathogenic microorganisms and remove toxic wastes;

3) to reduce organic material or B.O.D.; and

4) to remove inorganic nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) that

can cause eutrophication.
 Wastewater Types
 Domestic wastewater:– human waste and washwater from
houses (homes)

 Institutional wastewater:– human waste and washwater from

public buildings and commercial establishments

 Industrial wastewater:– used water from manufacturing

processes contains different chemical compounds

 Municipal wastewater:– mixture of domestic and industrial

wastewater
 Wastewater Treatment Standards
 Effluents from different establishments should be treated before being
discharged to receiving bodies so that it should be:

1. Free from materials and heat in quantities, concentrations or

combinations which are toxic or harmful to human, animal, aquatic life

2. Free from anything that will settle in receiving waters forming

putrescence or otherwise objectionable sludge deposits, or that will
adversely affect aquatic life

3. Free from floating debris, oil, scum and other materials in amounts
sufficient to be noticeable in receiving waters;

4. Free from materials and heat that alone, or in combination with other
materials will produce color, turbidity, taste or odour in sufficient
concentration to create a nuisance or adversely affect aquatic life in
receiving waters;
4. Free from nutrients in concentrations that create nuisance growths
of aquatic weeds or algae in the receiving waters

Specific Limits
 Effluents discharged to receiving water bodies should achieved the
following minimum wastewater quality limits:
Parameter Effluent limit
BOD5 20mg/l
TSS 30mg/l
Nitrates (as 30mg/l
Nitrogen)
Phosphate 10mg/l
COD 100mg/l
pH 6-9
Fecal Coliform 1000MPN/100ml
Residual Chlorine 1.5mg/l
 Flow Sheets for Wastewater Treatment Systems
 Wastewater treatment flow sheets serve as a tool for sharing the
steps and inner workings of a wastewater treatment project and
the design of process

 Flow sheet involves selection of an appropriate combination of

various unit operations and unit processes to achieve a desired
degree of contaminant removal

 The selection of unit operations and processes primarily depends

on the characteristics of the sewage and the required level of
contaminants permitted in the treated effluents

 The design process flow sheet is important step in overall design

of wastewater treatment and requires through understanding of
the treatment units.
 Flow Sheets for Wastewater Treatment Systems Cont…
 The main contaminants in domestic sewage to be removed are:
 biodegradable organics, Suspended Solids (SS) and pathogens, with
first two having been considered as the performance indicators for
various treatment units
 In general, the objective of the domestic wastewater treatment is to bring
down BOD less than 30 mg/L and SS less than 30 mg/L for disposal into
inland water bodies
 The conventional flow sheet of sewage treatment plant consists of unit
operations such as screening, grit removal, and Primary Settling Tank
(PST), followed by unit process of aerobic biological treatment such as
Activated Sludge Process (ASP) or Trickling Filter
 The sludge removed from primary and secondary sedimentation tanks
are digested anaerobically followed by drying of anaerobically digested
sludge on sand drying beds.
Fig: Flow Sheets for Wastewater Treatment Systems
b) Wastewater Characteristics

168
 General Introduction Cont…
 Generally, Wastewater is over 99% water and 1% solids

 The main task in treating the wastewater is simply to

remove most or all of this 1% of solids

169
 General Introduction Cont…
 Wastewater contains many different substances that can be
used to characterize it

 The specific substances and amounts or concentrations of

each will vary depending on the source

 It is difficult to precisely characterize wastewater

 Instead, wastewater characterization is usually based on and

applied to an average domestic wastewater

Note: Keep in mind that other sources and types of

wastewater can dramatically change the characteristics

170
 A) Physical Characteristcs
1. Odor
 Odor is produced by gas production due to the decomposition
of organic matter or by substances added to the wastewater
 Fresh wastewater has a disagreeable odor, which is less
objectionable than the odors of septic wastewater due to
hydrogen sulfide, which is produced by an aerobic
microorganism that reduces sulfite to sulfides
 Industrial wastewater may contain either odorous compound
or compounds that produce odors during the process of
wastewater treatment
 Detection of odor: Odor is measured by special instruments
such as the Portable H2S meter which is used for measuring
171
the concentration of hydrogen sulfide.
 Physical characteristics Cont…
 The elimination of odors has become major consideration in
the design and operation of wastewater collection, treatment,
and disposal facilities, especially with respect to the public
acceptable of these facilities.

172
 Physical characteristics Cont…
2. Temperature
 The temperature of water is a very important parameter because
of its effect on the aquatic life
 The temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of
water supply which affects aquatic life ( like fish, …)
 Oxygen solubility is less in warm water than cold water
 Optimum temperature for bacterial activity is in the range of
25°C to 35°C
 Aerobic digestion and nitrification stop when the temperature
rises to 50oC
 When the temperature drops to about 15°c, methane producing
bacteria become inactive
 Nitrifying bacteria stop activity at about 5°c. 173
 Physical characteristics Cont…
3. Color
 Fresh wastewater is light brownish gray color
 However, typical wastewater is gray and has a cloudy appearance
 The color of the wastewater will change significantly if allowed to go septic
(if travel time in the collection system increases)
 Typical septic wastewater will have a black color

4. Turbidity
 Sewage is normally turbid, resembling dirty dish water or wastewater from
baths having other floating matter like fecal matter, pieces of paper, cigarette-
ends, match-sticks, greases, vegetable debris, fruit skins, soaps, etc.
 It's a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water
 The turbidity increases as sewage becomes stronger
 The degree of turbidity can be measured and tested by turbidity rods or by
174
turbid-meters, as is done for testing raw water supplied.
B)Chemical characteristics of Wastewater
 In describing the chemical characteristics of wastewater, the
discussion generally includes topics such as organic matter,
inorganic matter, gases and etc.

 For the sake of simplicity, chemical characteristics can be

described in terms of:

 alkalinity,  pH,
 biological oxygen demand
 phosphorus,
(BOD),
 chemical oxygen demand  chloride
(COD),  solids (organic, inorganic,
 dissolved gases,
SS, DS ). 175
 nitrogen compounds,
1. Total Solids, Suspended Solids and Settleable Solids
 Most pollutants found in wastewater can be classified as solids

 Wastewater treatment is generally designed to remove solids or to

convert solids to a form that is more stable or can be removed

 Solids present in sewage may be in any of the four forms: suspended

solids, dissolved solids, colloidal solids, and settleable solids

 Suspended solids are those solids which remain floating in sewage

 Dissolved solids are those which remain dissolved in sewage just as

salt in water

 Colloidal solids are finely divided solids remaining either in solution

or in suspension.

176
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
 Settleable solids are that portion of solid matter which settles out,
if sewage is allowed to remain undisturbed for a period of 2 hours

 In general, solids in water and wastewater classified into the

following main types:

 Total Solids (TS):- residue remaining after evaporation and drying

of wastewater sample in stove (103 to 105oC)

 Volatile Solids (VS):- solids that can be volatilized and burned off
when the TS are incinerated (500±50 oC)

 Suspended Solids (SS):- portion of TS retained on a glass fiber filter

(pore size~1.5 µm)

 Dissolved Solids (DS):- solids that passes through the filter paper. 177
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
 The proportion of these different types of solids is generally found

to be as given below:

 Inorganic matter consists of minerals and salts, like:

– sand, gravel, debris, dissolved salts, chlorides, sulphates, etc.

 Organic matter consists of:

(i) Carbohydrates such as cellulose, cotton, fiber, starch, sugar, etc.

(ii) Fats and oils received from kitchens, laundries, garages, shops, etc.

(iii) Nitrogenous compounds like proteins and their decomposed

products, including wastes from animals, urea, fatty acids,

hydrocarbons, etc. 178

 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…

2. Alkalinity

 This is a measure of the wastewater’s capability to neutralize acids

 It is measured in terms of bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide

alkalinity

3. pH

 This is a method of expressing the acid condition of the wastewater

 The determination of pH value of sewage is important, because of

the fact that efficiency of certain treatment methods depends upon
the availability of a suitable pH value

 Biological wastewater treatment are better conducted at pH close to

neutrality (6.6 to 7.8). 179
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…

 pH is one of the environmental factor that selects the

microorganisms population

 For proper treatment, wastewater pH should normally be in the

range of 6.5 to 9.0

 pH is expressed on a scale of 1 to 14:

 pH = 7…Neutral, pH > 7…Alkaline and pH < 7…Acidic

 It may also be mentioned here that the fresh sewage is generally

alkaline in nature (with pH more than 7); but as time passes, its
pH tends to fall due to production of acids by bacterial action in
anaerobic or nitrification processes

 The pH, however, rises upon treatment of sewage 180

 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
4. Chloride Contents
 Chlorides are generally found in municipal sewage and are derived
from the kitchen wastes, human feces, and urinary discharges, etc

 The normal chloride content of domestic sewage is 120mg/l,

whereas, the permissible chloride content for water supplies is
250mg/l

 However, large amounts of chlorides may enter from industries

like ice cream plants, meat salting, etc., thus, increasing the
chloride contents of sewage

 Hence, when the chloride content of a given sewage is found to be

high, it indicates the presence of industrial wastes or infiltration of
sea water, thereby indicating the strength of sewage. 181
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
 The chloride content can be measured by titrating the wastewater
(i.e. sewage) with standard silver nitrate solution, using potassium
chromate as indicator as is done for testing water supplies

 It affects the biological process in high concentrations

5. Dissolved gases

 These are gases that are dissolved in wastewater

 The specific gases and normal concentrations are based upon the
composition of the wastewater

 Typical domestic wastewater contains oxygen in relatively low

concentrations, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide (if septic
182
conditions exist).
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
6. Nitrogen compounds
 The type and amount of nitrogen present will vary from the
raw wastewater to the treated effluent

 Nitrogen follows a cycle of oxidation and reduction

 The presence of nitrogen in sewage indicates the presence of

organic matter, and may occur in one or more of the following
forms:

(a) Free ammonia, called ammonia nitrogen; (c) Nitrites;

(b) Albuminoid nitrogen, called Organic nitrogen; (d) Nitrates

 Most of the nitrogen in untreated wastewater will be in the

forms of organic nitrogen and ammonia nitrogen. 183
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
 The free ammonia indicates the very first stage of
decomposition of organic matter (thus indicating recently,
staled sewage);

 Albuminoid nitrogen indicates quantity of nitrogen present in

sewage before the decomposition of organic matter is started;

 The nitrites indicate the presence of partly decomposed (not

fully oxidized) organic matter; and nitrates indicate the
presence of fully oxidized organic matter

 The nitrites thus indicate the intermediate stage of conversion

of organic matter of sewage into stable forms, thus indicating
the progress of treatment. 184
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…

 Their presence will show that treatment given to sewage is still

incomplete, and the sewage is stale

 Whereas, the presence of nitrates indicate the most stable form

of nitrogenous matter contained in sewage, thus indicating the
well oxidized and treated sewage.
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…

7. Phosphorus
 This element is essential to biological activity and must be
present in at least minimum quantities or secondary treatment
processes will not perform

 Excessive amounts can cause stream damage and excessive algal

growth

 Phosphorus will normally be in the range of 6 to 20mg/l

 The removal of phosphate compounds from detergents has had

a significant impact on the amounts of phosphorus in
wastewater
186
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
8. Presence of Fats, Oils and Greases (FOG)
 Greases, fats and oils are derived in sewage from the discharges of
animals and vegetable matter, or from the industries like garages,
kitchens of hotels and restaurants, etc.

 Such matter form scum on the top of the sedimentation tanks and
clog the voids of the filtering media

 Thus, they interfere with the normal treatment methods, and

hence need proper detection and removal

 The amount of fats and greases in a sewage sample is determined

by making use of the fact that oils and greases are soluble in ether,
and when the ether is evaporated, it leaves behind ether-soluble-
matter, which represents the quantity of fats and oils. 187
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
 Hence, in order to estimate their amount a sample of sewage is first of all
evaporated

 The residual solids left are then mixed with ether (hexane)

 The solution is then poured off and evaporated, leaving behind the fats
and greases as a residue which can be easily weighed

9. Sulphides, Sulphates and Hydrogen Sulphide Gas

 The determination of sulphides and sulphates in sewage is rarely called far,

although their presence reflects aerobic, and/or anaerobic decomposition

 Sulphides and sulphates are formed due to the decomposition of various

sulphur containing substances present in sewage

 This, decomposition also leads to evolution of hydrogen sulphide gas,

causing bad smells and odours, besides causing corrosion of concrete sewer
188
pipes.
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
 In aerobic digestion of sewage, the aerobic and facultative
bacteria oxidize the sulphur and its compounds present in
sewage to initially form sulphides, which ultimately break
down to form sulphate ions (SO42-), which is a stable and an
unobjectionable end product

 The initial decomposition is associated with formation of H2S

gas, which also ultimately gets oxidized to form sulphate ions

 In anaerobic digestion of sewage, however, the anaerobic and

facultative bacteria reduce the sulphur and its compounds into
sulphides, with evolution of H2S gas along with methane and
189

carbon dioxide, thus causing very obnoxious smells and odour.

 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
10. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
 The determination of dissolved oxygen present in sewage is
very important, because: while discharging the treated sewage
into some river stream, it is necessary to ensure minimum
requirement of DO in it; as otherwise, fish are likely to be
killed, creating nuisance near the vicinity of disposal

 To ensure this, DO tests are performed during sewage disposal

treatment processes

 The DO test performed on sewage before treatment helps in

indicating the condition of sewage.
190
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…

 It is well known by now that only very fresh sewage contains

some dissolved oxygen, which is soon depleted by aerobic
decomposition

 Also the dissolved oxygen in fresh sewage depends upon

temperature

 If the temperature of sewage is more, the DO content will be less

 The solubility of oxygen in sewage is 95% of that in distilled water

 DO content of sewage is generally determined by the Winkler's

method which is an oxidation-reduction process carried out
chemically to liberate iodine in amount equivalent to the quantity
of dissolved oxygen originally present. 191
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
11. Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
 Biochemical oxygen demand is used as a measure of the quantity
of oxygen required for oxidation of biodegradable organic matter
present in the wastewater by aerobic biochemical action

 The rate of oxygen consumption in a wastewater is affected by a

number of variables: temperature, pH, the presence of certain kinds of
microorganisms, and the type of organic and inorganic material in the
wastewater

 BOD directly affects the amount of DO within the wastewater

 The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the
water body, leaving less oxygen available to higher forms of
aquatic life. 192
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
 The consequences of high BOD are the same as those for low
DO: aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die

 BOD measurement permits an estimate of the waste strength in

terms of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break
down the wastewater

12. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

 COD measures the total quantity of oxygen required for

oxidation of organics into carbon dioxide and water

 The oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter present in a

given wastewater can be theoretically computed, if the organics
present in wastewater are known. 193
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…
 Thus, if the chemical formulas and the concentrations of the
chemical compounds present in water are known to us, we can
easily calculate the theoretical oxygen demand of each of these
compounds by writing the balanced reaction for the compound
with oxygen to produce CO2, H2O and oxidized inorganic
components

 Hence, if the organic compounds and their concentrations are

known, the theoretical oxygen demand of the water can be
accurately calculated, but it is virtually impossible to know the
details of the organic compounds present in any natural raw
water or a wastewater. 194
 Chemical characteristics of wastewater Cont…

13. Total Organic Carbon

 Carbon is the primary constituent of organic matter, and hence
the chemical formula of every organic compound will reflect
the extent of carbon present inthat compound

 Known concentrations of such chemical compounds in a given

wastewater will thus enable us to theoretically calculate the
carbon present in that wastewater per liter of solution.

195
C)Biological Characteristics of Wastewater
 The environmental engineer must have considerable
knowledge of the biological characteristics of wastewater
because it is a very important characteristics factor in
wastewater treatment that include:
 The principal groups of microorganism found in surface water
and wastewater,

 The pathogenic organism in wastewater,

 The organism used as indicator of pollution and their

significance, and

 The method used to evaluate the toxicity of treated wastewater

196
 Biological Characteristics Cont…
 The bacterial characteristics of sewage are due to the presence of
bacteria and other living micro-organisms, such as algae, fungi,
protozoa, etc.

 The order of 5 – 50 billion per liter of sewage) is harmless non-

pathogenic bacteria

 They are useful and helpful in bringing oxidation and decomposition

of sewage

 A little number of bacteria, however, is disease producing pathogens,

and it is they who constitute the real danger to the health of the public

 In case of sewage, the routine bacteriological tests as performed on

water supply samples and are generally not performed because of the
high concentration of bacteria present in it. 197
 Biological Characteristics Cont…
 But at the times of epidemiological investigations, certain tests
may be useful for separating the pathogenic bacteria

 The bacteriological counts may also be useful where the

treatment processes are likely to be affected adversely by
bactericidal industrial wastewaters

Microorganism
 The principal groups are plant and animals

 The category includes bacteria, fungi, protozoa and algae

 Seed plants, ferns and mosses and liver warts are classified as
plants Invertebrates and vertebrates are classified as animals

 Viruses are classified according to the host infected. 198

 Main groups of Microorganisms in Water and WW
 The main microorganisms of concern in wastewater
treatment are:

 Bacteria,

 Fungi,

 Algae,

 Protozoa,

 Viruses, and

 Pathogenic microorganisms groups.

199
 Biological Characteristics Cont…
i. Bacteria

 Types: Spheroid, rod curved rod, spiral, filamentous. Some

important bacteria are:-

 Pseudomonas:- reduce NO3 to N2, so it is very important in

biological nitrate removal in treatment works

 Zoogloea:- helps through its slime production in the formation of

flocs in the aeration tanks

 Sphaerotilus natuns: Causes sludge bulking in the aeration tanks

 Bdellovibrio: destroy pathogens in biological treatment

 Acinetobacter: Store large amounts of phosphate under aerobic

conditions and release it under an – anaerobic condition so, they
are useful in phosphate removal. 200
 Biological Characteristics Cont…
 Nitrosomonas: transform NH4-NO2-

 Nitrobacter: transform NO2 into NO3-

 Coliform bacteria:- the most common type is E-Coli or

Echerichia Coli, (indicator for the presence of pathogens)

 E-Coli is measured in (No/100mL)

201
 Biological Characteristics Cont…
ii. Fungi

 Are important in decomposing organic matter to simple forms

iii. Algae

 Cause eutrophication phenomena (negative effect)

 Useful in oxidation ponds (positive effect)

 Cause taste and problems when decayed (negative effect)

iv. Protozoa

 Feed on bacteria so they help in the purification of treated

wastewater

 Some of them are pathogenic.

202
 Biological Characteristics Cont…
iv. Viruses

 Viruses are a major hazard to public health. Some viruses can live as
long as 41 days in water and wastewater at 20oC

v. Pathogenic organisms

 The main categories of pathogens are:-

– Bacteria, Viruses, protozoa, helminthes

 Bacteria: evaluated by the MPN (Most Probable Number)

 E. Coli (fecal coliform); E. Coli is not a pathogenic microorganism

 It is just an indicator of fecal contamination

 Protozoa: evaluated for specific organisms (Cryptosporidium parvum

- oocysts, Entamoeba histolytica – cysts, Giardia lambria-cysts)
203
 Helminths: evaluated by counting eggs.
204
205
 a) Preliminary Wastewater Treatment
 Preliminary treatment consists solely in separating the floating
materials (like dead animals, tree branches, papers, pieces of
rags, wood, etc.), and also the heavy settleable inorganic solids

 It also helps in removing the oils and greases, etc. from the
sewage

 This treatment reduces the BOD of the wastewater, by about

15 to 30%

 The processes used are:

 Screening for removing floating papers, rags, clothes, etc

 Grit chambers or Detritus tanks for removing grit and sand;

and Skimming tanks for removing oils and greases 206
 Preliminary Treatment Cont…
 Generally, the removal of wastewater constituents such as rags,
sticks, floatable grit, and grease that may cause maintenance or
operational problem with the treatment operations, processes,
and ancillary system

 Preliminary treatment consists of the following units:

– Screening: for removal of floating matter
– Grit chamber: for removal of sand and grits
– Comminuters: for grinding large size suspended solids
– Skimming tanks: for removal of oil and grease
– Flow measuring units such as partial flume
– Pumps
– Pre-aeration units 207
 Preliminary Treatment Cont…
 Preliminary treatment is mainly intended for the removal of:
 Coarse solid

 Grit

 The basic removal mechanism are of physical order

 Besides the coarse solids removal units, there is also a flow

measurements units

 of coarse solids is frequently done by screens or racks, but static or

rotating screens and comminutors can also be used

 In the screening, material with dimensions larger than the spaces

between the bars is removed

 There are coarse, medium, and fine screens, depending on the spacing
between the bars
208
 The removal of the retained material can be manual or mechanized.
 Preliminary Treatment Cont…
 The removal of sand contained in the sewage is done through special
units called grit chambers

 The purpose of grit chamber is to remove inorganic grit/sand 0.2-1

mm size through differential settling

 The sand removal mechanism is simply by sedimentation: the sand

grains go to the bottom of the tank due to their dimensions and
density, while the organic matter, which settles much slower, stays in
suspension and goes on to the downstream units

 Comminutors are mechanical cutting screens that reduce the size of

large objects

 Shredded matter are returned to the flow streams

209
 1. Screening
 Screening is the very first operation carried out at a sewage
treatment plant, and consists of passing the sewage through
different types of screens, so as to trap and remove the floating
matter, such as pieces of cloth, paper, wood, cork, hair, fiber,
kitchen refuse, fecal solids, etc. present in sewage

 These floating materials, if not removed, will choke the pipes,

or adversely affect the working of the sewage pumps

 Thus, the main idea of providing screens is to protect the

pumps and other equipment's from the possible damages due to
the floating matter of the sewage.
210
 Types of Screens, their Designs and Cleaning
 Depending upon the size of the openings, screens may be classified as
coarse screens, medium screens, and fine screens

(i) Coarse screens are also known as Racks, and the spacing between the
bars (i.e. opening size) is about 50 mm or more. These screens do help
in removing large floating objects from sewage. They will collect
about 6 liters of solids per million liter of sewage

(ii) In medium screens, the spacing between bars is about 6 to 40 mm

 These screens will ordinarily collect 30 to 90 liters of material per

million liter of sewage

 The screenings usually contain some quantity of organic material,

which may putrefy and become offensive, and must, therefore, be
211
disposed of by incineration, or burial (not by dumping).
 Preliminary Treatment Cont…
 Rectangular shaped coarse and medium screens are now-a-days widely used at
sewage treatment plants

 They are made of steel bars, fixed parallel to one another at desired spacing on
a rectangular steel frame, and are called bar screens

 The screens are set in a masonry or R.C.C. chamber, called the screen
chamber

 Now-a-days, these screens are generally kept inclined at about 30 to 60° to the
direction of flow, so as to increase the opening area and to reduce the flow
velocity; and thus making the screening more effective

 While designing the screens, clear openings should have sufficient total area,
so that the velocity through them is not more than 0.8 to 1m/sec

 This limit placed on velocity limits the head loss through the screens, and,
212
thus, reduces the opportunity for screenings to be pushed through the screens.
 The material collected on bar screens can be removed either manually or
mechanically

 Manual cleaning is practiced at small plants with hand operated rakes

 The inclined screens help in their cleaning by the upward stroke of the
rake

 Screens are sometimes classified as fixed or movable, depending upon

whether the screens are stationary or capable of motion

 Fixed screens are permanently set in position.

213
 Movable screens are stationary during their operating periods

 But they can be lifted up bodily and removed from their positions for
the purpose of cleaning

 A common movable bar medium screen is a 3-sided cage with a

bottom of perforated plates. It is mainly used in deep pits ahead of
pumps

(iii) Fine Screens have perforations of 1.5 mm to 3 mm in size

 The installation of these screens proves very effective, and they

remove as much as 20% of the suspended solids from sewage

 These screens, however, get clogged very often, and need frequent
cleaning.

 They are, therefore, used only for treating the industrial wastewaters,
214
or for treating those municipal wastewaters.
2. Comminutors
 Comminutors or Shredders are the patented
devices, which break the larger sewage solids to
about 6mm in size, when the sewage is screened
through them

 Such a device consists of a revolving slotted

drum, through which the sewage is screened

 Comminutors are of recent origin, and

eliminate the problem of disposal of screenings,
by reducing the solids to a size which can be
processed elsewhere in the plant

 They should always be preceded by grit

chambers to prevent their excessive wear. 215
3. Disposal of Screenings
 The material separated by screens is called the screenings

 It contains 85 to 90% of moisture and other floating matter

 It may also contain some organic load which may putrefy, causing bad smells
and nuisance

 To avoid such possibilities, the screenings are disposed of either by burning,

or by burial, or by dumping

 Burning of the screenings is done in the incinerators, similar to those used for
burning garbage. The process of burning is called Incineration

 The screenings may also be disposed of by burial. The process is technically

called composting

 Another method of disposing of the screenings is by dumping them in low

lying areas (away from the residential areas) or in large bodies of water, such
as sea. 216
 Primary Wastewater Treatment
 Removal of a portion of the suspended solids and organic
matter from the wastewater

 Enhanced removal of suspended solids and organic matter from

the wastewater

 This is usually accomplished by sedimentation in settling basins

 Typically accomplished by chemical addition or filtration

known as coagulation and flocculation

 Primary treatment consists of the Settling Tanks

 Coagulation/Flocculation: Secondary Settling Tanks

217
 Primary Treatment Cont…
 Primary removal treatment aims at the removal of:

– Settleable suspended solid

– Floating solids

 After passing the preliminary treatment units, sewage still

contains non-coarse suspended solids, which can be partially
removed in sedimentation units

 A significant part of these suspended solids is comprised of

organic matter in suspension

 In this way, its removal by simple processes such a s

sedimentation implies a reduction in the BOD load is directed
to the secondary treatment, where its removal is expensive 218
 Primary Treatment Cont…
Sedimentation
1. Necessity of Sedimentation in Treatment of Wastewaters

 As discussed in the previous slides, the screens and the grit chambers do
remove most of the floating materials (like paper, rags, cloth, wood, tree
branches, etc.) and the heavy inorganic settleable solids from the sewage.

 However, a part of the suspended organic solids which are too heavy to
be removed as floating matters, and too light to be removed by grit
chamber (designed to remove only the heavy inorganic solids of size
more than 0.2 mm and of sp. gravity 2.65) are generally removed by the
sedimentation tanks

 The sedimentation tanks are thus designed to remove a part of the

organic matter from the sewage effluent coming out from the grit
219
chambers.
 Primary Treatment
Cont…
 In a complete sewage treatment, the sedimentation is, in fact,
carried out twice; once before the biological treatment (i.e.
primary sedimentation) and once after the biological treatment
(i.e. secondary sedimentation)

 When chemical coagulants are also used for flocculating the

organic mmatter during the process of sedimentation, the
process is called chemical precipitation or sedimentation aided
with coagulation.

220
 Types of Settling
 Depending on the particles concentration and the interaction
between particles, four types of settling can occur

 Discrete Settling , Flocculent Settling, Hidered Settling &

Compression Settling

1. Discrete particle settling

 The particles settle without interaction and occur under low solids
concentration

 A typical occurrence of this type of settling is the removal of sand

particles

221
2. Flocculent Settling
 This is defined as a condition where particles initially settle
independently, but flocculate in the depth of the clarification unit
 The velocity of settling particles isusually increasing as the
particles aggregates

3. Hindered/zone settling
 Inter-particle forces are sufficient to hinder the settling of
neighboring particles
 The particles tend to remain in fixed positions with respect to
each others
 This type of settling is typical in the settler for the activated sludge
process (secondary clarifier). 222
 4. Compression settling
 This occurs when the particle concentration is so high that so
that particles at one level are mechanically influenced by
particles on lower levels

 The settling velocity then drastically reduces

Figure: Discrete Flocculent Hindered Compression 223

 Theory of Type I Settling
 The settlement of a particle in water brought to rest is opposed by
the following factors:

(i) The velocity of flow which carries the particle horizontally

 The greater the flow area, the lesser is the velocity, and hence
more easily the particle will settle down

(ii) The viscosity of water in which the particle is travelling

 The viscosity varies inversely with temperature

 The settling velocity of a spherical particle is expressed by Stoke's

law, which takes the above three factors into account.

 The final Stoke's equation for d < 0.1mm is expressed as:

gd 2 ( S g  1)
vs 
18 224
 Type I Settling Cont…
 For viscous flow and small sized particles represented by Re<1
Where:
Vs-velocity of settlement particles (assumed to be spherical) in
m/sec
d-Diameter of the particle, m
Sg-specific gravity of the particle
ν = kinematic viscosity in m2/s and equal to µ/ρw
Where

μ = dynamic viscosity in Pa·s

ρw = density of water in kg/m3

225
 Type I Settling Cont…
 The above Stoke's equation is valid for particles of size less
than 0.1mm; in which case, the viscous force predominates
over the inertial force, leading to what is known as streamline
settling
 If, however, the settling particles are larger than 0.1mm, the
nature of settling tends to become turbulent, with a transition
zone in between
 It has been established that turbulent settling occurs for particle
size greater than 1.0mm, whereas settling remains transition
settling for particle sizes between 0.1mm to 1.0mm
 The relation between coefficient of drag (CD) and Re for these
three types of settling are as follows: 226
 Type I Sedimentation cont…
 When a particle settles in a fluid it accelerates until the drag force
due to its motion is equal to the submerged weight of the particle

 At this point, the particle will have reached its terminal velocity
(constant velocity), vs, which can be calculated as:

4 (  s   w ) gd
vs 
3 w CD
Where, Vs = settling velocity

ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)

ρw = density of water (kg/m3)

g = gravitational constant (m/s2)

d = particle diameter (m)

CD = drag coefficient 227

 Type I Settling Cont…
(a) For laminar settling (d < 0.1mm), Here Re < 1; and

 This equation is known as Newton's equation for turbulent settling

 The above formulas represent the theoretical settling velocities of

discrete spherical particles.
228
 i. Types of Sedimentation Tanks
 Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously

 The Intermittent settling tanks called quiescent type tanks are simple
settling tanks which store sewage for a certain period and keep it in
complete rest

 After giving it a rest of about 24 hours, during which the suspended

particles settle down to the bottom of the tank, the cleaner sewage from
the top may be drawn off and the tank be cleaned off the settled silt

 The tank is again filled with raw sewage to continue the next operation

 This type of tank, thus, functions intermittently as a period of about 30

to 36 hours is required to put the tank again in working condition
necessitates the commissioning of at least two tanks.

229
 Such tanks are generally not preferred, because a lot of time
and labor is wasted and more units are required

 They have, therefore, become comp1etely obsolete these days

 In a continuous flow type of a sedimentation tank, which is

generally used in modem days, the flow velocity is only
reduced, and the sewage is not brought to complete rest, as is
done in an intermittent type

 The working of such a tank is simple, as the wastewater enters

from one end, and comes out from the other end

 The velocity is sufficiently reduced by providing sufficient

length of travel. 230
 The velocity is so adjusted that the time taken by the particle
to travel from one end to another is slightly more than the
time required for settlement of that particle

 The theory and design of such a tank is discussed below in

details details.

231
ii. Design of a Continuous Flow Type of a Sedimentation Tank
 In the theory which is applied to the design of such
sedimentation basins, it is assumed that the sediment is
uniformly distributed as the sewage enters the basin

 Let the wastewater containing uniformly distributed sediment

enters the rectangular tank with a uniform velocity V

 If Q is the discharge entering the basin, the flow velocity V is

given by:

232
 Design of Cont. flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…

233
Figure: Elevation of a rectangular Sedimentation Tank
 Design of Cont. flow type of Sedimentation Tank cont…
 In the settling zone, every discrete particle is moving with a
horizontal velocity V and a downward vertical velocity Vs

 The resultant path is given by the vector sum of its flow

velocity (V) and its settling velocity (Vs)

 Assuming that all those particles, whose paths of travel are

above the line BD, will pass through the basin, we have from
geometric considerations:

234
SECONDARY/BIOLOGICAL

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

235
 A) Secondary Treatment
 The objective of secondary treatment is the further treatment of
the effluent from primary treatment to remove the residual
organics and suspended solids

 In most cases, secondary treatment follows primary treatment and

involves the removal of biodegradable dissolved and colloidal
organic matter using aerobic biological treatment processes

 Aerobic biological treatment is performed in the presence of

oxygen by aerobic microorganisms (principally bacteria) that
metabolize the organic matter in the wastewater, thereby
producing more microorganisms and inorganic end-products
(principally CO2, NH3, and H2O).
236
 Secondary treatment Cont…
 Secondary treatment units follow primary treatment units and
are used to Biologically treat the primary effluent

 Secondary treatment employs bacteria and protozoa in an

aerobic environment to convert the incoming organic
contaminants into microbial suspended solids that can be
removed by physical treatment, secondary sedimentation

 Secondary treatment of sewage involves biological processes

that convert the finely divided and dissolved organic matter
into flocculent settleable solids that can be removed in
sedimentation tanks.

237
The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment
 Micro-organisms, such as bacteria, play an important role in the
natural cycling of materials and particularly in the decomposition
of organic wastes

 The role of micro-organisms is elaborated further here because

they are also important in the treatment of wastewater

 Waste from humans become a useful food substrate for the micro-
organisms

 In both natural and engineered treatment systems, micro-

organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and others play an
essential role in the conversion of organic waste to more stable,
less polluting substances.
238
 The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment Cont…
 In a natural water body, e.g. river or lake, the number and type of
micro-organisms depends on the degree of pollution

 The general effect of pollution appears to be a reduction in species

numbers

 For example in a badly polluted lake, there are fewer species but in
larger numbers, while in a healthy lake there can be many species
present but in lower numbers

 Micro-organisms are always present in the environment and given

the right conditions of food availability, temperature and other
environmental factors, they grow and multiply

239
 The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment Cont…
 Micro-organisms require cellular building blocks, such as (carbon) C,
(hydrogen) H, (oxygen) O, (nitrogen) N, (phosphorus) P, and
minerals for growth
 Micro-organisms also require energy in which they obtain through
respiration
 In this process organic carbon is oxidized to release its energy
 Oxygen or other hydrogen acceptors is needed for the respiration
process
 Algae and photosynthetic bacteria can also utilize energy from
sunlight, while certain types of bacteria can utilize energy from
chemical reactions not involving respiration
 The building blocks and energy are used to synthesize more cells for
growth and also for reproduction.
240
 The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment Cont…
 In the treatment of wastewater, three types of overall processes
are distinguished to represent the conversion of organic wastes
by micro-organisms

 These classifications are aerobic, anaerobic or photosynthetic

i. Under aerobic conditions (in the presence of oxygen), micro-

organisms utilize oxygen to oxidize organic substances to obtain
energy for maintenance, mobility and the synthesis of cellular
material

ii. Under anaerobic conditions (in the absence of oxygen) the

micro-organisms utilize nitrates, sulphates and other hydrogen
acceptors to obtain energy for the synthesis of cellular material
241
from organic substances.
 The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment Cont…
iii. Photosynthetic organisms use carbon dioxide as a carbon
source, inorganic nutrients as sources of phosphate and
nitrogen and utilize light energy to drive the conversion
process

 Micro-organisms also produce waste products, some of which

are desirable and some undesirable

 Gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen are desirable, since

they can be easily separated and do not produce pollution

 Gases such as hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans, although

easily separated

 Micro-organisms cellular materials are organic in nature and 242

Types of Biological Process for Wastewater Treatment
 The effluent from the primary sedimentation tank contains about
60 to 80% of the unstable organic matter originally present in
sewage
 This colloidal organic matter, which passes the primary clarifiers,
without settling there, has to be removed by further treatment
 This further treatment of sewage, called secondary or biological
treatment, is carried out by changing the character of the organic
matter, and thus converting it into stable forms (like nitrates,
sulphates, etc.) by oxidation or nitrification
 These processes help in changing the unstable organic matter into
stable forms, and thus ensuring their removal, when the effluent
from these units is settled in secondary sedimentation tanks.
243
 Types of Biological Process for Wastewater Treatment Cont…
 The sludge settled in secondary settling tanks may be disposed of in
the appropriate manner

 All the secondary treatment processes (i.e.filters as well as activated

sludge process) are designed to work on aerobic bacterial
decomposition

 This is because of the fact that aerobic decomposition does not

produce bad smells and gases as are produced by the anaerobic
decomposition, and also because aerobic bacteria are more active
than anaerobic bacteria (the rate of doing work by aerobic bacteria
being three times that of the anaerobic type at 30°c)

 Hence, in the biological treatment units, the main aim is to

produce suitable 'environmental conditions’, which may help in 244
 Types of Biological Process for Wastewater Treatment Cont…

Methods of Biological Treatment

 The common biological processes are:
1. Trickling filter
2. Activated sludge
3. Aerated lagoon
4. Stabilization ponds and so on.

245
 i. Trickling filter for Biological Filtration of Sewage
 The liquid effluent from the primary settling tank is passed to
the secondary part of the system where aerobic decomposition
completes the stabilization

 Trickling filter is a fixed bed, biological filter that operates

under (mostly) aerobic conditions

 The trickling filter also called a percolating filter and bacteria

bed - consists of a bed of suitable coarse porous media on which
grows a biological slime consisting mainly of bacteria

 Pre-settled wastewater is ‘trickled’ or sprayed over the filter

 As the water migrates through the pores of the filter, organics

are degraded by the biomass covering the filter material. 246
 Trickling Filters for Biological Filtration of Sewage Cont…
 Settled sewage is distributed over the surface of the medium
and, as it flows down through the bed, the fine suspended and
dissolved organic matter is absorbed by the biological film

 Oxygen to sustain aerobic biological oxidation is provided by

air which circulates through the bed

 Clogging of the interstices within the filter bed as the bacteria

grow, is usually prevented by portions of the film washed out
of the bed by the wastewater flow

 The trickling filter is filled with a high specific surface-area

material such as rocks, gravel, shredded PVC bottles, or special
pre-formed filter-material 247
 Trickling Filters for Biological Filtration of Sewage Cont…
 The incoming wastewater is sprayed over the filter with the use
of a rotating sprinkler

 However, oxygen is depleted within the biomass and the inner

layers may be anoxic or anaerobic

 The conventional trickling filters and their improved forms,

known as high rate trickling filters are now almost universally
adopted for giving secondary treatment to sewage

 These filters, also called as percolating filters or sprinkling

filters, consist of tanks of coarser filtering media, over which
the sewage is allowed to sprinkle or trickle down, by means of
spray nozzles or rotary distributors 248
 Trickling Filters for Biological Filtration of Sewage Cont…

 The percolating sewage is collected at the bottom of the tank

through a well designed under-drainage system

 The purification of the sewage is brought about mainly by the

aerobic bacteria, which form a bacterial film around the particles
of the filtering media

 It is difficult to obtain an equal adequate measure of the active

mass of biological solids in a trickling filter

 Although the total surface area of the medium gives some

indication of the possible areas on which the biomass could
grow, both the actual thickness of the biomass and the
percentage of it, which is active cannot be practically 249

determined.
 Trickling Filters for Biological Filtration of Sewage Cont…
 Therefore, it is customary to take the volume of the medium as the
most practical measure of microorganism activity in a trickling filter
and so to express organic loading rate in terms of the daily mass of
BOD applied per unit volume of filter medium (kg BOD/m3.d)

 Hydraulic loading is the amount of liquid volume (gallon) applied to

the treatment process

 The hydraulic loading rate per unit surface area of filter (m3/m2.d) is
also important since it affects distribution of the flow over the
surfaces of the medium, and hence the quality of contact between the
applied organic matter and the active biomass

250
 Construction and Operation of Trickling Filters
 Trickling filter tanks are generally constructed above the ground

 They may either be rectangular or more generally circular

 Rectangular filters are provided with a network of pipes having fixed

nozzles, which spray the incoming sewage in to the air, which then
falls over the bed of the filter, under gravity

 The circular filter tanks on the other hand, are provided with rotary
distributors having a number of distributing arms (generally four arms
are used)

 These distributors rotate around a central support either by an electric

motor, or more generally by the force of reaction on the sprays

 Such self-propelled reaction type of distributors is now-a-days

251
preferred and used.
 Trickling Filters Cont…
 The distributing arms should remain about 15 to 20cm above
the surface of the filtering media in the tank

Figure: Typical section of a conventional circular trickling filter252

Trickling Filters
Cont…

253
Trickling Filters Cont…

254
 Trickling Filters Cont…
Types of Trickling Filters
 Trickling filters can be broadly classified into:
1) Conventional trickling filters or Ordinary trickling filters or
Standard rate or Low rate trickling filters;
2) High rate filters or High rate trickling filters
 Strictly speaking, all what we have spoken so far is about conventional
or standard rate trickling filters
 The high rate filters of modern advancements, also function on the same
lines, and are having the same constructional details,
 But with the difference that provision is made in them for recirculation
of sewage through the filter, by pumping a part of the filter-effluent to
the primary settling tank, and re-passing through it and the filter
 The high rate filters make it possible to pass sewage at greater loadings,
thus requiring lesser space and lesser filter media. 255
 Trickling Filters Cont…
Advantages/Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
 Good quality (80-90% BOD5  High capital costs
removal) for 2-stage efficiency  Clogging of distributors or beds
could reach 95%  Snail, mosquito and insect
 Moderate operating costs (lower problems
than activated sludge)

 Withstands shock loads better

than other biological processes

256
 ii. Activated Sludge Process (Aerobic Suspended Culture)
 The activated sludge process is an aerobic, biological oxidation
process in which sewage is aerated in the presence of a
flocculent, mixed microbial culture known as activated sludge

 The activated sludge process provides an excellent method of

treating either raw sewage or more generally the settled sewage

 The sewage effluent from primary sedimentation tank, which is,

thus normally utilized in this process is mixed with 20 to 30% of
own volume of activated sludge, which contains a large
concentration of highly active aerobic micro-organisms

257
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 Essential elements in the process are the aeration tank, in
which the activated sludge and incoming sludge and
incoming wastewater are thoroughly mixed (the mixture is
known as mixed liquor )
 The mixture enters an aeration tank, where the micro-
organisms (coated around the sludge solids) and the sewage, are
intimately mixed together, with a large quantity of air for
about 4 to 8 hours

 Under these conditions, the moving organisms will oxidize the

organic matter, and the suspended and colloidal matter tends to
coagulate and form a precipitate, which settles down readily in258
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 The settled sludge (containing micro-organisms) called activated
sludge, is then recycled to the head of the aeration tank, to be
mixed again with the sewage being treated

 New activated sludge is continuously being produced by this

process, and a portion of it being utilized and sent back to the
aeration tank

 Excess portion is disposed of properly along with the sludge

collected during primary treatment, after digestion

 The effluent obtained from a properly operated activated

sludge plant is of high quality, usually having a lower BOD less
than that of a trickling filter plant. 259
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 BOD removal is up to 80-95 percent, and bacteria removal is up
to 90-95 percent

 Moreover, land area required is also quite less

 But, however, in this process, a rather close degree of control is

necessary in operation to ensure that:
i. an ample supply of oxygen is present

ii. there is intimate and continuous mixing of the sewage and the
activated sludge

iii. the ratio of the volume of activated sludge added to the volume
of sewage being treated is kept practically constant

260
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 The unique feature of activated sludge processes, compared with the
other processes discussed above, lies in the fact that there is separate and
positive control of the retention time of activated sludge solids and the
liquid effluent

 Hence, it is amenable to much closer control than are other processes

 The organic loading rate in the activated sludge process is given by the
F/M ratio-kg BOD/kg MLVSS.d (kg biomass)

 The food to microorganism (F/M) ratio is one of the significant design

and operational parameters of activated sludge systems

 A balance between substrate consumption and biomass generation helps

in achieving system equilibrium

 The F/M ratio is responsible for the decomposition of organic matter.

261
Various Operations and Units of an Activated Sludge Plant
1. Primary Treatment Units of an Activated Sludge Plant

 A typical flow diagram for a conventional activated sludge

plant is shown below:

Figure: Flow Sheets of an Activated Sludge 262

System
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 As pointed out earlier, the removal of grit and larger solids by
screening in grit chambers and primary sedimentation tanks is
generally considered necessary before aeration

 The pre-removal of these settleable solids is helpful in

preventing deposits on aeration devices, and thereby not
reducing their efficiencies

 Moreover, such materials, if not pre-removed, may settle down

in the aeration tank, and by decomposition, interfere with the
treatment process.

263
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
Activated sludge plant involves:

 wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial

suspension,

 solid-liquid separation following aeration,

 discharge of clarified effluent, wasting of excess biomass,

and

 return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank

264
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 Since, in this process, it is very much desirable to keep the
sewage as fresh as possible, a somewhat shorter detention
period is provided in the primary sedimentation tanks than is
required for most other treatment processes

 This period of primary detention may vary with the size of the
plant and the characteristics of sewage, but tank size will
generally provide an overflow rate of about 40,000 liters per sq-
m of plan area per day

 For a depth of about 2.4 m, the detention time will be about

1.4 hours.

265
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
2. Aeration Tanks of an Activated Sludge Plant
 From the primary sedimentation tank, the sewage flows to the
aeration tank, and is mixed with the activated sludge
 The aeration tanks (or aeration chambers, as they are sometimes
called) are normally rectangular tanks, 3 to 4.5m deep and about 4
to 6m wide
 The length may range between 20 to 200m, and the detention
period between 4 to 8 hours for municipal sewages
 Air is continuously introduced into these tanks
Methods of Aeration: There are two basic methods of introducing air
into the tank
(1) Diffused air aeration or Air diffusion
266
(2) Mechanical aeration
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 Sometimes, a combination of both may also be used which may
then be called as combined aeration
(1) Diffused Air Aeration
 In the diffused air aeration method, compressed air under a
pressure of 35 to 70kN/m2 (0.35 to 0.7kg/cm2), is introduced
into the aeration chamber, through diffusion plates or other
devices are called diffusers
 The main criteria for selection of a particular diffuser are that it
should be capable of diffusing air in small bubbles, so as to
provide the greatest possible efficiency of aeration
 Porous plates and porous tubes, made of quartz or crystalline
267
alumina (Aluminum oxide) are generally used as diffusers.
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 Plates are generally square in shape with dimensions of 30cm x
30cm, and they are usually 25mm thick

Figure: L-section of a ridge and furrow type of an aeration tank 268

 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
(2) Mechanical Aeration

 In this air-diffusion method, as pointed out above, a lot of

compressed air (90 to 95%) gets wasted, as it simply escapes

through the tank without giving oxygen to the sewage;

although it helps in bringing about the required agitation of

sewage mixture

 In order to affect economy, atmospheric air is brought in

contact with the sewage in the mechanical aeration method

 In this mechanical aeration method, the sewage is stirred up by

means of mechanical devices, like paddles, etc. (called surface 269

 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 It introduce air into it from the atmosphere by continuously
changing the surface of sewage by the circulation of sewage
from bottom to top

 The only important requirement in this method is to have

thorough agitation of sewage, so as to bring it in intimate
contact with the atmosphere

 The aeration period depends on the mechanical process adopted

for agitation

 It generally varies between 6 to 8 hours

 The quantity of the returned sludge, in mechanically aerated

aeration tanks, is usually about 25 to 30 percent of the flow of
270
sewage.
 Activated Sludge Process Cont…
 Types of Surface Aerators: Various types of mechanical
aerators have been designed, and are available in compact units,
as patented devices

 In most of these devices, the mixed liquor (i.e. sewage and

activated sludge) is made to move slowly in channels, 0.9 to 1.2
m deep, and 1.2 to 1.5 m wide

 During this forward motion of the mixed liquor, it is agitated

by some mechanical means, such as paddles, which break the
surface, and cause wave action exposing a new surface to the
air, till the entire liquid gets sufficient oxygen.
271
 Advantages/Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

 Flexible, can adapt to minor pH,  High operating costs (skilled

organic and temperature changes labor, electricity, etc.)

 Small area required  Generates solids requiring sludge

 Degree of nitrification is disposal

controllable  Some process alternatives are

 Relatively minor odor problems sensitive to shock loads and

metallic or other poisons

 Requires continuous air supply

272
 iii. Rotating biological filter
 The rotating biological filter or RBF process is a recently-
developed method of biological treatment

 It resembles the trickling filter process in that it uses a

biological film grown on solid surfaces, but these are on a large
number of closely spaced disc mounted on a shaft which rotates
above a shallow basin profiled to the perimeter of the discs

 Rotating biological filters (RBFs) are fixed-film reactors similar

to biofilters in that organisms are attached to support media

 In the case of the RBF, the support media are slowly rotating
discs that are partially submerged in flowing wastewater in the
reactor. 273
 Rotating Biological Filter Cont…

 Oxygen is supplied to the attached biofilm from the air when the film
is out of the water and from the liquid when submerged, since oxygen
is transferred to the wastewater by surface turbulence created by the
discs' rotation

 Approximately 40 percent of the surface of each disc is submerged in

the settled sewage flowing through the trough at any time

 The shaft slowly rotates, alternately exposing the biological film

absorbs organic matter and then, during contact with the atmosphere,
it absorbs oxygen, so enabling aerobic oxidation to proceed

 The net growth of biomass is washed off the surfaces of the discs and
must be removed in final sedimentation tanks before discharge.
274
 Rotating Biological Filter Cont…
 High-rate biological treatment processes, in combination with primary
sedimentation, typically remove 85 % of the BOD5 and SS originally
present in the raw wastewater and some of the heavy metals

 Activated sludge generally produces an effluent of slightly higher quality,

in terms of these constituents, than biofilters or RBCs

 When coupled with a disinfection step, these processes can provide

substantial but not complete removal of bacteria and virus

 However, they remove very little phosphorus, nitrogen, non-

biodegradable organics, or dissolved minerals

 Organic loading, (Amount of BOD Weight (kg, g...) applied to the

treatment process as noted earlier, is measured in terms of daily mass of
BOD applied per unit surface area of disc (gBOD/m2.d)
275
 Rotating Biological Filter Cont…

Basic Principles of Process

Primary Contactors Secondary

Treatment Clarifier

Solids Removal 276

 Advantages/Disadvantages Cont…

Advantages/Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
 Short contact periods
 Need for covering units
 Handles a wide range of flows
installed in cold climate to
 Easily separates biomass from
waste stream protect against freezing

 Low operating costs

 Shaft bearings and mechanical
 Short retention time
drive units require frequent
 Low sludge production

 Excellent process control

maintenance

277
iv. Facultative (Waste Stabilization) Ponds (Lagoons)
 Facultative waste stabilization ponds, sometimes referred to as
lagoons or ponds, are frequently used to treat municipal and
industrial wastewater

 These are intermediate between land treatment and the other

more controlled forms of biological treatment in terms of their
requirement for land

 Biological reactions occurring in waste stabilization ponds,

however, are more complex than those which occur in the other
aerobic treatment processes

 The layer of water near the surface contains dissolved oxygen due
to atmospheric re-aeration and algal respiration, a condition that
supports aerobic and facultative organisms. 278
 Facultative (Waste Stabilization) Ponds Cont…
 In the pond liquid, aerobic heterotrophic bacteria break down the
organic matter mainly to CO2

 Algae then utilize these breakdown products, notably CO2, together

with sunlight energy, to photosynthesize new algal cells, releasing
oxygen which helps to sustain the aerobic breakdown process.

 The bottom layer of the lagoon includes sludge deposits and supports
anaerobic organisms

 The intermediate anoxic layer, termed the facultative zone, ranges

from aerobic near the top to anaerobic at the bottom

 These layers may persist for long periods due to temperature-induced

water-density variations.
279
 Facultative (Waste Stabilization) Ponds Cont…
 This process, in which the activity of bacteria and algae is mutually
beneficial, is called algal-bacterial symbiosis

 In the sludge layer which develops in the bottom of the pond,

anaerobic biological processes occur and contribute significantly to the
treatment efficiency of most ponds

 Excess biomass from the processes taking place above is degraded in the
anaerobic processes

 The waste matter applied in the pond influent is thus partly stored on
the floor of the pond, partly lost as biodegradation products and partly
discharged as biomass, notably algae, in the effluent

 Estimation of active biomass in stabilization ponds is again

impracticable, so that gross arial or volumetric loading rate is often 280

used.
 Facultative (Waste Stabilization) Ponds Cont…
 Hence, in the degree of effluent quality control they can achieve,
ponds are probably somewhat inferior to more complex systems,
because of the variable concentration of algae escaping in the
effluent

 Most ponds have much the same depth, however, and many of
the important phenomena, such as solar energy entering the
pond to promote algal photosynthesis and wind action for
mixing pond contents, are related to pond surface area

 Therefore, the most widely quoted measure of organic loading

rate is the daily mass of BOD applied per unit surface area of pond
(either kg BOD/ha.d or g BOD/m2.d), although both depth and
detention time are usually quoted as well. 281
Facultative (Waste Stabilization) Ponds Cont…

282
 Facultative (Waste Stabilization) Ponds Cont…
Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
 Moderately effective in removing
 Settled sludges and inert material
settleable solids, BOD, pathogens, fecal
require periodic removal
coliform, and ammonia

 Easy to operate  Difficult to control or predict

 Require little energy, with systems ammonia levels in effluent

designed to operate with gravity flow  Sludge accumulation will be higher
 The quantity of removed material will be in cold climates due to reduced
relatively small compared to other microbial activity
secondary treatment processes.
 Mosquitoes and similar insect
vectors can be a problem if emergent
vegetation is not controlled

 Requires relatively large areas of 283

land.