6-52 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

within
Solution: The reflector constant is the distanoe the light beam travels
distance, so a cor.
the reflector itself. The distance is included in the measured
to be preset,.
rection must be made. Most modern EDMs allow such a correction IrOm time
necessary
However, the determination of the length of the correction is
a project.
to time when new or different reflectors are used on
and 2-3 includes the reflector constant
The sum of the measurements of lines 1-2 be
includes it once. Therefore, the difference
twice. "The measurement of line 1-3 measured length is the reflector
the total
tween the sum of two line segments ànd
Constant.
line 1-2= 355.93 ft
line 2-3= +830.61 ft
1186.54 ft

1186.54 ft
line 1-3 = -1186.42 ft
0.12 ft

Answer is (D)

was used in a survey

68. An EDM with a standard error of t(7 mm + 7 ppm)
The work included a
that was to have a relative precision of 1part in 10,000. what was the
measurement of 200.00 ft.. Considering only the standard error,
relative precision of that particular measurement?
(A) 1part in 10,000
(B) 1part in 10,132
(C) 1 part in 8679
(D) 1part in 13,604
(E) 1part in 9471

Solution:
2 2
7 mm 7mm (1400.00 ft
+
304.8 304.8 1,000,000
=t/(0.0230)2 +(0.0014)2
=tv0.000529 +0.0000020
=ty0.000531
=t0.023 ft
200.00
= 8679
0.023

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

 ROUTE STAKING 6-53

The relative precision is 1part in 8679. Generally, the greatest precision is

achieved over longer distances with EDM equipment.

Answer is (C)

ROUTE STAKING

69. Which phrase describes a route survey?

(A) a survey conducted to gather information about natural features for mak
ing á topographic map
(B) a survey conducted to locate the final position of new construction for
documentation and evaluation of the work
(C) a survey conducted to establish property corners and lines
(D) a survey conducted to establish a network of vertical and horizontal po
sitions perpetuated by monuments for reference in future work
(E) a survey conducted to facilitate the planning, design, and construction of
a pipeline, roadway, powerline, or any of a number of linear projects

Solution: The term route survey is generally used to describe surveying for a
project that deals with a path for transportation of people or commodities from
place toplace. In practice, a route survey frequently includes aspects from most
of the other categories of surveys described.

Answer is (E)

PROFEssIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. BELMONT, CA

54 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

70. Whih of the folowing describes the process of prolonging a line by douhl.
centering?

(A)ing
The frst
prolongation of a straight line may be acoomplished by backsight.
in the direct position, plunging to reverse, and setting a nois
forward, then backsighting in reverse, plunging to direct, and setting
otber point forward. Halving the distance between the two forward points
yields the correct prolongation of the line.
B) The prolongation of a straight line may be accornplished by backsightine
frst in the direct position, turning an angle of 180°, and setting a point
forward, then backsighting in reverse, turning an angle of 180°, and setting
another poim forward. Halving the distance between the two forward
points yields the correct prolongation of the line.
(C) The prolongarion of a straight line may be accomplished by backsighting
first in the direct postion, plunging to reverse, and setting a point for
wari then backsizhting the set forward point in direct and plunging to
reverse on the backsight. Halving the angle between the resulting line of
sight and the backsight point yields the correction to apply at the forward
point for the true prolongation of the line.
D) The prolongation of astraight line may be accomplished by backsighting
irss in the direct position, plunging to reverse, and setting a point for
ward, then backsighting in reverse, turning an angle of 180°, and setting
another point forward. Halving the distance between the two forward
points yields the correct prolongation of the line.
E None of the above is true.

Solution: Establishing two forward points, one plunged in the direct position
and the other plunged in the reverse position, will provide an immediate indica
tion of the maladjustment of the instrument. The true prolongation of the line
l ie halfway between the twO points.

Answer is (A)

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. BELMONT, CA

 ROUTE STAKING 655

71. Which of the following techniques is not a

a straight route around an well-known method of establishing
obstacle on the line?
(A) the measured offset method
(B) the equilateral triangle method
(C) the equal angle method
(D) the right angle offset method
(E) the single directional method

Solution: The right angle offset method and the

on the establishment of a line parallel to the route ofmeasured
the
ofset method rely
survey. The equilateral
triangie methodand the equal angle method rely on the
or points at known angles from the
route. establishment of a point
Answer is (E)

72. Why are periodic astronomic

length? observations taken in surveying routes of great
(A) to correct for accumulated error in azimuth
(B) to establish geographic coordinates
(C) to facilitate ties to NGS control stations
(D) to quantify changes in magnetic declination
(E) to substitute for a difficult or impossible backsight

Solution: Astronormic observations are often used in long route surveys to cor
rect for error accumulated in azimuths, or to quantify that error.

Answer is (A)

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

6-56 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

73. What role, if any, does geodesy play in routesurveying?

(A) Route surveys are plane surveys and the shape of the carth need not. .
considered.
(B) Route surveys of great length should take the eurvature of the earth into
account to avoid otherwise unresol vable discropancies.
(C) Only route surveys that have great. length in a north south orientatio.
need consider the curvature of the earth.
(D) The only route surveys that ell for geodetic considerations are thow tha.
are conducted for underground mine work.
(E) Route surveys do not generally have grcat width, so O matter what. length
is involved, the curvature of the earth need not be considered.

Solution: Some route surveys extend for hundreds of miles. Depending on the
accuracy required, surveys of such great. distances should take the shape of he
earth into account.

Answer is (B)

74. Centerline stakes set every 100 ft are standard for many types of route sur
veys; however, more closely spaced stakes are necessary under some conditions.
Which of the following situations would likely require more closely spaced cen
terline stakes?

(A) When the intersection of one roadway with another occurs at a point
other than a fullstation, a stake is often set at the point of intersection
to indicate the stationing equation.
(B) When a route includes horizontal or vertical curves, stakes are set at the
beginning and end of the curves, which seldom occur at full stations.
(C) Whern the requirerments for a pipeline route call or a specified number of
stakes per pipe length, the spacing is likely to be less than 100 ft between
stakes.
(D) Both B and C are true.
(E) All of the above are true.

Solution: These are only a few of the circurnstances that call for stakes to be
spaced to be more closely than every fullstation. In fact, it is rare that a route
survey does not require at least some stakes set at odd stations.

Answer is (E)

PROPESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. BELMONT, CA

 ROUTE STAKING 6-57

75. Which of the following statements concerning the grading of stakes along a
route survey is not true?

(A) The grade of a water line is generally more critical than that of a
line. sewer
(B) Offset stakes or guard stakes are usually marked with cuts or
than centerline stakes. fills, rather
(C) It is generally not necessary to turn
graded. through every stake that is to be
(D) Grades for earthwork and pipelines are
tenth of a foot. generally calculated to the nearest
(E) Most often the grade for a pipeline is given to the flowline, or
the pipe. invert, of

Solution: Generally, the grade of a sewer ine is more critical since it relies on
gravity flow.

Answer is (A)

76. What is a blue top?

(A) A blue top isa stake set at the catch point of the
with the natural ground. side slope of a template
(B) A blue top is a guard stake driven so its top is
(C) A blue top is a control point monument
directly over the line stake.
located well away from the route
being surveyed.
(D) A blue top is a stake driven so its top is at the
the cut or fill to that grade written on the stake. designed grade, or with
(E) A blue top is a line stake established for the
location of a chilled water
line. .

Solution: The term blue top is derived from the practice of marking the top of a
stake driven to grade with blue keel. The term is also sometimes used for
stakes
marked for grade.

Answer is (D)

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INc. " BELMONT,CA

 658
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES
77. What is a shiner?

(A) A shiner is a tack sometimes set in a line st ake tor

more precise locatim
than the stake alone provides.
(B) A shiner is a hook from which a plunmb bob may be hung in
tunnels and mines. surveving
(C) A shiner is a l-in x 1-in stake, 12 1&in long.
(D) A shiner is a monument box used to protect control points est
paved streets.
ablisheß in
(E) A shiner is a nail set through a bottle cap or some other type of met al
disk in a hard surface such as pavement.
Solution: It is not unusual for a route survey to cross areas where stakes cannot
be driven; a shiner is one of several options for establishing the
A nail riven through an aluminum or other type of metal disklocation
of a point
is convenient and
permanent enough in most circumst ances.

Answer is (E)

78. What is a batter board?

(A) A batter board is a horizontal board, usually l in x 6
in, nailed betwen
two 2-in x 4-in posts that have been driven intothe
ground near a control
point to preven destruction of the point.
(B) A batter board is a lath set to
establish the clearing
(C) A batter board is a pile that has been driven at limits along a route.
an
vertical; such piles are frequently used to brace others. angle other than
(D) Abatter board is a horizontal board, usually 1 in x 6
two 2-in x 4-in posts that have been driven in, nailed betwen
into the ground across a
trench or near a building corner.
(E) A batter board is a horizontal board,
usually 1 in x 6 in, nailed betwen
two 2-in x 4-in posts that have been driven
into the ground to secure &
permanent backsight.
Solution: Batter boards are used most
and at building corners to provide grade frequently in the construction of pipelines
and location. For a pipeline, a horizontal
board, usually 1in x 6 in, is established across the trench by
two 2-in x 4-in posts that have been driven nailing it between
into the ground. A nail is driven
into the horizontal board at the centerline of the pipe. The
top of the horizontal

PROFEssIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. . BELMONT, CA

 ROUTE STAKING 659

board is usually established at a whole number of feet above the grade of the
ine's flowline. Awire or string stretched from nail to nail provides the reference
for the location and grade of the pipe.

Answer is (D)

79. Which staterment most correctly describes the purpose of a slope stake?
(A) A slope stake is set to indicate the point where a roadway's pavement
ends and its side slope begins.
(B) Aslope stake is set to indicate the beginning of superelevation along a
highway curve.
(C) Aslope stake is set to indicate the point where a side slope intersects the
natural ground.
(D) A slope stake is set where the maximum embankment is allowed per the
angle of repose.
(E) Aslope stake is set to indicate the centerline of a highway in areas of
excavation.

Solution: Slope stakes are usually set where the cuts or fills necessary for the
construction of a roadway or other route exceed approximately 3 ft. In such
situations, the points at which the designed side slopes intersect the natural
ground are indicated by slope stakes.

Answer is (C)

80. What information is usually written on a slope stake?

(A) the cut or fll at the centerline

and the distance of
(B) the ratio of the slope, the cut or fill at the centerline,
the stake from the centerline
centerline, the distance of
(C) the station of the stake, the cut or fill at the
the slope
the stake from the centerline, and the ratio of
centerline, the distance of the
(D) the ratio of the slope, the cut or fill at the
and the width of the
stake from the centerline, the station of the stake,
roadbed
centerline, the distance of the
(E) the ratio of the slope, the cut or fill at the the roadbed
stakefrom the centerline, and the width of

BELMONT, CA
PROFEssIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC.
6 60 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

Solution: The usual data written on a slope stake includes the station of the
stake, the cut or fill at the centerline, the distance of the stake from the
and the ratio of the slope. centerhine,
Answer is (C)

81. Slope stakes are to be set along a particular roadway. The grade at .
centerline at sta 14+00 is designed to be l15.4 ft and the HI of alevel arTanged
to set slope stakes is 120.6 ft. In this situation, what is the value known Be
grade rod?

(A) 5.2 ft
(B) 2.6 ft
(C) -2.6 ft
(D) -5.2 ft
(E) 3.9 ft
Solution: The grade rod is the rod reading that would occur if the bottom of
the rod was held precisely at the finished grade at the centerline.
HI elevation of the grade grade rod
120.6 ft
-115.4 ft
5.2 ft

Answer is (A)

82. The width of a particular roadbed is 66 ft, the side slope is designed to be
2:1, the grade rod is 5.2 ft, and the rod is held at a trial position for a slope stake
45 ft from the centerline. The cross section is in cut. The rod is read through the
level and the ground rod is found to be 1.1 ft. Which of the following statements
is correct under these circumstances?
(A) Another point should be tried farther away from the centerline.
(B) Another point should be tried closer to the centerline.
(C) The slope stake should be set at the trial point.
(D) The stake should be set at the trial point as an ofset stake, with an ofiseu
of 3 ft written on it.
(E) There is not enough information given to make any of the statements
listed.

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

 ROUTE STAKING 6-61

Solution: The first step in solving this problenm is to find the difference between
the grade rod and the ground rod.
h=grade rod -ground rod
=5.2 ft- 1.1 ft
=4.1 ft

This value indicates the cut that would be necessary to bring the trial
the grade elevation of the roadway. point to

The next step is to determine whether the distance from the centerline, 45 ft, is
the correct distance to accomplish the 4.1-ft cut at a 2:1 slope. The applicable
formula is

d=+hs
2
d is the distance from the centerline, w is the width of the roadbed, h is the
difference between the grade rod and the ground rod, and s is the run of the
designed slope.
66 ft
d=
2 + (4.1 ft)(2)
=33 ft +8.2 ft
= 41.2 ft

The rod is currently 45 ft from the centerline, so it needs to be moved closer to

the centerline for another shot.

Answer is (B)

PROFEssIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

6-62 SURVEYINGINSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

83. The width of a particular roadbed is 50 ft, the ide slope is

3:1, the grade rod is 2.S ft, and the rod is held at a trial position fordesigned
a lope t te
32 ft from the centerline. The cross section is in fill. The rod is read state
througn
level and the ground rod is found to be 10.3 ft. The natural ground is the
relatte.ivey
level. Which of the following statements is correct under thes: circunstar
(A) Another point should be tried farther away frorm the centerline.
(B) Another point should be tried closer to the centerline.
(C) The slope stake should be set at the trial point.
(D) The stake should be set at the trial point as an offset stake, with an cfee
of 10 ft written on it.
(E) There is not enough information given to make any of the statermerta
listed.

Solution: The first step in solving this problem is to find the difference betwe
the grade rod and the ground rod.

h=grade rod - ground rod

= 2.8 ft - 10.3 ft.
=-7.5 ft

This value indicats the fill that would be necessary to bring the trial point i
the grade elevation of the rondway. The next step is to determine if the distanr
frorn the centerline, 32 ., is the correct distance to accomplish the 7.5- t ill at &
3:1 slope. Use the sarne fornula as in the previous problen to ind the dist ane

2
50 ft
2 +(76 0)(3)
- 25 fL + 22.5 f1
= 47.6 fu

The rod is currentiy 32 fu from the centerline, o he od neede to be t i

farther frorm the centerline or another shot,

Ars wer is (A)

PROFESSONAL. PUBLCATOHS, lio heL

AA
 ROUTE STAKING 6-63

l What is the usualposition of aslope stake and the information writen on it?

(A) Aslope stake is usually driven so that the cut or fl information is facing
the centerline of the route; the stationing is written on the side away from
the centerline.
(B) A
slope stake is usually driven so that the cut or fill information is facing
&way from the centerline of the route; the stationing is written on the side
facing the centerline.
(C) Aslope stake is usually driven so that the cut or fll information is parallel
with the centerline of the route; the stationing is written on the opposite
side.
(D) A
slope stake is usually driven so that the cut or fill information and the
stationing are written on the side facing the centerline.
(E) A slope stake is usually driven so that the cut or fill information and the
stationing are written on the side facing away from the centerline.

Solution: The cut or fill information is usually written on the broad part of the
stake and faces the centerline. The stationing is usually written on the opposite
side and faces away from the centerline.

Answer is (A)

85. What is superelevation?

(A) Superelevation is another term used to describe compound vertical curves.
(B) Superelevation is the practice of raising the outer edge of pavement or the
outer rail of a railway above the elevation of the inner edge or rail along
a curve.
(C) Superelevation is the embankment of earth above the angle of repose.
(D) Superelevation is the gradual increase of the centerline radius of a curve
along a roadway or railway.
(E) None of the above is true.

Solution: The raising of the outer edge of pavement along a curve is called
Superelevation. It helps to control the centrifugal force exerted on a vehicle.

Answer is (B)

PROFEssIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

6-64 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDUREs

86. What type of curve is frequently used in conjunction with

high-speed highway work? superelevallon in
(A) horizontal circular curve
(B) vertical curve
(C) compound vertical curve
(D) transition spiral curve
(E) cormpound horizontal circular curve

Solution: The transition spiral curve is frequently used in conjunction with e

perelevation. The constant rate of change of its curvature rmakes it ideal for thi
purpose.

Answer is (D)

ERRORSAND STATISTICS

87. Aparticular line was measured with the sarne tape on two separate occasions.
Crew 1 measured the distance three times and found it to be 537.96 ft, 538.02 ft.,
and 537.94 ft. Later, crew 2 measured the same line and found the distance to
be 538.072 ft, 538.145 ft, and 538.223 ft. Which of the two crews had the better
precision of measurement, and why?
(A) Crew 1had better precision in its measurernents since the mean and the
median of its readings are closer together than are those of crew 2.
(B) Crew 2 had better precision in its measurements since its readings have
a smaller range than those of crew 1.
(C) Crew 2 had better precision in its measurernents since its readings are
expressed to the thousandth of a foot, while those of crew lare expressed
to the hundredth of a foot.
(D) Crew 1had better precision in its rneasurerments since its
a smaller scatter and range than those of readings nar
crew 2.
(E) Both B andCare true.

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

 ERRORS AND STATISTICS 665

Solution: The mean ofa series of measurements of the same quantityis the sum
ofthe measurements divided by the number of repetitions.
Crew 1:
537 96 ft
537 94 f
+538.02t
1613.92 ft
1613.92 ft
3
= 537.973 ft (arithmetic me an)
Crew 2:
538.072 ft
538.145 t
+538.223 ft
1614.440 ft
1614.440 ft
3
- 538.147 ft (arithmetic mean)

The median of a series of observations of the same quantity is the middle obser
vation, after the measurements have been arranged in ascending or descending
order.

Crew 1:
537.94 ft
median = 537.96 ft
538.02 ft
Crew 2:
538.072 ft
median = 538.145 ft
538.223 t

The comparison of the arithmetic mean of a series of observations with its median
is not a test for the precision of the obser vations themsel ves. However, the scatter
and the range of such a series is revealing. Generally, the larger the scatter and
range of repeated observations, the less precise are the measurements. The scatter
may be defined as the dispersal around the arithmetic mean.

U=reading - mean
Crew 1
537.96 ft -0.013
537.94 ft -0.033
538.02 ft +0.047
537.973 ft = arithmetic mean

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

6-66 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES
Crew 2
538.072 ft -0.075
538.145 ft -0.002
538.223 ft +0.076

538.147 ft = arithmetic mean

The scatter of the observations is somnewhat larger in the measurements of creu:
2, even though the difference between the mean and the median is less.

The range may be defined as the difference between the largest and the smala
values in the series of measurements.
Crew 1:
538.02 ft
-537.96 ft
0.06 ft
Crew 2:
538.223 ft
-538.072 ft
0.151 ft

The range of the observations is larger in the measurements of crew 2.

The measurements of crew 2 are less precise than the measurements of crew 1
because the range and scatter of the observations of crew 1are smaller.
It is
important to note that the precision and the uniformity of these measure-.
ments does not determine their accuracy.

Answer is (D)

PROFEssIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

 ERRORS AND STATISTICS 6-67

R8. A
particular line was measured with the same tape on two separate occasions.
Crew 1measured the distance three times and found it to be 1972.85 ft, 1972.79 ft,
ond 1973.01 ft. Later, crew 2measured the same line and found the distance to be
1073.03 ft, 1972.83 ft, and 1973. 16 ft. The line was subsequently measured with
EDM equiprment and found to be 1973.01 ft. Which of the taped measurements
was the most accurate, and why?

(A) Crew 1provided the most accurate measurements since one of its mea
surements matched that of the EDM.
(B) Crew 2prOVided the most accurate measurements since the arithmetic
mean of its three measurements is the same as that of the EDM.
(C) The meaSuremernts of crew 1 are the most precise, so its measurements
are the most accurate.
scatter and
(D) The measurements of crew 2 are the most accurate since the
range of its observations are smaller than those of crew 1.
scatter and
(E) The measurements of crew 1are the most accurate since the
range of its observations are smaller than those of crew 2.

Solution: The precision of a series of measurements of the same quantity is not

measurement pro
indicative of the accuracy of those measurements. T'he EDM
comparison of the
vides a more accurate standard than the taped distances. The
measurerments
arithmetic mean of each series of taped observations with the EDM
shows which crew provided the most accurate distance.

Crew 1:
1972.85 ft
1972.79 ft
+1973.01 ft
5918.65 ft
5918.65 ft
= 1972.88 ft (arithmetic mean)
3

Crew 2:
1973.03 ft
1972.83 ft
+1973.16 ft
5919.02 ft
5919.02 ft
1973.01 ft (arithmetic mean)
3
EDM measurement = 1973.01 ft

Answer is (B)

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

6-68 SURVEYING JNSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

89. Several errors and mistakes harmpered a particular project. The

ment was used throughout the survey with a reflector constant of EDM equip-
it should have been 0.10 ft. The line of sight through the telescope0.of12 ft when
was inclined by 0.005 ft per 100 ft. The instrument operator was able the leve)
to read all
of the horizontal and vertical angles directly in degrees, minutes, and third.
ninutes (20 sec). However, the angles were also estimated to the nearest. 5
the instrument operator, andthese estimates were sometimes too high or sec by
Which of these errors and mistakes should be eliminated from the too low,
field recorded
data, to the degree that is pOssible, before the final adjustment of the
attermpted? project
is
(A) All of the described errors are systematic. Systermatic errors shoula .
minimized before any adjustment procedure is implemented.
(B) The error of the reflector constant is systermatic and should be minimizod
before any adjustment procedure is implemented. However, the other tw
are random errors and may be properly distributed in adjustment.
(C) The discrepancies in the field-recorded data resulting from the incorrect
reflector constant and the inclined level sight should both be minimized
before any adjustment procedure is implermented. However, the errors
resulting from the estimation of the seconds in the angle measurements
are random errors and may be properly distributed in an adjustment.
(D) All of the described errors are random. Systernatic errors should be elimi
nated before any adjustment procedure is implermented, but random errors
may be properly distributed in an adjustment.
(E) Allof the conditions described are mistakes.
Systematic errors should be
minimized before any adjustment procedure is implemented and random
errorsmay be properly distributed in an adjustment, but mistakes cannot
be eliminated and should not be adjusted.

Solution: Mistakes that are the result of carelessness,

or faulty technique should not be confused with inattention, bad habits,
Errors are often divided into two errors in surveying measurement.
categories.
Systematic errors remain the same under the
with those conditions. For example, the error same set of conditions and Vary
of the level would grow as the introduced by the inclined sgn
distance of the level rod from the level increaseu
Systematicerrors may be quantified and should be
before it is adjusted. eliminated from survey dae

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC, . BELMONT, CA

 ERRORS AND STATISTICS 6-69

Random errors do not follow any physical or nathematical law. The estimation
of the seconds in the readings of the angles described in the question are randorn
errors. The properties of random errors are imagined to be statistical in nature
and are, therefore, subject to adjustment.

Answer is (C)

90. The manipulation of random errors in surveying measurernent rests on the

application of assumptions from the theory of probability. Which of the following
answers best describes these assumptions?
(A) Small errors occur more often than large ones, large errors occur infre
quently, and there is an equal opportunity for the occurrence of positive
and negative errors.
(B) There is an equal opportunity for the occurrence of large and srmall errors,
errors cancel each other, and the error of closure of a traverse is the sum
of its accurmulated random errors.
(C) Large errors occur more often than small ones, and there is an equal
opportunity for the occurrence of randorm and systematic errors.
(D) Errors remain the same under the sarne set of conditions, large mistakes
and small mistakes occur with equal frequency, and the error of closure
of a traverse is the sum of its accurmulated random errors.
(E) Large errors occur more often than srmall ones, errors cancel each other,
and there is an equal opportunity for the occurrence of systematic and
randomn errors.

Solution: Random errors, unlike systernatic errors and mistakes, cannot be

avoided and are generally beyond the realm of detection and rermoval. There
fore, surveyors rely on some basic assumptions from the laws of probability to
predict their occurrence and behavior.

Answer is (A)

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

6-70 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

The following five problems reler to the astronomic azimuths shown, which Wera
determined from the station GRAVEL to station RADIO BEACON NORTH

59° 1837" 59°18'25" 59°18'39" 59° 18'27"

59° 18'47" 59° 18'21" 59°18'20" 59°18'49"
59° 18'49" 59°18'17" 59°18'46"
59°18'22"
59 18'22! 59°18'27" 59°18/26 59°18'23"
59°18'19" 59°18'40" 59°18'22"
59°18'24"
59°18'27" 59°18'26" 59°18'10 59°18'37"
59°18'34" 59°18/21" 59°18'30" 59°1841"

91. What is the mean, expressed to the nearest tenth of a second, and
what are
the modes, expressed to the nearest second?
(A) mean = 59°18'30"0
modes = 59°1823" and 59°18'22"
(B) mean = 59° 18'27"4
mode = 59°18'29"
(C) mean = 59°1830'1
modes = 59°18'49" and 59° 18'10'"
(D) mean = 59° 18'29"6
modes = 59°18'25" and 59°18'26"
(E) mean = 59° 18/296
modes = 59°18'27" and 59°18'22"

Solution: The mean is the sum of the individual measurements divided by the
number of observations. The sum of the seconds in the azimuths given is 828.
There are a total of 28 observations.

828 sec
29.6 sec
28

The arithmetic mean to the nearest tenth of a second is 29"6.

The modes are the values that occur most frequently in a series of observations
of the same value.

59°18'49" 59° 18'37'" 59°18/26" 59°18'22"

59°18'49" 59° 18'37" 59° 18'26'" 59° 18/21"
59° 18'47" 59° 18'34" 59°18'25'" 59°18'21"
59°18'46" 59°18'30" 59° 18'24" 59°18'20"
59°18'4 1" 59°18'27" 59° 18/23 59°18'19"
59°18'40" 59°18'27" 59°18'22" 59° 18'17"
59°18'39" 59°18'27" 59°18/22" 59° 18'10"

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. BELMONT, CA

 ERRORS AND STATISTICS 6-71

of observations, 49 sec 0ccurs twice, 37 sec 0ccurs twice, 27 sec

Inthisseries
occursthree tirnes, 26 sec occurs twice, 22 sec occurs three tirnes, and 21 seC
occurs twice.

Therefore, the modes are 59°1827" and 59°18'22"

Answer is (E)

92, What are the largest and smallest residuals of the group, expressed in abso
Iute value to the nearest second?
(A) largest residual = 20"
smallest residual = 19"
(B) largest residual = 3"
smallest residual = 5"
(C) largest residual 20"
smallest residual = 0"

(D) largest residual 10"

sImallest residual = 5"
(E) largest residual = 7"
smallest residual= 3"

reading in a series
Solution: A residual is the difference between an individual
series. Residuals are frequently
of observations and the arithmetic mean of that shown is 59°18'49'", and the
symbolized by v. The largest value for the azimuth
of the series is 59° 18'30".
smallest is 59° 18'10". The arithmetic mean
residual = observation arithmetic mean

+19" = 59°18'49" 59° 18'30"

-20" = 59°18'10 -59° 1830"
very close in terms of absolute value.
The residuals of these two observations are equal to the
The 20" is the largest. There is one observation in the series that is
arithmetic mean.
0"=59° 18'30" - 59°1830"

The smallest residualof the series is 0".

Answer is (C)

BELMONT, CA
PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. "
6-72 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

93. What is the standard deviation of a single measurement calculated from the
hst of azimuths given, expressed to the nearest tenth of a second?
(A) #10"5
(B) ±0!"8
(C) +2"O
(D) ±5"9
(E) +9"6
single measurement
Solution: The calculation of the standard deviation of a
the mean is determined.
begins with the calculation of the arithmetic mean. Afterthe sum of those squares
and
the residuals are found. These residuals are squared
symbolized by v is calculated.

The following formula may be used to find

the standard deviation of a single
measurement.

oVn-1
v² is the sum of the
o is the standard deviation of a single measurerment, observations.
squares of the residuals, and n is the number of individual

azimuths azimuths
59°18'49" +19"4 376.36 59°18'26" -03!6 12.96
59° 18'49" +19"4 376.36 59° 18'26" -03!6 12.96
59°18'47" +17!4 302.76 59° 18'25" -04"6 21.16
59° 18'46" +16!'4 268.96 59°18'24" -05!6 31.36
59° 18'41" +11!4 129.96 59°18'23" -06!6 43.56
59° 18'40" +10!4 108.16 59°18'22" -07'6 57.76
59°18'39" +09!'4 88.36 59°18'22" -07!6 57.76
59º 18'37 +07!4 54.76 5918'22". -07"6 57.76
59° 18'37" +07"4 54.76 59°18'21" -08!6 73.96
59° 18'34" +04!"4 19.36 59°18'21" -08"6 73.96
59° 18'30" +00!4 0.16 59°18'20" -09!6 92.16
59° 18'27" -02"6 6.76 59° 18'19" -10"6 112.36
59° 18'27 -02!'6 6.76 59° 18'17 -12"6 158.76
59°18'27 -02!"6 6.76 59°18'10" -19!6 384.16
u²=2290.88

PROFEssIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT, CA

 ERRORS AND STATISTICS 673

n-1

2290.88
28 - 1

2290.88
27

= 110.773 =t10!5

Answer is (A)

94. Which of the following statements best describes the stan dard deviation of
a single measurement?

(A) Theoretically, the average of aset of observations has a 68.3% probability

of approaching the true value, within the limit specified by the standard
deviation of a single measurement.
(B) Theoretically, each of a set of observations has a 99.7% probability of
approaching the mean value of the set, within the limit specified by the
standard deviation of a single measurement.
(C) The standard deviation of a single measurement is a test of the fit of the
actual frequen cies of the distribution of data compared to the theoretical
frequencies.
(D) Theoretically, each of a set of observations has a 68.3% probability of
approaching the mean value of the set, within the limit specified by the
standard deviation of a single measurerment.
(E) The standard deviation of a single measurement is the area under a normal
Gaussian curve.

Solution: The standard deviation of a single measurement is given by the for

mula

o=n-1
ais the standard deviation of a single measurement, u is the sum of the
individual observations
squares of the residuals, and n is the number of

PROFEssIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. " BELMONT. CA

6-74 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

The standard deviation is expressed as a plus or minus range, such as +1'e

When attached to the arithmetie mean of a series of observations, for
59°1896± 106, it means that each set of observations has a 68..3% example
of falling within the specified range of the mean value of the set. probability
In other words, 68.3% of the azimuths in the given list are likely to fall between
an upper limit of 59° 18'19"Oand a lower limit of 59° 1840!"2. In fact, 71% of the
observations fall bet ween those values, indicating that the list is close to a truly
random sampling.

Answer is (D)

95. What is the standard error of the mean calculated from the list of azimuths
given, expressed to the nearest tenth of a second?
(A) t8'4
(B) +0's
(C) t2"0
(D) ±5"9
(E) ±9'6

Solution: The standard error of the mean of a series of measurements of a single

quantity is given by the formula

Om

Om is the standard error of the mean, o the standard deviation of a single mea
surement, and n is the number of individual observations.

t10!6
V28
=t2O

Answer is (C)

PROFEssIONAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. . BELMONT, CA

 ERRORS AND STATISTICS 6-75

96. Which of the following staterments best describes the standard error of the
mean?

(A) Theoretically, the average of a set of observations has a 68.3% probability

of approaching the true value, within the limit specified by the standard
error of the mean.

(B) Theoretically, each of a set of observations has a 99.7% probability of

approaching the mean value of the set, within the limit specified by the
standard error of the mean.
(C) The standard error of the mean is a class inter val test of the distribution
of data.
(D) Theoretically, each of a set of observations has a 95.5% probability of
approaching the true value of the set, within the limit specified by the
standard error of the mean.
(E) The standard error of the mean is the root mean square of the deviations
from the arithmetic mean.

Solution: One way to understand the standard error of the mean is to realize
that as the denominator of the expression Om = o//n approaches infinity (oo),
the standard error of the mean (on) approaches zero.
observation,
The standard error of the mean, unlike the standard error of a single
observation. The
is a statement of the un certainty of the mean, not of a single
uncertainty of the range is expressed with respect to the true value of the quantity
being measured.
given is ±20.
For example, the standarderror of the mean for the list of azimuths of
value
Therefore, it may be said with 68.3% certainty that the unknowable true within
theazimuth, which has been subject to 28 measurements, lies somewhere
the range of 59°18 29"6± 2'0.

Answer is (A)

PROFESsIONAL PUBLICATIONs, INC. BELMONT, CA

676 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

97. Amanufacturer npecified the standard error of the distances

aparticuiar EDM as +(2 rnrn + 4pprn). A
Adistance of 7283.91
with the equipment. Presurning that all atranpheric rTetis have ben
what is the range of a 95.5%, certainty that rnay be attached to this

(A) +0.10 ft
(B) +0.03 ft
(C) +0.17 t
(D) +0.01 f.
(E) +0.06 ft

Solution: The standard error specified by the maufacturer in given by the te.
mula

2
4d
a=
304.8)
12
+
[(4)(7283.91 f.)
304 1,000,000
2 2
2 29,135.64 ft
+
304.8 1,000,000
= t0.03 ft (standard error)

This is the range of certainty within which 68.3% of a set of rneasurerments may be
expected to fall. However, the value sought is not the range for 68.3% certainty.
but for 95.5% certainty. The 95.5% certainty range is twice the standard error

(+0.03 ft) (2) = +0.06 ft

Answer is (E)

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONs, INC. . BELMONT, CA